Chem

Ch.
7 Ionic bond and metallic bond

Chapter focus:
1. conductivity of electricity (mobile ions) 2. color in aqueous solution 3. structure and
properties of metals and ionic compounds (especially for giant metallic structures)
 What is an ionic bond?
Definition: It is the strong electrostatic forces between the oppositely charged ions. It is non-
directional.
Summary:
It is formed between a metal and a non-metal atom (Group I, II, III positive)
Stable octet is achieved by transfer of electrons from positively charged metal atom to
positively charged non-metal atom.
The metallic ion > cation. The non-metallic ion > anion.
Opposite charges are attracted to each other; therefore, the ions are held together by strong
electrostatic forces.
 Why do ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points?
High melting and boiling points because they are solid at room temperature. They have giant
ionic structures in which ions are held together by strong ionic bond/ electrostatic forces.
 What is a metallic bond?
It is the strong electrostatic attraction between the metal cations(少咗 electrons) and delocalized
electrons. It is non-directional but the same in all directions.
Summary:
啲好容易 escape 嘅 electrons (得一粒,兩粒 electron) = delocalized easily for Group I, II)
Delocalized electrons move randomly and the metal cations are closely packed and
surrounded by a sea of delocalized electrons. (Giant metallic structure)
 Why can metals conduct electricity?
Due to the presence of the delocalized electrons, when potential energy is applied across the
metals, the delocalized electrons move in one direction to the positive pole of the battery.
 How can heat transfer through metals?
Heat is transmitted when delocalized electrons gain kinetic energy. They collide with another
electrons and transfer heat in collisions.
 Why do metals have high melting and boiling points?
They have giant metallic structure in which metal ions are held together by strong metallic
bond/ electrostatic forces between cations and delocalized electrons. Separation of particles
from this structure requires a lot of energy.
 Why are metals malleable and ductile?
When a force is applied, the layers of metal ions can slide over one another without breaking
the non-directional metallic bond holding them together. The ions can settle into new
positions and the piece of metal takes up a new shape.
Ch.8 Covalent bonding
Chapter focus:
1. describe the formation of covalent bond 2. dative covalent bond 3. relative formula masses
and molecular masses
Definition: A covalent bond is the strong electrostatic attraction between the shared electrons
(negatively charged) and the two nuclei (positively charged) of the boned atoms. It is
directional.
Summary:
It has a simple molecular structure.
It is formed between non-metallic atoms by sharing of outermost electrons.
Be careful on structural formula (drawing lines) and molecular formula (words)!!
差幾多粒 outermost shell electrons = single/ double/ triple covalent bond

e.g.
Oxygen atoms 2,6 差兩粒 stable octet = double bond
Dative covalent bond

formed between lone pairs of electrons on atom
Definition: It is a covalent bond formed between two atoms where both electrons in the
shared pair are contributed by the same atom. *由同一個 atom share electrons*
Relative formulas masses and molecular masses

refer to notes p.25
Ch.3 The ocean
Chapter focus:
1. the separation of different substances 2. test for chloride ion and sodium ion 3. electrolysis
 Common salt
sodium chloride
magnesium chloride, calcium chloride, sodium sulphate
 filtration
It separates insoluble solid/ substances from a solution.
The glass rod guides down the solution. Insoluble substances remaining on the filter paper
(cannot pass through) are called residue. The liquid obtained is called filtrate.
 Does the filtrate only contain sodium ion?
No, it also contains other metallic elements like magnesium and calcium.
 How to separate soluble solid from a solution?

By crystallization. The filtrate (containing common salt) containing soluble solid evaporates
slowly at room temperature. Larger crystals are obtained. The mixture is filtrated, washed
with a little distilled water and the crystals are dried by filter paper.
 How to separate liquid from a solution (pure water from sea water)?
By distillation. Water is boiled at 100 degrees Celsius (at 1 atmosphere) but salts in sea water
are non-volatile. Steam (water vapor) condenses on the cold surface of the condenser to give
liquid water. The distillate obtained is pure water and the residue contained sand and salts.
 What is used in the flask and what is its use?
Anti-bumping granules. To prevent bumping due to overheating of the solution. To ensure
sooth boiling of the solution.
 What is the use of the thermometer?
To measure the temperature of the escaping water vapor. To ensure the distillate obtained is
pure water.
 How to test for the presence of sodium ions?
A platinum wire is dipped into concentrated hydrochloric acid. The wire is heated in a non-
luminous flame until it has no special color. The HCl converts the impurities into
corresponding volatile chlorides to be vaporized off. The wire is dipped into fresh portion of
conc. The HCl is turned into a sample of powdered sample. The wire is heated in a non-
luminous flame. The color of the flame is observed.
 Why do you need to use a non-luminous flame?
It is easier to observe the color of the flame. (It has more energy than the luminous flame, so
that the electrons can absorb more energy, thus, the color of the flame is more notable)
 How do you test for chloride ions?
By using silver nitrate test. Add silver nitrate solution to the solution. Add dilute nitric acid.
 Why is it necessary to add excess nitric acid?
To prevent the formation of other precipitates which are soluble in dilute nitric acid.
 What is the result of the experiment if Cl ions are present?
A white precipitate is observed.
 What is the result of the experiment if carbonate or sulphite ions are present?
A white precipitate is observed at first. It redissolves to give a clear solution.
 Equation for the reaction.
AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) = AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)
 How to test for the presence of water?
By using dry cobalt (II) chloride paper (add a few drops of sea water to the paper using
dropper*), the paper will change from blue to pink.
By using anhydrous copper (II) sulphate powder, it turns from white to blue. (Watch glass)
 Describe the process of electrolysis.
When water is electrolyzed, 1) hydrogen gas and chlorine gas form at the negative pole
(cathode) and the positive pole (anode). 2) The solution left behind is sodium hydroxide.
sea water > (after electrolysis) H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) + NaOH (aq)
oppositely charged electrode 吸走咗 electrons 或者 push 咗啲 electrons, ionic compound (gain or
lose electrons)變做 molecules/ atoms (primitive shape)
Ch.9 Structures and properties (important)
Chapter focus:
1. different structures of substances 2. their properties and explanation
Brief summary of the structures:

Giant ionic structure (metals and non-metals)
Giant metallic structure (metals)
Simple molecular structure (non-metals, covalent compounds)
Giant covalent structure
macromolecules (polymers) – consist of large molecules
 Properties of ionic compounds/ giant ionic structure

Ionic compounds are hard crystalline solid because the oppositely charged ions are held
together by strong ionic bond/ electrostatic forces.
Ionic compounds are brittle because when a force is applied along a certain plane, this causes
the ions to shift along the layer, displacing the layer respect to the next, there will be
tremendous repulsion between like charges nest to each other. The repulsion thus leads to
cleavage of crystal lattice of the ionic compound.
Irons are electrolytes in molten/ aqueous states because when they are in solid state, the
oppositely charged ions are held by strong electrostatic forces, ions are not mobile. In
aqueous/ molten state, the electrostatic forces are overcome (by the attractions between the
water molecules and the oppositely charged ions), ionic bond is broken; thus, ions are mobile
and act as charge carriers.
The "shell" of water molecules reduces the attractions between the ions. The ions are
hydrated. (cations, anions 唔會吸住大家, 全部散曬, move freely)
Ionic compounds are soluble in polar solvents like water, but insoluble in non-polar solvents
(methylbenzene) because the cations and anions are attracted by polar ends of water
molecules and are stabilized by the molecules.
 Properties of covalent compounds/ non-metal elements/ simple molecular structures
Covalent compounds are gases, volatile liquid, soft solids at room temperature because they
have relatively low boiling and melting points.
Since they are discrete molecules held together by weak Van der Waals’ forces. It requires
little energy to overcome the weak attractions. *molecules 之間係 covalent bond*
They usually do not conduct electricity because they have no mobile ions or electrons.
 What are some exceptions?
Hydrogen chloride is molecular and has no mobile ions or mobile electrons.
Ch.8: When hydrogen chloride gas reacts with water, hydrogen chloride molecules break
down to give hydrogen ions H+ and chloride ions Cl-. The lone pairs of the O atom in H2O can
bond with H+ ion, forming a dative covalent bond. A more stable ion hydronium ion H3O+ is
formed.
When dissolved in water, hydrogen chloride ionizes to give hydrochloric acid containing
mobile ions H+ Cl-. Thus, it conducts electricity. H2O + HCl = H3O+ + Cl-
They are usually insoluble in polar solvents but much more soluble in organic solvents/ non-
polar solvents.
(Since they are held by weak Van der Waals’ forces, they cannot overcome the strong
attraction between water molecules.
In organic solvents like heptane, the attraction between iodine molecules and molecules of
organic solvent is similar to those between molecules of organic solvent. It is strong enough
to overcome the attractions between the molecules of organic solvent.)
 What is the color of iodine in heptane and in water? Why

Purple in heptane because iodine dissolves readily in non-polar solvent. (strong enough to
overcome the attraction)
Yellowish brown in water because iodine only dissolves slightly in polar solvent like water.
(attraction between water molecules is strong)

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Ch.

7 Ionic bond and metallic bond

Be careful on structural formula (drawing lines) and molecular formula (words)!!

差幾多粒 outermost shell electrons = single/ double/ triple covalent bond

Dative covalent bond

Relative formulas masses and molecular masses

 How to separate soluble solid from a solution?

Brief summary of the structures:

 Properties of ionic compounds/ giant ionic structure

 What is the color of iodine in heptane and in water? Why

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