Physics Lab 1

Laboratory
Textbook

Prepared by the PHYSICS DEPARTMENT for

DEU Engineering Faculty students.

For Experiment Videos:

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 Preparation of Experiments for
PHYSICS LAB 1

Basic Concepts in Measurement and

Uncertainties in Measurement

DEU Faculty of Science

Physics Department

2021

1
1.1 Measurement
In general, the measurement process can be defined as comparing a quantity with another quantity of
the same quality. In other words, it is the work of determining the amount (numerical value) of a
physical quantity according to a predetermined standard of the same quality. The predetermined
standard is called a unit. For example, if the mass of an object is said to be 7 kilograms, it is said that
the mass of that object is 7 times the unit defined as 1 kilogram. In other words, measuring a quantity
means determining the unit of that quantity and how many times the unit contains.
The tool used in the measurement process is called the measuring tool. Measurement tools can be
divided into two groups as analog (with display) and digital (digital). Indicative measurement tools are
in the form of a ruler divided in units of measurement, and the nearest two lines are called the scale
unit. In a measuring instrument with a digital display, it can usually be taken as the last digit scale unit
(this may not always be the case, it should be determined from the measurement (calibration) values
given by the manufacturer.). Scale units for different measuring instruments are shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1 Measurement tools

We can examine the measurement process in two groups:

Direct measurement: Measurements made directly with measuring tools. For example, measuring the
length of a pencil with a ruler, measuring the temperature with a thermometer, measuring time with
a clock, etc.

Indirect measurement: It is a measurement made by calculating a magnitude with the help of directly
measurable quantities. For example, measuring the velocity of an object (directly measuring
displacement and elapsed time, proportioning displacement to elapsed time), measuring the density
of an object (measuring the mass and volume of the object, proportioning the mass to the volume),
etc.

Two important concepts to be considered while measuring are accuracy and precision. Accuracy
indicates how close a measurement of a physical quantity is to the true value. Precision indicates how
close two values obtained from measuring the same magnitude are to each other. Figure 1.2 and Figure
1.3 give the meaning and comparison of the concepts of accuracy and precision.

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 Figure 1.2 The relationship between the concepts of accuracy and precision.

Figure 1.3 The relationship between the concepts of accuracy and precision.

1.2 Error (Uncertainty)

The difference between the value of any measured physical quantity and its true value is called error.
What is meant by error here is not "wrong" or "defect", but "uncertainty". Depending on the precision
of the measuring tool used and the experimental method followed in the measurement, the result of
the measurement will be within a certain range. In other words, it will be meaningful if the
measurement results are given together with their errors while expressing them. For example, let's
measure the quantity of a physical property (length, time, voltage, electric current, … etc.) of an object
as x1 . The result of x1 measurement will be within a certain closeness to the true value of x. If we make
a second measurement of x2 , we will see that this result is slightly different from the result of
measuring x1 . If we make a large number of measurements, we will get a different value for each
measurement. Accordingly, it is not possible to determine the true value of x exactly. For this reason,
we can look at the distribution of the measurement results and around which value they are distributed.
Including this information, we express the measurement result as follows:

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡 = ⏟
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 ± 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 1.1
𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Here, the most probable value is the value around which the measurements are distributed, which is
the value estimated to be closest to the true value.

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Absolute Error: The difference between the true value 𝑥 of a measured physical quantity and the
measured value 𝑥0 is called its absolute error.
∆𝑥 = |𝑥 − 𝑥0 | → 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 𝑥 ± ∆𝑥 1.2
Since the true value is unknown, the absolute error cannot be known either. But its approximate value
can be determined by some methods.
Relative Error: It is defined as the ratio of the absolute error in the measurement to the true value.

∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = , 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 100 1.3
𝑥 𝑥

Example 1.1
Express the absolute error, relative error and measurement result in the measurement process given
in the figure?

5
𝑚𝑎𝑣𝑔. = 87 𝑘𝑔 , ∆𝑥 = = 𝟐. 5 𝑘𝑔 → 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 87 ± 3 𝑘𝑔
2
3
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = , % 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝟑. 4324942 → 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 87 𝑘𝑔 ± 3%
87

1.3 Error Sources

Systematic Errors: It is caused by the measuring tools used, the method followed in the experiment
and external effects. These errors affect the result in one direction. We can eliminate systematic errors
by changing the test method, using more sensitive measuring tools, or making necessary corrections
at the end of the experiment. An example of systematic error is given in Figure 1.4. Accuracy can be
considered as a systematic error measure that reveals the difference between the measured value and
the true value (Figure 1.3).

Figure 1.4 Systematic error.

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Statistical (Random) Errors: Errors resulting from the natural behavior of the measured physical
quantity. These errors affect the result both ways. By increasing the number of measurements we can
reduce statistical errors and their effect on the accuracy of the measurand can be calculated by
statistical analysis. For example, fluctuations in measured physical quantities such as temperature,
electrical voltage, and gas pressure cause statistical errors. A comparison of systematic error and
statistical error is given in Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5 Systematic errors and statistical errors

In general, measurement results can be displayed in the following formats.

𝑡 = (34.5 ± 0.7) × 10−3 𝑠
𝑡 = 34.510−3 𝑠 ± 2%
𝑥 = 10.3 +0.7
−0.3 𝑐𝑚

𝑚𝑒 = (0.51099906 ± 0.000000 15) MeV/c 2

𝑚𝑒 = 0.51099906 (15) 𝑀𝑒𝑉/𝑐 2
𝑛 = 9.109 × 104 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ± 0.3 𝑝𝑝𝑚
* ppm: part per million

1.4 Significant Figures

Numbers written to indicate a measurement result, which are known to be accurate, and the last is
guesswork, are significant figures.

Example 1.2

Let's say we want to measure the size of a pencil with significant figures. First, let's use a cm scale
ruler.

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 𝑳 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 ± 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒄𝒎

The length of this pen is between 12 cm and 13 cm. 12 is a known number with certainty, it is
meaningful. Although the number 5 after the comma is not clear (may be 4 or 7, etc.), it is
meaningful because it contains information about the size of the pen. If we were to express the
result as 12.57, the number 7 used in the last digit would have no meaning. While the number 5
contains uncertainty, it is not possible to determine the last digit, 7. Therefore, this measurement
result can be expressed with 3 significant figures. The maximum value of uncertainty in this process
will be half that as the scale unit is cm. That is 0.5 cm.
Now let's say we make the same measurement with a mm scale ruler.

𝑳 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝟔 ± 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝒄𝒎

The length of this pen is between 12.5 cm and 12.6 cm. 12.5 is a known number with certainty. The
number 6 after the comma is not clear (may be 4 or 7, etc.), but it is meaningful because it contains
information about the size of the pen. If we were to express the result as 12,564, the number 4 used
in the last digit would have no meaning. While the number 6 contains uncertainty, it is not possible
to determine the last digit, 4. Therefore, this measurement result can be expressed with 4 significant
figures. The maximum value of uncertainty in this process will be half that as the scale unit is mm.
So it is 0.05 cm.

The position of the comma has no significance for significant numbers. The number of significant
figures expressed as 0.0565 m 56.5 mm will be 3. The zeros here have no meaning, they just indicate
the order of magnitude. While giving a measurement result, not all zeros written may be significant.
Figure 1.6 shows which zeros are significant and which are not.

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 Figure 1.6 Significant figures

So the trailing zeros of a number only matter if they are behind the decimal point. Otherwise, it is
difficult to say that they are meaningful. For example, in 8200 measurement results, it is not clear
whether the zeros are significant. The number of significant digits in 8200 can be at least two, three or
four. To avoid uncertainty, the location of the decimal point should be specified or scientific notation
should be used as shown below.
8.200 × 103 four significant numbers
8.20 × 103 three significant numbers
8.2 × 103 two significant numbers

1.4.1 Significant Figures and Arithmetic Operations

Addition and Subtraction Operations
When adding or subtracting the measured quantities, the precision of the answer is the same as the
precision of the least precise term in the sum or difference. All figures up to this precision limit are
significant.

Example 1.3
Let's add up 11.67 cm given at 1/10 cm proximity, 0.25 mm given at 1/100 cm proximity, and 7.4 cm
given at cm proximity.

Among the given numbers, the number with the largest suspect digit is
7.4 cm. Therefore, the result of the procedure should be given in mm.
Rounding is done.
Result: 19.1 cm (three significant figures)

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 The measurement result should be
within this range:
19.650 > 𝑙 > 18.540

19.650+18.540
The most probable value 𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔. = 2
= 19.095 𝑐𝑚
19.650−18.540
The uncertainty in addition is ∆𝑥 = 2
= 1.11. Even the third significant figure is
questionable in this example. The result of the measurement is given as 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔. ± ∆𝑥 = 19.1 ±
1.1 𝑐𝑚.

Multiplication and Division Operations

As a result of multiplication, the number of significant digits (in some cases, one more) of the factor
measured with the least precision is preserved.
Example 1.4
If the side lengths of a safe, whose sensitivities are measured with different measuring tools are
𝟐𝟓.𝟑𝟐 𝒄𝒎, 𝟑𝟎.𝟓 𝒄𝒎 and 𝟏𝟎.𝟏𝟐𝟑 𝒄𝒎, what is its volume?

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = (𝟐𝟓. 𝟑𝟐 𝒄𝒎) 𝒙 (𝟑𝟎. 𝟓 𝒄𝒎) 𝒙 (𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟑 𝒄𝒎) = 𝟕𝟖𝟏𝟕. 𝟓𝟖𝟖 𝒄𝒎𝟑
The multiplier with the smallest significant number among the multipliers is 30.5 cm. The number
of significant digits here is 3. Therefore, the volume should be indicated with 3 (or 4) significant
figures.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝟕. 𝟖𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒄𝒎𝟑 = 𝟕. 𝟖𝟐 𝒅𝒎𝟑

The measurement result should be

within this range:
7965.368 > V > 7670.456

7965.368+ 7670.456
The most probable value 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔. = 2
= 𝟕𝟖𝟏7.912 𝑐𝑚 3

There are two numbers that are certain at the end of the transaction. (numbers 7...) The numbers
that follow are uncertain. But by taking 𝟕. 𝟖𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒄𝒎𝟑 , we get an average value.
7965.368− 7670.456
The uncertainty in multiplication is ∆𝑉 = 2
= 𝟏𝟒7.456 𝑐𝑚 3 . Even the third
significant figure is questionable in this example. The result of the measurement is given as 𝑉 =
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔. ± ∆𝑉 = 7.82 ± 0.15 𝑑𝑚 3 .

1.5 Detection of Errors and Error Propagation

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If the value of a physical quantity is to be made as a direct and single measurement, the most probable
value is the value that is read and the last one is the value given by the predictive number, and the
largest value of the error (uncertainty) in the measurement can be taken as half of the measuring
device's scale unit (between the nearest two lines on the measuring device). However, the general
preference should be to repeat the measurement. Repeated measurements not only give you a better
idea of the true value, but also allow you to characterize the measurement uncertainty. In most cases,
the number of repetitions in the laboratory setting is small, usually 5 to 10.
If N < 10, the most probable value and uncertainty in measurement can be found as follows.
𝑁
Average Value It is the average of the measured values. 1
𝑥̅ = ∑ 𝑥𝑖
(𝑥̅ ) (“most probable value”). 𝑁
𝑖=1

Indicates the distribution range of the

measured values. It is the difference
Range (R) 𝑅 = 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥. − 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛.
between the highest value and the lowest
value.

The uncertainty in the measurement

Uncertainty process is half the difference between the 𝑅 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥. − 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛.
∆𝑥 = =
(∆𝑥) highest value and the lowest value of the 2 2
measurement results.

The real value of 𝑥 will be within a range

Uncertainty in around 𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 . As the number of ∆𝑥 𝑅
∆𝑥̅ = =
Mean Value measurements N increases, this range √𝑁 2√𝑁
slowly decreases as (1⁄√𝑁).

The 𝑥 measurement result should be shown

Measurement
to include both the mean value and the 𝑥 = 𝑥̅ ± ∆𝑥̅
result
uncertainty in the mean.

If the effect of random errors on the measurement is dominant, it can be mathematically shown that
the measurements are normally distributed by increasing the number of measurements (𝑁 → ∞).
The most probable value of the measured quantity is 𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔. and the real value is between 𝑥̅ ± 𝜎𝑥̅ with
68% probability (Fig. 1.7). If the uncertainty is desired to be given at the 95% confidence interval,
∆𝑥 = 1.79𝜎𝑥̅ should be taken.

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 Figure 1.7 Errors that fit the Gaussian distribution.

In case of N >> 10 (10 -- 102) it would be a more accurate approach to make the calculations as stated
below.
𝑁
Average Value It is the average of the measured values. 1
𝑥̅ = ∑ 𝑥𝑖
(𝑥̅ ) (“most probable value”). 𝑁
𝑖=1

Uncertainty in the measurement process; 𝑁

Uncertainty 1
is the standard deviation of the 𝜎=√ ∑ (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2
(∆𝑥) 𝑁 − 1 𝑖=1
distribution.

The real value of 𝑥 will be within a range

Uncertainty in around 𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 . As the number of 𝜎
∆𝑥̅ =
Mean Value measurements N increases, this range √𝑁
slowly decreases as (1⁄√𝑁).

The 𝑥 measurement result should be

Measurement
shown to include both the mean value and 𝑥 = 𝑥̅ ± ∆𝑥̅
result
the uncertainty in the mean.

Example 1.5

The period of a simple pendulum is measured 6 times with a 1/10 s precision timer (stopwatch) and
the following results are found. Find the mean value of these measurement results and the error
(uncertainty) in the mean.
𝑡1 = 3.6 𝑠, 𝑡1 = 3.8 𝑠, 𝑡1 = 3.6 𝑠, 𝑡1 = 3.7 𝑠, 𝑡1 = 3.1 𝑠, 𝑡1 = 3.3 𝑠

Average 3.6 + 3.8 + 3.6 + 3.7 + 3.1 + 3.3

𝑡̅ = = 3.516667 𝑠
Value: 6

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 Mean |3.6 − 3.5| + |3.8 − 3.5| + |3.6 − 3.5| + |3.7 − 3.5| + |3.1 − 3.5| + |3.3 − 3.5|
∆𝑡̅ =
Deviation: 6
= 0.216667 𝑠

𝑡 = ̅𝑡 ± ∆𝑡̅ → 𝒕 = 𝟑. 𝟓 ± 𝟎. 𝟐 𝐬

For simplicity, the mean deviation can be used. However, it does not express well how the mean
gets closer to the true value as the number of measurements increases. Therefore, we can say that
the calculation made using the following method expresses the measurement result well. Or for N
> 10 it would be convenient to take the standard deviation for the uncertainty.

𝑅 = 3.8 − 3.1 = 0.7 𝑠 𝜎 0.26457

∆𝑡̅ = = = 0.108012 𝑠
√𝑁 √6
∆𝑡 = 𝑅/2 = 0.35 𝑠
∆𝑡 0.35
∆𝑡̅ = = = 0.142887 𝑠
√𝑁 √6 𝒕 = 𝟑. 𝟓 ± 𝟎. 𝟏 𝐬

Example 1.6
The mass of an object was measured 5 times by two different students. Measurements made by two
students are given in the table below. Show the measurement results of these students and compare
the results.
Measurements Student 1 (kg) Student 2 (kg)

𝑥1 72 81

𝑥2 77 80

𝑥3 65 82

𝑥4 85 81

𝑥5 88 79

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 The measurements made by the second student are more
precise than the measurements made by the other student.
0.67 < 5.14. For this reason, the number of significant
figures was increased by 1 while giving the measurement
results of the second student.
The measurements made by these two students are
consistent with each other, but the measuring tool used by
the second student is probably more precise.

Example 1.7
The mass of an object was measured 10 times by two different students. Measurements made by
two students are given in the table below. Show the measurement results of these students and
compare the results.
Measurements Student 1 (kg) Student 2 (kg)
𝑥1 72 81
𝑥2 77 80
𝑥3 65 82
𝑥4 85 81
𝑥5 74 79
𝑥𝟔 88 81
𝑥𝟕 87 83
𝑥𝟖 69 85
𝑥𝟗 76 78
𝑥𝟏𝟎 71 79
For student 1; For student 2;
𝑥̅ = 76.4 kg 81 + 80 + 82 + 81 + 79
𝑥̅ = = 80.9 kg
∆𝑥 = 𝜎 = 7,4859869 5
∆𝑥 = 𝜎 = 1,9723082
7,4859869
∆𝑥̅ = = 2, 𝟑𝟔𝟕𝟐𝟕𝟔𝟗 kg 1,9723082
√10 ∆𝑥̅ = = 0,6𝟐𝟑𝟔𝟗𝟖𝟔 kg
√10
𝑥 = 77 ± 2 kg
𝑥 = 80.6 ± 0.6 kg

12
 The measurements made by the second student are more
sensitive than the measurements made by the other
student. 0.6574 < 2.4953.
For this reason, when giving the measurement results of
the second student, the number of significant figures
should be increased by 1.
NOTE: The measurements made by these two students
are not very consistent with each other. The systematic
error and measurement error of both experiments need
to be checked. If there is no doubt about the accuracy of
the experiments, it can be said that there is another effect
affecting the results. An experiment may be sensitive
enough to observe this new effect. If the measurements
differ from each other or from the theory by more than
3σ, it can be argued that there is something new that the
theory under test did not predict.

Error Propagation
We have examined in detail above how to find the most probable value and uncertainty of directly
measurable physical quantities. Now, let's imagine that we want to find a physical quantity that cannot
be measured directly (density of an object, velocity of an object, perimeter of a triangle). Let the mean
of the directly measurable 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, … physical quantities be 𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅, 𝑧̅, … and their uncertainty ∆𝑥, ∆𝑦, ∆𝑧, …
The mean value and uncertainty of q can be found by the following equation.
2 2 2
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑞 = 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, ⋯ ), ∆𝑞 = √( ∆𝑥) + ( ∆𝑦) + ( ∆𝑧) ⋯ , 𝑞 = 𝑞̅ ± ∆𝑞 1.4
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

As an example, we want to measure the perimeter of a triangular plate (Fig. 1.8).

Şekil 1.8 Üçgenin çevre uzunluğu

Ç = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = (𝑎̅ ± ∆𝑎) + (𝑏̅ ± ∆𝑏) + (𝑐̅ ± ∆𝑐) = Ç̅ ± ∆Ç

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Ç̅ = 𝑎̅ + 𝑏̅ + 𝑐̅ = 3.54 + 1.70 + 3.95 = 9.19 𝑐𝑚

∆Ç ≠ ∆𝑎 + ∆𝑏 + ∆𝑐 = 1.5 𝑐𝑚 is wrong. It should be calculated from equation 1.4. Accordingly, for

addition or subtraction,

∆Ç = √∆𝑎2 + ∆𝑏2 + ∆𝑐 2 = √0.052 + 0.052 + 0.052 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖6603 𝑐𝑚

We get Ç = 9.19 ± 0.09 𝑐𝑚.

Calculation of errors for some commonly used functions

Operation Absolute Error (Uncertainty)

𝑦 = 𝑎+𝑏 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝑎 − 𝑏 ∆𝑦 = √∆𝑎2 + ∆𝑏2

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝑎/𝑏 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑎 2 ∆𝑏 2
= √( ) + ( ̅ )
𝑦̅ 𝑎̅ 𝑏
∆𝑦 ∆𝑎
𝑦 = 𝜆𝑎𝑛 = |𝑛|
𝑦̅ 𝑎̅
∆𝑎
𝑦 = 𝜆 ln 𝜇𝑎 ∆𝑦 = 𝜆
𝑎̅
Example 1.8
In a measurement made to find the value of the Pi number, its circumference was measured as 45.2
cm with a measuring tape with 1 cm proximity (cm scale) and its diameter as 14.36 cm with a ruler
with 1/10 cm proximity (mm scale). Calculate the number of pi.

Ç 45.2 The result can be expressed with 3 or 4

𝜋̅ = = = 3.147632
𝑅 14.36 significant figures.
2
∆𝜋 ∆Ç ∆𝑅 2 0.5 2 0.05 2
= √( ) + ( ) → ∆𝜋 = 3.15√( ) +( ) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑6503
𝜋̅ Ç̿ 𝑅̿ 45.2 14.36

14
 𝜋 = 𝜋̅ ± ∆𝜋 = 3.15 ± 0.04

We can say that the result of the experiment is consistent with the value given in the literature. The
experiment was carried out successfully.

Problems
1. Calculate the volume of a sphere measuring 18.24 𝑐𝑚 with 1/10 cm proximity in
diameter.
2. Calculate the density of an object with a mass 𝑚 = 24.8 ± 0.2 𝑔 and a volume 𝑉 =
3.6 ± 0.4 𝑐𝑚3 .

References
1. “An Introduction to Error Analysis”, J.R. Taylor, Second edition, University Science
Books, 1997.
2. “Fiziksel Ölçmeler ve Değerlendirilmesi”, İ., Eşme, Marmara Üniversitesi Yayınları,
No:539, 1993.

15
16
 Experiment 1

Basic Measurements and Error Calculation

DEU Faculty of Science

Physics Department

2021

17
1 Preparation Questions
1. What is measurement? Briefly describe.
2. How to determine the error in direct measurement?
3. How can we measure the speed of an object by giving an example of an indirect measurement
process? Subtract the equation expressing the uncertainty in velocity from equation 1.4.

2 Aims of the experiment

Learning the basic measurements, which are frequently used in physics, by using sliding caliper,
micrometer and electronic scales and making error calculations regarding the measurements taken.

3 Theoretical Concepts
3.1 Vernier scale
The vernier scale, which forms the basis of many tools used to measure length and angle, was invented
by Pierre Vernier in 1631 (Figure 2.1). The vernier is an supplementary chart used to accurately
determine a fraction of the smallest divisions on the main scale of a measuring tool. In order to
understand the vernier measuring tools used, it is necessary to know what the vernier scale is
beforehand. Although each segment of the vernier caliper is slightly different from the unit segment
of the tool for which it is used to increase its sensitivity, there is a simple correlation between the two
segments.

Figure 2.1 Vernier scale

1) Vernier Caliper: It is a measuring tool designed according to the vernier measuring system. It
consists of a ruler with millimeter divisions and a slider with vernier division that can be slid on it. It is
used to measure the dimensions, hole diameter, inner diameter and depth of an object (Figure 2.2).

18
 Figure 2.2 Sliding caliper and its parts

With the help of this tool, we can measure lengths in the order of centimeters with an accuracy
between 0.1 mm and 0.025 mm, depending on the structure of the tool. On the upper edge of the
ruler is the inch scale, which is the English unit of length. The lengths to be measured from outside to
outside are placed between the fixed and movable jaws, the lengths to be measured from the inside
to the inside are placed in contact with the fixed and movable inner diameter jaws, and the
measurement process is performed by making the vernier reading defined above. The sword tip, which
moves with the slider, can be used to measure the depth of a hollow object or the height of the water
in a container.
2) Micrometer: It is a screw measuring instrument that measures 0.01 and 0.001 mm precision (Figure
2.3). As technology develops, the sensitivity of the work done increases. Micrometers are used in order
to make more precise and healthier measurements for the works where the measurement accuracy
of the calipers is not sufficient. The micrometer is generally produced with a screw pitch of 1 mm or
0.5 mm.

Şekil 2.3 Mikrometer and its parts

The piece to be measured is placed between the fixed and movable jaws of the micrometer and the
piece is clamped between the jaws by turning the friction screw (ratchet) until a sound is heard. Since
the step of the micrometer shown in Figure 2.4 is 0.5 mm and it is mapped over 50 divisions on the

19
thimble, the distance between the two lines on the thimble corresponds to 0.5/50 = 0.01 𝑚𝑚. This
value forms the scale unit of the micrometer. The measurement result is added to the value of the last
line visible on the socket (Figure 2.4b, 7.5 mm) by multiplying the value of the horizontal line on the
socket where the horizontal line cuts the scale on the thimble (21.7) by the scale unit (0.01 mm) (7.5 +
21.7 × 0.01 = 7.717 𝑚𝑚). The maximum value of the absolute error in measurement can be taken as
half of the scale unit (0.01/2 = 0.005 𝑚𝑚.

Figure 2.4 Mikrometer1 scales, uncertainty and measurement procedures

Important note about using micrometer: If the parts of the micrometer are not well understood, the
measurements may be inaccurate or the micrometer may be damaged. For example, when clamping
the piece to be measured between the jaws, it is necessary to use the friction screw (ratchet), not the
thimble. Since the ratchet spring applies a compression force of approximately 2-2.5 N, the pressure
will always remain the same no matter who uses the micrometer. As a result, errors due to printing
(deformation) will be prevented. In addition, squeezing from the thimble can damage the mechanism
of this precision measuring tool. This point should be considered in order not to reduce the working
life of the micrometer and to prevent measurement errors.
In the vernier scale seen in Figure 2.4a, the 10 divisions of the vernier scale correspond to the 9
divisions of the main scale. Therefore, each vernier division is 1/10 smaller than a main division. The
first vernier section is 1/10 units to the left of the first section of the main scale, the second vernier
section is 2/10 units to the left from the second main section, etc. For this reason, the 10th vernier
division coincided with the 9th main division.
Figure 2.5 shows a measurement made. The result is an exact value seen on the 12 mm major scale.
On the vernier scale, the closest overlapping line is seen as the 5th and 6th lines. In this case, there is
uncertainty. Therefore, 5 and 6 can be treated as a predicted number. It would be necessary to take
half of the sensitivity for the measure of uncertainty in the measurement, but here we can say that
the uncertainty would be 0.05 mm larger. It would not be correct to write the result as 𝒙 =
𝟏𝟐. 𝟔? ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝒎𝒎. For this reason, it would be more accurate to take the maximum value of the
uncertainty in measurement as 0.1 mm. In this case, the measurement result should be given as
𝟏𝟐. 𝟔 ± 𝟎. 𝟏 𝒎𝒎. Different vernier sclaes and measurement examples are given in Figure 2.6.

1
https://www.makinaegitimi.com/mikrometreler/

20
Figure 2.5 Vernier scale and measurement process.

Figure 2.6 Vernier scale and measurement process.

21
4 Materials
Sliding caliper, micrometer with 0.5 mm pitch, electronic balance, various objects of different
geometries, Beaker.

5 Experimental Procedure
5.1 An object with uniform geometry
a) Fill in Table 2.1 below by measuring the lengths of different edges of a piece of wood with a uniform
geometry 10 times using a suitable length scale (micrometer or caliper).

Table 2.1 Measurement results (write in mm)

𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ (∆𝑥𝑖 )2 𝑦𝑖 𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦̅ (∆𝑦𝑖 )2 𝑧𝑖 𝑧𝑖 − 𝑧̅ (∆𝑧𝑖 )2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

𝑞: 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
𝑁
1
𝑞̅ = ∑ 𝑞𝑖
𝑁
𝑖=1

∑𝑁
𝑖=1(∆𝑞𝑖 )
2
𝜎= √
𝑁−1

𝜎
∆𝑞̅ =
√𝑁

𝑞̅ ± ∆𝑞̅ ± ± ±

22
b. Determine the volume of this object, the uncertainty in the volume (𝑞 = 𝑥𝑦𝑧 in Equation 1.4)
(absolute error) and the relative error.
∆𝑉
𝑉̅ = 𝑐𝑚 3 , ∆𝑉 = 𝑐𝑚 3 , =
𝑉

𝑉= ± 𝑐𝑚 3

c. Weigh the mass of the object on the balance. (The sensitivity of the scales we use in our laboratory
is 0.1 grams.)
𝑚= ± 𝑔

d. Determine the density of this object, the uncertainty in its density (𝑞 = 𝑚⁄𝑉 in Equation 1.4)
(absolute error), and the relative error.
𝑔 𝑔 ∆𝜌
𝜌̅ = , ∆𝜌 = , =
𝑐𝑚 3 𝑐𝑚 3 𝜌

𝑔
𝜌= ±
𝑐𝑚 3

5.2 An object with non-uniform geometry

For the volume of an object with non-uniform geometry, immerse the beaker full of water so that the
object is completely submerged. The rising amount of water in the beaker will give the volume of the
object. By measuring its mass on a balance, we can find its density by proportioning the mass to the
volume. The uncertainty in measuring the volume of the object will be half the volume difference
between the two closest lines on the chart on the beaker. Fill in the blanks below by making these
calculations.

𝑉𝐵 = ± 𝑐𝑚 3 , 𝑉𝐷 = ± 𝑐𝑚 3

∆𝑉𝑇𝑎ş
𝑉𝑇𝑎ş = 𝑐𝑚 3 , ∆𝑉𝑇𝑎ş = 𝑐𝑚 3 , =
𝑉̅𝑇𝑎ş

𝑉𝑇𝑎ş = ± 𝑐𝑚

𝑚= ± 𝑔

𝑔 𝑔 ∆𝜌
𝜌̅ = , ∆𝜌 = , =
𝑐𝑚 3 𝑐𝑚 3 𝜌

𝑔
𝜌= ±
𝑐𝑚 3
23
6 Questions
1. How can you reduce the standard deviation of the measurements you take?
2. Which measuring instrument should have the smallest absolute error when comparing caliper and
micrometer? Why?
3. What could be the sources of error in your measurements?
4. The thimble of one of the two micrometers with a pitch of 1 mm is mapped over 50 divisions and
the other over 100 divisions. Which of these micrometers should be used to make more precise
measurements? Why?

24
25
Experiment 2

Vectors
(Force Table)

DEU Faculty of Science

Physics Department

2020

26
3.1 Preparation Questions
1. What is a vector? Compare vector quantities and scalar quantities with a few examples.
2. How to find the composition of two or more vectors? Briefly mention the methods.
3. What is a unit vector?
4. State the differences between the force and mass by considering the differences between vectors
and scalars.
5. What are the conditions for a system to be in equilibrium? Explain briefly.

3.2 Aims of the experiment

To determine the force which balances two other forces experimentally by the help of the force table.
To verify the resulting forces by adding components of the two forces and also by using graphical
method.

3.3 Theoretical Concepts

3.3.1 Scalar and vector quantities
The quantities in physics can be divided into two groups as "scalar" and "vector" quantities.
A scalar quantity is completely specified by a single value with an appropriate unit and has no direction.
For example, mass, volume, time, temperature, pressure, potential energy, kinetic energy, and etc.
A vector quantity is completely specified by a number with an appropriate unit (the magnitude of the
vector) and a direction. Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, electric field,
magnetic field are examples of vector quantities. Figure 3.1 shows the components of a vector that
need to be known. The straight line xy on which the vector is located is called as the direction of the
vector. The magnitude (intensity) of the vector is equal to the length of the arrow (|AB|) and denoted
by |𝒂
⃗ | or 𝑎. The arrow shows the direction of the vector.

y
head direction of
the vector
𝑎 B
A
magnitude
tail
x |⃗𝒂|

Figure 3.1 The definition of a vector

27
Vector Operations
Vector addition:
The vector sum of all of the forces acting on a body is a single force called as resultant force. Vector
addition can be done in three ways: Experimental method, graphical method and component
method.

a) Experimental Method:
Two forces are applied on the force table by hanging masses over pulleys positioned at
certain angles. Then the angle and mass hung over a third pulley are adjusted until it
balances the other two forces. This third force is called as equilibrant (restoring) force
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐸 ) since it is the force which establishes equilibrium. The equilibrant force is not the
(𝐹
same as the resultant force (𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 ). The resultant is the vector sum of the two forces.
While the magnitude of the equilibrant force is equal to the magnitude of the resultant
force, its direction is in the opposite direction of the resultant force. Because it balances
the resultant force (see Figure 3.2). So, the equilibrant force ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐹𝐸 is the negative of the
resultant force 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 .

⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐸 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
−𝐹 𝐹𝑅 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝐴 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝐵

Figure 3.2 The equilibrant vector and the resultant vector

b) Graphical Method:
In this method, two forces are added together by drawing them to scale using a ruler
and protractor. They can be added together by drawing a line from head to tail (Figure
3.3). Graph paper can be used for drawing. The starting point of the second force (F ⃗⃗⃗⃗B )
is drawn by joining the endpoint (F ⃗⃗⃗⃗A ) of the first force. Then the magnitude of the
⃗⃗⃗⃗R |) can be measured on the diagram. The magnitude of the force
resultant force (|F

28
 can be found based on the chosen scale. Also,  angle can be measured with a
protractor.

Figure 3.3 Graphical method

c) Unit Vectors and Component Method:

Vector quantities often are expressed in terms of unit vectors. A unit vector is a
dimensionless vector quantity having a magnitude of 1. Its purpose is to describe a
curtain direction in space.
𝐴
𝑎̂ = , |𝑎̂ | = 1
|𝐴|

In an xy-coordinate system we can define a unit vector “î” that points in the direction
of the positive x-axis and a unit vector “ĵ“ that points in the direction of the positive y-
axis. The unit vectors î and ĵ form a set of mutually perpendicular vectors in a right-
handed coordinate system as shown in Figure 3.4(a). The magnitude of each unit
vector equals 1; that is, |î| = |ĵ| = 1. We can write a vector 𝐴 lying in the xy plane in
terms of its component (Figure 3.4(b)).

̂
𝒂

Figure 3.4 a) Unit vectors in xy-plane b)The expression of vector ⃗A in terms of its components

Using Component Method to Calculate Resultant Vector:

In this method, the resultant force ⃗⃗⃗⃗
FR can be found by adding the x and y components,
which are the projections of the forces on a selected set of axes, separately. To add
vectors (Figure 3.5), the two forces must first be decomposed into their x- and y-
components:

29
 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
FA = 𝐹𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
FB = −𝐹𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐹𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂

➢ Here, 𝐹𝐴𝑥 is the x-component of the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗ FA and 𝐹𝐵𝑥 is the x-component of the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗ FB .
𝐹𝐵𝑦 is the y-component of the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗
FB . 𝑖̂ is the unit vector in the x-direction and 𝑗̂ is the unit
vector in the y-direction (Figure 3.5). Here, FAx,FBx and FBy are all positive numbers.

𝐹By
𝐹R𝑦

−𝐹Bx 𝐹Ax 𝐹Rx

Figure 3.5 Finding resultant vector by component method

By adding the components of the two forces ⃗⃗⃗⃗

FA and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
FB , the components of the resultant force
⃗⃗⃗⃗
FR can be obtained as follows:
⃗⃗⃗⃗
FR = (𝐹𝐴𝑥 − 𝐹𝐵𝑥 )𝑖̂ + 𝐹𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ = 𝐹𝑅𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐹𝑅𝑦 𝑗̂
To calculate the magnitude of the resultant force, the components of the resultant (𝑅𝑥
and 𝑅𝑦 ) must be combined using the Pythagorean Theorem since the components are
at right angles to each other.

⃗⃗⃗⃗R | = 𝐹𝑅 = √𝐹𝑅𝑥
|F 2 2
+ 𝐹𝑅𝑦

The angle between the x-axis can be calculated using trigonometry:

𝐹𝑅𝑦
tan(𝜃) =
𝐹𝑅𝑥
Other Methods to find equilibrant force, resultant force
Lami’s Theorem : Lami’s Theorem states, “when three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, then
each force is proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two forces”. Referring to the
below diagram in Figure 3.6, consider three forces ⃗⃗⃗⃗
F1 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
F2 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
F3 acting on a particle or rigid body
making angles α, β and γ with each other.

Figure 3.6 Lami’s theorem (the law of sines).

30
The Law of Cosines: The law of cosines is used for calculating the third side of a triangle when the
other two sides and their enclosed angle are known, and in calculating the angles of a triangle if all
three sides are known. The Law of Cosines is a generalization of the Pythagorean Theorem.

The law of Cosines

Figure 3.7 The law of Cosines.

3.4 Materials
Force table, pulleys with clamps (3), mass hangers (3), plastic ring, mass set and string

Figure 3.8 Experimental setup of force table

31
3.5 Experimental Procedure
1- Assemble the force table as shown in Figure 3.8. Place three pulleys on the force table.
Two of them are for the forces that will be added and the remaining one is for the force
that balances the sum of the other two forces. Then, screw the center post up until it
stops so that it sticks up above the table. Place the ring over the post and tie one string
(at least 30 cm long) to the ring for each pulley. The strings must be long enough to
reach over the pulleys. Place each string over a pulley and tie a mass hanger to it (A
string can be attached to the mass hanger by wrapping the string several times (4 or
5) around the notch at the top of each mass hanger). Make sure that the ring in the
center does not touch the surface of the force table, and make sure that the ropes you
pass over the pulley are tied at 90 degrees to the ring. Please don't forget to check the
angle between the string and the plastic ring as the pulleys change their position on
the force table.
2- Hang random masses over two of the pulleys and clamp the pulleys at arbitrary angles.
3- By trial and error, find the angle for the third pulley clamp and the mass that must be
suspended over the pulley so that its weight will balance the forces exerted on the
strings by the other two masses.
4- Please use the following ring method to determine if the system is in balance.
The ring should be centered over the post when the system is in equilibrium (or
when you look at the force table from above, the projection of the ring should
overlap with the black ring drawn in the middle of the force table). Screw the
center post down so that it is in alignment with the top surface of the force
table and no longer able to hold the ring in position. Pull the ring slightly to one
side and let it go. Check to see that the ring returns to the center. If not, adjust
the mass and/or angle of the pulley until the ring always returns to the center
when pulled slightly to one side.
5- Record the angles of the pulleys on the force table in Table 3.1
6- Weigh the masses that hang over each pulley on an electronic scale. Record the mass
values you read in Table 3.1 and calculate the corresponding forces.
7- Draw the vectors corresponding to these forces in Figure 3.9
8- To determine theoretically what mass should be suspended from the third pulley, and at
what angle, calculate the magnitude and direction of the equilibrant force by the
component method. Please specify the components of the vectors you have drawn in
Figure 3.9 on the same figure. For this, decompose the two forces you applied into x
and y components and record the relevant component values in Table 3.2. Using these
results, find the components of the resultant force and calculate the magnitude of the
resultant force.
9- The third force, which is called as the equilibrant force (F ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐸 ), is the negative of the
resultant force.
−𝐹⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐸 = 𝐹
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 = ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗2
𝐹1 + 𝐹
Record the equilibrant force you obtained experimentally, the theoretically calculated
resultant force and the angle values of these forces with the x (or y) axis in Table 3.3.
10- Compare the results obtained by the two methods. Are the results different? Please
explain the reason.
11- Calculate the absolute error and relative error in the experiment.

32
 12- Repeat the experiment for different masses and different angle values.
Table 3.1 Results of the measurement

Pulley 1 Pulley 2 Pulley 3

m1(kg) ⃗⃗⃗1 | (N)

|𝐹 () m2(kg) ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 | (N)
|𝐹 () m3(kg) ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐷 | (N)
|𝐹  ()

Table 3.2 Vector components

Resultant
3rd Force
force
Results 1st Force 2nd Force (equilibrant Absolute Relative
(Theoretical
(x-components) F1x (N) F2x (N) force) error error
Result)
FEx (N)
FRx (N)

1st measurement

2nd
measurement

Resultant
3rd Force
force
Results 1st Force 2nd Force (equilibrant Absolute Relative
(Theoretical
(y-components) F1y (N) F2y (N) force) error error
Result)
FEy (N)
FRy (N)

1st measurement

33
 2nd
measurement

Note: The error (uncertainty) in the calculation of components can be calculated using the following
equations.
2 2
𝜕𝐹𝑥 𝜕𝐹𝑥 ∆𝐹 2 sin 𝛼 2
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 cos 𝛼 → ∆𝐹𝑥 = √( ∆𝐹) + ( ∆𝛼) = 𝐹̅𝑥 √( ̅ ) + ( ∆𝛼)
𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝛼 𝐹 cos 𝛼

2 2
𝜕𝐹𝑦 𝜕𝐹𝑥 ∆𝐹 2 cos 𝛼 2
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 sin 𝛼 → ∆𝐹𝑦 = √( ∆𝐹) + ( ∆𝛼) = 𝐹̅𝑦 √( ̅ ) + ( ∆𝛼)
𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝛼 𝐹 sin 𝛼

Table 3.3 Comparison of the resultant force from calculation and the equilibrant force from
experiment

1st Measurement 2nd Measurement

⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 | (N)
|𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐸 | (N)
|𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 | (N)
|𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐸 | (N)
|𝐹

(Theoretical) (Experimental) (Theoretical) (Experimental)

Magnitude of the
force

Angle with the x

or y axis  ()

Absolute error in
force

Relative error in
force

Absolute error in
angle

Relative error in
angle

3.6 Questions
1. How do the theoretical values for the direction and magnitude of the resultant force
compare with the actual direction and magnitude of the equilibrant force?

34
2. Which method gives more reliable results among the results you found with the two
methods? Please explain the reason.
3. What are the sources of error in the experiment?
4. Could the magnitude of a particle's displacement be greater than the length of the
displacement taken?
5. Can you find two vectors of different lengths but with a vector sum of zero?
6. If the vector sums of three vectors are to be zero, what length conditioning is required
for these three vectors? Please explain.

35
Figure 3.9 Protractor Template

36
37
 3rd Experiment

One-Dimensional Motion

DEU Faculty of Science

Physics Department

2020

38
4.1 Preparation Questions
1. Average velocity and instantaneous velocity are often different quantities. Is there a motion
situation where these two quantities are equal?
2. Consider the movement of marble in your hand, (i) when it is dropped from the rest from a
certain height, (ii) when it is thrown downward, (iii) when it is thrown upward. What can be
said about the acceleration of the ball for these three motions?

4.2 Aims of the Experiment

• To examine free fall motion, which is an example of constant acceleration motion in one
dimension,
• To determine the magnitude of the gravitational acceleration g that causes this motion.

4.3 Theoretical Concepts

It is well known that, in the absence of air resistance, all objects dropped near the Earth’s surface fall
toward the Earth with the same constant acceleration under the influence of the Earth’s gravity. It was
Galilei who discovered this fact for the first time. There is a legend that he demonstrated the law of
falling objects by observing that two different weights dropped simultaneously from the Leaning Tower
of Pisa hit the ground at approximately the same time. Although there is some doubt that he carried
out this particular experiment, it is well established that Galileo performed many experiments on
objects moving on inclined planes. From careful measurements of length and time intervals, it has
been observed that the displacement of an object moving from a stationary state is proportional to
the square of the time passed through the movement of the object. This observation is consistent with
one of the kinematic equations obtained for constant acceleration motion. Galileo's achievements in
mechanical science have an important role in the development of Newton's laws of motion. Suppose
a coin and a crumpled-up piece of paper drop from the same height. If the effects of air resistance are
negligible, both will have the same motion and will hit the floor at the same time (In a real experiment,
air resistance cannot be neglected). In the idealized case, in which air resistance is absent, such motion
is referred to as free fall. If this same experiment could be conducted in a vacuum, in which air
resistance is truly negligible, the paper and coin would fall with the same acceleration even when the
paper is not crumpled. On August 2, 1971, such a demonstration was conducted on the Moon by
astronaut Davit Scott. He simultaneously released a hammer and a feather, and they fell to the lunar
surface at the same time. This demonstration confirmed Galileo’s postulation and would have surely
pleased Galileo.

39
The constant acceleration of a freely falling body is called the acceleration due to gravity, and its
magnitude is denoted with the letter g. The approximate value of g at the Earth’s surface is 9.81 m/s2,
and decreases with increasing altitude. The g vector is directed downward, towards the center of the
Earth.

A freely falling body is not just a falling body starting from a rest state. A freely falling body is a body
falling only under the influence of gravity, regardless of its initial motion.
Equations of motion of a freely falling body, depending on the first motion;

𝑣 = 𝑣0 − 𝑔𝑡
1
𝑦 − 𝑦0 = (𝑣 + 𝑣0 )𝑡
2
1
𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝑣0 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 − 2𝑔(𝑦 − 𝑦0 )

Position-time, velocity-time and acceleration-time graphs for a freely falling body are shown in Figure
4.1.

Figure 4.1 (a) Position vs. time, (b) velocity vs. time and (c) acceleration vs. time graphs.

40
4.4 Tools to be used in the experiment
● Photogate
● Picket fence
● Computer and Datastudio program

Photogate: It consists of a source emitting Infra-red radiation on one side and a receiver that can
detect this radiation on the other. Thus, when the light is cut off, the sensor will send a signal to the
computer and the computer will determine the time until the next interruption.

Figure 4.2 Photogate and picket fence

Picket Fence: It is a clear plastic strip with uniformly spaced black bands. The fence used consists of 1
cm wide black bands at 2 cm intervals. Each black band blocks the photogate beam as the fence falls
through the photogate. Thus, the computer gives the time elapsed between the two banded parts of
the fence (3 cm part).

4.5 Experimental Procedure

Datastudio: Launching “Datastudio" program providing data collection:
● Double-click the DataStudio icon on your desktop to launch the DataStudio software; Select
channel 1 or 2 the photogate is connected to. "Choose sensor or instrument" section will
appear, select the section "Photogate and Picket fence".
● Click the “Position” button in the “Measurements” section. Change the “bandgap” as 0.030 in
the “constants” section.
● You can open the Position-Time table by clicking the "Position" button at the "Table" section.

41
● Hold the Picket Fence at one end vertically on the photogate, so that when it is released, it will
fall straight without rotating. Make sure the bottom edge of the Picket Fence is just above the
Photogate beam when you let go. Click the “Start” button to begin collecting data. Start
recording data, then drop the Picket Fence through the Photogate. Stop recording data.
● You should have 10 entries in the data table (These are the times that each of the 10 bands on
the Picket Fence broke the Photogate beam. You should take another run if you have less entry
than ten).
● Note down the position-time data to the Table.
● Calculate the average speed of the Picket Fence during the time between the first and second
block. Repeat the calculations for further blocks. Enter your calculated average speeds into the
table. You will end up with only 9 average speeds in your table.
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑥3 − 𝑥2
𝑣1 = , 𝑣2 = …
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑡3 − 𝑡2

● Calculate the average acceleration of the Picket Fence using the speed values (It will be 8
average acceleration).
𝑣2 − 𝑣1 𝑣3 − 𝑣2
𝑎1 = , 𝑎2 = …
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑡3 − 𝑡2
● Calculate the average gravitational acceleration “g”.
● Calculate your relative error in the experiment.
● Create a position vs. time, speed vs. time and acceleration vs. time graphs using the data-table.

Table 4.1 Experimental Results

Time (s) Position (m) Speed (m/s) Acceleration (m/s2)

42
 9

10

𝜎
𝑔=𝑔± (𝑁 = 8)
√𝑁

𝑚
𝑔 = ( . . . . . . . ± . . . . . . .) % Relative error = . . . . . . . .
𝑠2

4.6 Questions
1. Are the speeds you found average or instantaneous? Please explain.
2. If the same experiment was done at poles and equator, how would the gravitational acceleration
value change? Why?

43
44
45
 Experiment 4

Motion in Two Dimensions

(Projectile Motion)

DEU Faculty of Science

Physics Department

2020

46
5.1 Preparation Questions
1. Define two-dimensional motion (projectile motion). What are the characteristics of
projectile motion? Give examples of projectile motion.
2. Mention about the importance of the angle in projectile motion briefly.
3. In which point on its trajectory of the projectile motion the speed of the object is the
lowest?

5.2 Aims of the Experiment

To investigate the motion of an object thrown at an angle with the ground (projectile motion) in a two-
dimensional plane.
To determine the initial velocity of the object making the projectile motion, the maximum height it can
reach, the elapsed time to get the maximum height and the speed of hitting the ground

5.3 Theoretical Concepts

The motion of an object is named as linear, curvilinear or circular, depending on the path it follows. A
projectile is any object that is given an initial velocity and then follows a path determined entirely by
the effects of gravitational acceleration and air resistance. A batted baseball, a thrown football, a
package dropped from an airplane, and a bullet shot from a rifle are all projectiles. The path followed
by a projectile is called its trajectory. To analyze this common type of motion, we’ll start with an
idealized model, representing the projectile as a particle with an acceleration (due to gravity) that is
constant in both magnitude and direction. We’ll ignore the effects of air resistance.

Projectile motion is always confined to a vertical plane determined by the direction of the initial
velocity (Fig. 5.1). This is because the acceleration due to gravity is purely vertical; gravity can’t
accelerate the projectile sideways. Thus projectile motion is two-dimensional. We will call the plane of
motion the xy-coordinate plane, with the x-axis horizontal and the y-axis vertically upward.

Galileo was the first person to describe projectile motion accurately. He showed that it could be
understood by analyzing the horizontal and vertical components of the motion separately.

• the particle is moving with constant velocity in the horizontal direction

(acceleration 𝑎𝑥 = 0 )
• the particle is moving with a constant acceleration in the vertical direction (𝑎𝑦 = −𝑔,
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑔 = 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2 )

47
 Figure 5.1 Projectile motion of a small ball projected horizontally with initial velocity 𝑣0 at angle 𝜃0
to the horizontal. The blue line represents the path of the object.
To analyze the two-dimensional motion of a ball, we assume that the motion begins at time at the
origin of an x-y coordinate system (𝑥0 = 𝑦0 = 0) and the initial velocity of the ball is 𝑣0. The velocity
vector is in the direction of motion at each point, and thus is tangent to the path (Figure 5.1).

When the ball is first thrown, the y-component of the initial (shooting) velocity (𝑣0𝑦 ) has the maximum
value. Because of the downward acceleration of gravity, the upward component of velocity (𝑣𝑦 )
gradually decreases with time until the object reaches the highest point on its path, at which point
𝑣2𝑦 = 𝑣𝐵𝑦 = 0. Subsequently the object moves downward (Figure 5.1) and 𝑣𝑦 increases in the
downward direction, as shown (that is, becoming more and more negative). During this motion, the x-
component of the velocity remains constant (𝑣𝐴𝑥 = 𝑣𝐵𝑥 = 𝑣𝐶𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 ), because there isn’t any force
acted on the ball through x-direction. In other words, acceleration 𝑎𝑥 = 0 in the horizontal direction.

As shown in Figure 5.1, in order to obtain the velocity vector at any moment (at any point on the
trajectory), the horizontal and vertical velocity vectors at that point must be added by means of
geometric methods. We assumed that at time 𝑡 = 0 the ball is at the point (𝑥0 = 𝑦0 = 0) and that at
this time its velocity components have the initial values 𝑣0𝑥 and 𝑣0𝑦 . The initial velocity of the ball, and
the components of the velocity in the horizontal and vertical directions are expressed as follows

𝑣0 = 𝑣0𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑣0𝑦 𝑗̂ (5.1)

𝑣0𝑥 = 𝑣0 cos(𝜃0 ) 𝑣0𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin (𝜃0 ) (5.2)

Thus the x-component of acceleration is 𝑎𝑥 = 0, the x-component of the velocity throughout its
motion is constant
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 = 𝑣0 cos(𝜃0 )
The displacement of the ball on the x-axis at any time t (𝑥0 = 0):

𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑣0𝑥 𝑡 (5.3)

48
Since the y-component of acceleration is constant and non-zero, 𝑣𝑦 changes in equal amounts over
equal time intervals. In projectile motion, the intention of the vertical component of the acceleration
is equal to the gravitational acceleration and is in the negative y direction (𝑎𝑦 = −g) with respect to
the selected reference.

𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑣0𝑦 − 𝑔𝑡 (5.4)

The displacement of the ball on the y-axis at any time t (𝑦0 = 0):

1 1
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑣0𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2 = 𝑣0𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2 (5.5)
2 2

At the top of the trajectory (point B), the y component of the velocity is zero (𝑣𝐵𝑦 = 0). The time from
the moment the shot is made to the moment the ball reaches the maximum vertical height (rising
time) is obtained as follows.

𝑣0𝑦 𝑣0 sin(𝜃0 )
𝑣0𝑦 = 𝑔𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 ⇒ 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = (5.6)
𝑔 𝑔

At the end point of the trajectory (point C) the y position is zero (𝑦 = 0).

1
𝑦𝐶 = 𝑣0𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2 = 0 (5.7)
2

If the above equation (Eqn. 5.7) is solved for t, the time of flight (𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ) can be obtained as follows:

1
𝑡(𝑣0𝑦 − 𝑔𝑡) = 0
2

2𝑣0𝑦 2𝑣0 sin(𝜃0 )

𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = = (5.8)
𝑔 𝑔

So, the landing time of the ball from point B to point C is defined as
𝑣0𝑦 𝑣0𝑦 𝑣0𝑦 𝑣0 sin(𝜃0 )
𝑡𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 2 − = = = 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔 𝑔
As a result, the time for the ball to climb to the B point and to fall the level where it was thrown is the
same.
The maximum height that ball can rise can be found via following equations:

1
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 − 𝑔𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 2
2
2
𝑣𝑜𝑦 𝑣02 sin2(𝜃0 )
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = (5.9)
2𝑔 2𝑔

Since the horizontal velocity and total flight time of the object are known, the distance (the path it
takes along AC) taken by the ball on the horizontal axis, in other words, the "horizontal range" can be
calculated:

49
 2𝑣0 sin(𝜃0 )
𝑥𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 𝑅 = 𝑣0𝑥 𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑣0 cos(𝜃0 )
𝑔

𝑣02 sin(2𝜃0 )
𝑥𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 𝑅 = (5.10)
𝑔

*The half-angle identity for sine: sin(2𝜃0 ) = 2 sin(𝜃0 ) cos(𝜃0 )

Figure 5.2 shows the trajectories of an object thrown at a certain initial speed and at different angles.
The range of the object thrown at any angle is the same for angles that complement each other to 900
degrees.

Figure 5.2 Object thrown from the origin at a certain initial velocity at different angles.

The range (𝑥𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 ) reaches its maximum when the object is thrown at an angle of 450 degrees with
the horizontal:

𝑣02
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = (5.11)
𝑔

The velocity of the ball at point C can be calculated for 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 moment:
2𝑣0𝑦
𝑣𝐶𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 − 𝑔𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑣0𝑦 − 𝑔 = −𝑣0𝑦
𝑔
𝑣𝐶𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥
The speed of the ball hitting the ground when the ball falls to the same height (𝑦 = 0) it was thrown
and the angle when it hits the ground:

2 2 2
𝑣𝐶 = √𝑣𝐶𝑥 + 𝑣𝐶𝑦 = √𝑣0𝑥 + (−𝑣0𝑦 )2 = 𝑣𝐴 (5.12)

𝑣𝐶𝑦 −𝑣0𝑦
𝜃𝐶 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = −𝜃0 (5.13)
𝑣𝐶𝑥 𝑣0𝑥

50
Therefore, we can say that the velocity of the ball at point C has the same magnitude as the initial
velocity, but the y component is reversed and makes the same angle 𝜃0 𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡 the x − axis in clockwise
direction (negative direction).

The equations will change when the ball starts to thrown projectile motion from a certain height (𝑦0 ≠
0) as shown in Figure 5.3, not from the origin. Because the ball will fall to a different point (D) from the
level it was thrown (A).

The time it takes for the ball to climb to the B point and the time to fall from B to D is different. Only
the elapsed time for AB and BC paths is equal.
𝑣0𝑦 𝑣0 sin(𝜃0 )
𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑡𝐴𝐵 = =
𝑔 𝑔

Figure 5.3 The path followed by an object that starts an projectile motion from a certain height.

The changes of the x and y components of the position and velocity vectors of this ball will be as
follows:

X-components

𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑣0 cos(𝜃0 ) (5.14)

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑣0 cos(𝜃0 ) 𝑡 (5.15)

51
Y-components

𝑣𝑦 (𝑡) = 𝑣0 sin(𝜃0 ) − 𝑔𝑡 (5.16)

1
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑦0 + 𝑣0 sin(𝜃0 ) 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2 (5.17)
2

The maximum height expression that the ball can reach can be obtained from the Equation 5.17
(𝑦(𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 ) = 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 ):

1 2
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑦0 + 𝑣0 sin(𝜃0 ) 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 − 𝑔(𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 )
2

𝑣02 sin2 (𝜃0 )

𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑦0 + (5.18)
2𝑔

The time between AD can be obtained from the Equation 5.17 (𝑦(𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ) = 0).
1
0 = 𝑦0 + 𝑣0 sin(𝜃0 ) 𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 2
2

𝑣0 sin(𝜃0 ) √𝑣02 sin2(𝜃0 ) + 2𝑦0 𝑔

𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = + (5.19)
𝑔 𝑔

The distance from the D point to the origin (𝑅 = 𝑥𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 𝑣0𝑥 𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ) can be obtained from the
Equation 5.15.

𝑅 = 𝑣0 cos(𝜃0 ) 𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (5.20)

5.4 Tools to be used in the experiment

• Photogate
(It consists of a source emitting Infra-red radiation on one side and a receiver that can
detect this radiation on the other. Thus, when the light is cut off, the sensor will send a
signal to the computer and the computer will determine the time until the next
interruption.)
• Time-of-Flight-Accessory
(It is used with a photogate to capture time of flight data. Timing starts when object passes
through photogate and stops when object impacts this landing pad.)
• Projectile Launcher
(It is a mechanism that enables shooting at different inclination angle values in the range of
0o – 90o (measured from horizontal). The angle is easily adjusted using thumbscrews and
the built-in protractor and plumb-bob give an accurate way to measure the angle of
inclination. And the Projectile Launchers has three range settings. The Short Range,
Medium Range and Long Range. The Long-Range Launcher has a stronger spring than
Medium Range and Short Range. During this experiment, the “Short Range” will be used.)
• Science Workshop Interface 500
52
 (Interface for connecting time-of-flight-accessory and photogate with computer)
• Plastic balls, Ruler, Plastic Rod
• Computer and Data Studio software

Figure 5.4 Projectile Motion Set: Projectile launcher, plastic rod, time-of-flight-accessory,
photogate, interface

5.5 Experimental Procedure

Figure5.5 The schematic illustration of experimental setup that includes projectile launcher, time-of-
flight-accessory, photogate and plastic ball

The experimental setup of projectile motion is implemented as shown in Figure 5.5. The photogate
should be plugged into channel 1 and the time-of-flight accessory should be plugged into channel 2 of
the interface. Turn on the interface. Connections between time-of-flight accessory and computer,

53
photogate and computer will be established through an interface. To collect the data, a software
program (Data Studio) will be used.

Here are the procedures for launching Data Studio program to provide data collection and the
experimental steps:

• Double-click the Data Studio icon on your desktop to launch the Data Studio software.
Introduce photogate to the digital channel 1 and time-of-flight accessory to the digital
channel 2 of the interface. And now, the computer is ready to measure the time of
flight (tAD).
• You can open the table for “time of flight” from the menu on the left-hand side.
• The photogate should be attached to the launcher. Keep the launcher as close to the
photogate as possible without interrupting the photogate to make the initial velocity
of the ball more accurate.
• The angle of inclination above the horizontal is adjusted by loosening the two
thumbscrews and rotating the Launcher barrel to the desired angle. Use the plumb
bob and the protractor on the label to select the angle. Tighten both thumbscrews
when the angle is set. Record the value of the adjusted angle in Measurements and
Results section.
• Place a ball in the muzzle of the Launcher. NOTE: Always cock the piston with a ball in
the piston. You may damage the piston if you use the plastic rod without a ball in the
piston.
• While looking through the range-setting slots on the top side of the Launcher, push the
ball down the barrel with the plastic rod until the trigger catches the edge of the piston
at the desired range setting. (The trigger will “click” into place.)
• The ball should be placed in the launcher's SHORT-RANGE stage. When the yellow
indicator tape on the piston is visible in the middle range-setting slot, the piston is in
the SHORT-RANGE position.
• Remove the plastic rod after you placed the ball.
• When the Projectile Launcher is loaded, the yellow indicator tape is visible through the
range-setting slots on the upper side of the barrel. Do not look into the launcher or
stay in front of it. To check whether the Launcher is loaded, look through the range-
setting slots on the barrel.
• Before shooting the ball, make certain that you are not firing at another person or at
anything breakable like glass windows, doors, etc.
• Fire one shot to locate where the ball hits the time-of-flight accessory.
• In order to measure the flight time, the ball must touch a point in the white area on
the time-of-flight accessory. So, place the time-of-flight accessory far enough away
from the projectile launcher.

54
 • To shoot the ball, pull straight up on the trigger string that is attached to the trigger.
You only need to pull about one centimeter.
• The trigger will automatically return to its initial position after you release the string.
• To acquire data, click “Start” on the Data studio program and fire one shot. To stop
data collection, click “Stop”.
• Time of flight will be the time it takes for the ball to go from the first photogate to the
time-of-flight accessory. Read the “elapsed time”, which corresponds to “tAD”, from
the table on the Data Studio and record the data in Table 5.1.
• Measure the range 𝑅 along the floor from the release point of the ball to the landing
point and record your measurement in Table 5.1.
• Repeat the procedure four more times.
• Measure the vertical distance (h) from the bottom of the ball as it leaves the barrel to
the floor. Record this distance in Measurements and Results section. Note that the
position of the ball just before the ball leaves the launcher is marked on the launcher.
• Using the measured horizontal range R, time-of-flight tAD and adjusted angle value,
calculate the components of the initial velocity and itself for each run. Check the
equations derived in the Theoretical Concepts section.
• Then calculate the maximum height that ball reached, climbing time to the maximum
height, final projection angle of the projectile, the y- component of the final velocity
and itself. Record the obtained values in Table 5.2 for each run.

5.6 Measurements and Results

h=.............. θ0 = . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Table 5.1 Projectile motion experiment results

Measurement
tAD (s) X (horizontal range) (cm)
Number

55
 7

10

Mean Value

Error

𝑡 = (. . . . . . . ± . . . . . . . ) s

𝑋(ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒) = (. . . . . . . ± . . . . . . . ) m

Table 5.2 Calculated results for projectile motion

Measurement 𝑣0𝑥 𝑣0𝑦 𝑣0 tAB 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑣𝑦(𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙) 𝑣𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙

𝜃
Number (m/s) (m/s) (m/s) (s) (m) (m/s) (m/s)

56
 10

Mean Value

Error

𝑣0𝑥 = (. . . . . . . ± . . . . . . . ) m/s 𝑣0𝑦 = (. . . . . . . ± . . . . . . . ) m/s

𝑣0 = (. . . . . . . ± . . . . . . . ) m/s 𝑡𝐴𝐵 = (. . . . . . . ± . . . . . . . ) s

𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑠 = (. . . . . . . ± . . . . . . . ) m

𝑣𝑦(𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙) = (. . . . . . . ± . . . . . . . ) m/s 𝑣𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = (. . . . . . . ± . . . . . . . ) m/s

𝜃 = (. . . . . . . ± . . . . . . . ) 0

5.7 Questions
1. When  = 0° and  = 90° explain the situations using equations which is derived for
the motion as in Figure 5.3 (Equations (5.14)-(5.20)).
2. When will the velocity take a minimum and maximum value? What does it mean if the
y-component of the velocity is negative?
3. Derive the expression required to obtain the time (tCD) required for the ball to take the
distance CD (as in Figure 5.3) in the experiment.

57
58
 Experiment 5

The Principle of Inertia

(Incline)

DEU Faculty of Science

Physics Department

2020

59
6.1 Preparation Questions
4. Explain the Newton's laws of motion briefly.
5. What does the friction force depend on? Explain briefly.
6. What is the unit of coefficient of friction?

6.2 Aims of the Experiment

Calculation of the static friction coefficient between the object and the inclined plane through
Newton's First Law of Motion

6.3 Theoretical Concepts

The relationship between force and motion was first proposed by Isaac Newton (1642-1727). Newton
explained the basic principles of dynamics with three expressions in his book "Mathematical Principles
of Natural Philosophy" published in 1687. These three statements have been named as Newton's laws
of motion.

• Newton's First Law (Principle of Inertia)

• Newton's Second Law (Fundamental Law of Dynamics "F = ma")
• Newton's Third Law (Action-Reaction Principle)
According to Newton's first law, which is the subject of this experiment;

“Unless a net external force (resultant force) acts on an object, the speed of the object does
not change (there is no change in direction, and magnitude), in other words, the object does not
accelerate. If the object is stationary, it will remain at rest; if it is moving, it will continue its
smooth linear motion with a constant speed."

The tendency of an object to resist on changing of its speed (the state of resistance) is called the inertia
of that object, and the quantity of this resistance is called the (inertia) mass of the body. When the
object is at rest or moving with a constant speed, we define the object is in equilibrium. In order to be
in an equilibrium situation, the body must not be subjected to any force or the vectorial sum of applied
forces (net force) must be zero;

∑𝐹 = 0 (6.1)

Since total vectorial sum of the forces is zero, each component of the net force must also satisfy the
equation;

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0, ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0, ∑ 𝐹𝑧 = 0 (6.2)

60
If a block of mass m on an incline with an angle 𝜃 is in equilibrium, the vectorial sum of forces acting

on the block, which are normal force ⃗𝑵 ⃗⃗⃗ and static friction force ⃗⃗⃗𝒇𝒔 , should
⃗ , downward gravity force ⃗𝑾

be zero as shown in the figure. In this case the equations of motion of the block can be written as;

Figure 6.1 Free body diagram of an object in inclined plane with friction

∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 (𝑎 = 0)
⃗ +𝑊
𝑁 ⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑓𝑠 = 0

𝑁𝑗̂ − 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 𝑗̂ + 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝑖̂ − 𝑓𝑠 𝑖̂ = 0

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑓𝑠 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑁 − 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦 = 0 (6.3)

6.4 Tools to be used in the experiment

• Statics board
• Inclined plane
• Pulley
• Wooden Block
• Mass and hanger set
• Thread

6.5 Experimental Procedure

1. Mount the inclined plane on the statics board. Set the wooden block on the inclined plane
and use thread to connect it over a pulley to a mass hanger.

61
2. First, set the angle as 𝜽 = 𝟎. Carefully adjust the pulley so that the thread is parallel to the
inclined plane. Add or subtract masses on the mass hanger to determine balance state of the
block just before it moves.
3. After obtaining the balance state, measure the mass of block mB and the hanging mass (total
mass of the mass hanger and added masses. The mass of the mass hanger is 5g) m and
record the Table 6.1.
4. Calculate the weight of the block WB and added masses W, and record the data Table 6.1.
5. Draw the free-body diagram for both objects (block and hanging masses) and write the
corresponding equations using Newton’s First Law of Motion.

For
mB……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………….

For
m……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………

6. Analyse the equations in order to calculate the static friction coefficient (𝜇𝑠 )

Figure 6.2 Equipment setup for the first stage of the experiment

62
7. Second, set the angle as 𝜽 ≠ 𝟎. Bring the system into balance by changing the angle 𝜽 in
order to determine the critical angle at which the block can stand on the inclined plane
without slipping.
8. Draw the free-body diagram for the block and write the corresponding equations using
Newton’s First Law of Motion.

For
mB……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………….

For
m……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………

9. Analyse the equations in order to calculate the static friction coefficient (𝜇𝑠 )

63
 Figure 6.3 Equipment setup for the second stage of the experiment

6.6 Measurements and Results

Table 6.1 Results of measurements

𝜃 (°) 𝑚(𝑘𝑔) 𝑊(𝑁) 𝑚𝐵 (𝑘𝑔) 𝑊𝐵 (𝑁) 𝑓𝑠 (𝑁) 𝜇𝑠

1. stage

2. stage

10. You can calculate the uncertainty in determining the static friction coefficient with the
following equations;

𝜇𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑚, 𝑚𝐵 , 𝜃)
2 2 2
𝜕𝜇𝑠 𝜕𝜇𝑠 𝜕𝜇𝑠
Δ𝜇𝑠 = √( Δ𝑚) + ( Δ𝑚𝐵 ) + ( Δ𝜃) (6.4)
𝜕𝑚 𝜕𝑚𝐵 𝜕𝜃

𝜇𝑠 = 𝜇̅ 𝑠 ± ∆𝜇𝑠

6.7 Questions
4. How much weight should be hung on the mass hanger to keep the system balanced
when the inclination angle is 60°?
5. In what situations is the friction force a necessary force and in which situations it must
be eliminated?

64
6. What can be done to reduce the friction coefficient between two surfaces?

65
66
 Experiment 6

Newton's Second Law

Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem

DEU Faculty of Science

Physics Department

2020

67
7.1 Preparation Questions
1) Explain the Newton's Second law briefly.
2) Could the work be zero when the force and displacement are not zero? Explain briefly.

7.2 Aims of the Experiment

Determine the relationship between an object’s or system’s mass, acceleration, and the net force
applied to the object or system experimentally.

Investigate the relationship between the change in kinetic energy of an object experiencing a non-zero
net force, and the work done by that net force on the object.

7.2 Newton's Second Law

Newton's laws, the basis of classical mechanics, are used to explain a wide range of physical
phenomena. For example, the motions of stars and planets obey Newton's laws. However, it is
important to note that these laws are invalid under two conditions.

1. In cases where the velocities of the objects are close to the speed of light (cases where the
velocity of the object is greater than approximately 0.1c). For such cases, it is required to use
the special theory of relativity developed by Einstein.

2. In cases where the dimensions of the object under investigation are very small (electron,
proton, neutron, etc.). It is required to use Quantum Physics for such sub-atomic particle’s
world.

Newton's first law expresses the tendency of objects to preserve their original status. Newton's 1st Law:
In the absence of external forces, when viewed from an inertial reference frame, an object at rest
remains at rest and an object in motion continues in motion with a constant velocity (that is, with a
constant speed in a straight line). In simpler terms, we can say that when no force acts on an object,
the acceleration of the object is zero.

If you want to create a change in the velocity (acceleration) of the object, it is required to apply a force
on the object. In other words, acceleration and force are directly proportional (𝑎 ∝ 𝐹). The constant
of proportionality between force and acceleration can be called inertial mass.

The tendency of an object to resist any attempt to change in its velocity is called inertia.

Mass is a quantity of an object’s resistance against being accelerated by a force. The greater the mass
of an object, the less acceleration of it under the influence of applied force.

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Suppose a force F acting on an object of mass m 1 generates an acceleration a1, and the same force
acting on an object of mass m2 generates an acceleration a2.

Figure 7.1 The effect of a constant force 𝐹 on the acceleration of two objects with different mass.

The ratio of the two masses is defined as the inverse ratio of the magnitudes of the accelerations
produced by the force:

𝑚1 𝑎2
=
𝑚2 𝑎1
Accordingly, two objects with different inertia under the influence of the same force will accelerate
inversely proportional to their masses. In other words, a greater change will occur in the velocity of an
object with less mass under the effect of the same force. Similarly, for the object in motion, the greater
the mass, the greater the force is required to stop it.

1
𝑚1 ∙ 𝑎1 = 𝑚2 ∙ 𝑎2 = ⋯ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡 → 𝑎 ∝ ⇒ The acceleration is inversely proportional to the
𝑚

mass of the object.

Figure 7.2 The effect of different forces 𝐹 applied to two objects of the same mass on the
acceleration.

As seen in Figure 7.2, when different forces 𝐹1 , 𝐹2 , ⋯ are applied to an object of mass m, the object
gains different accelerations 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , ⋯

The ratio of the force to the acceleration of the objects;

𝐹1 𝐹
𝑎1
= 𝑎2 = ⋯ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ⇒ 𝐹 ∝ 𝑎 Acceleration is directly proportional to the force applied.
2

If we express this ratio with m:

𝐹
=𝑚 → 𝐹 =𝑚𝑎 (7.1)
𝑎

69
Mass is an inherent property of an object and is independent of the object’s surroundings and of the
method used to measure it. The mass size is represented by [M] and measured in kilograms (kg) in the
SI unit system.

As a result, Newton's second law gives the relationship between the force applied on an object and
the mass of the object and the acceleration.

Newton's 2nd Law: The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the resultant force (or net
force, ΣF) acting on it, and inversely proportional to its mass. Generally (for more than one force);

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∑ 𝐹𝑖 = 𝑚𝑎 (7.2)

the equation is called Newton 2nd law or the fundamental law of Dynamics. The SI unit of force is the
Newton, and it is indicated by the letter N. Newton is defined as the force that, when acting on an
object of mass 1 kg, produces an acceleration of 1 m/s2.

1 𝑁 = (1 𝑘𝑔) . (1 𝑚/𝑠 2 )

7.3 Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem

Consider an object that undergoes a displacement of magnitude s along a straight line. While the object
moves, a constant force 𝐹 acts on it in the same direction as the displacement ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑠 , which can be
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
defined as ∆𝑠 ∆𝑥 (Fig. 7.3). We define the work W done by this constant force under
these circumstances as the scalar product of the force 𝐹 and the displacement ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑥 :

⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑊 = 𝐹 ∙ ∆𝑥 (7.3)

Work is a scalar quantity, even though it’s calculated from two vector quantities (force and
displacement). Think of a person pushing a stalled car. If he pushes the car through a displacement
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑥 with a constant force ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 in the direction of motion, the amount of work he does on the car is given

by Eq. 𝑊 = 𝐹∆𝑥. But what if the person pushes at an angle 𝜃 to the car’s displacement. The ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 has a
component 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 in the direction of the displacement ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑥 and a component 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 that

acts perpendicular to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

∆𝑥 . (Other forces must act on the car so that it moves along ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑥 , not in the

direction of ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 . We’re interested in only the work that the person does, however, so we’ll consider
only the force he exerts.) Only the parallel component is effective in moving the car, so we define the
work as the product of this force component and the magnitude of the displacement.

Hence,

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
𝑊 = (|𝐹 |cos 𝜃 )|∆𝑥

70
If θ = 0, so that ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are in the same direction, then cos θ = 1 and we are back to Eq. (𝑊 =
𝐹 and ∆𝑥
𝐹∆𝑥). In the above equation has the form of the scalar product of two vectors.

Figure 7.3 The work done by a constant force acting in the same direction as the displacement.
The SI unit of work is the joule. The unit of work is the unit of force multiplied by the unit of distance.
In SI units the unit of force is the newton and the unit of distance is the meter, so 1 joule is equivalent
to 1 newton-meter (N.m):

1 Joule =(1 Newton).(1 meter) or 𝐽 = 1 𝑁. 𝑚 = 1 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚 2 /𝑠 2

If you lift an object with a weight of 1 N a distance of 1 m at a constant speed, you exert a 1 N force on
the object in the same direction as its 1 m displacement and so do 1 J of work on it.

It’s important to understand that work can also be negative or zero. This is the essential way in which
work as defined in physics differs from the “everyday” definition of work. When the force has a
component in the same direction as the displacement (θ between 0° and 90°), cosθ in the above
equation is positive and the work W is positive. When the force has a component opposite to the
displacement (θ between 90° and 180°), cosθ is negative and the work is negative. When the force is
perpendicular to the displacement, θ = 90° and the work one by the force is zero.

How do we calculate work when several forces act on an object? One way is to compute the work done
by each separate force. Then, because work is a scalar quantity, the total work Wtot done on the object
by all the forces is the algebraic sum of the quantities of work done by the individual forces. An
alternative way to find the total work Wtot is to compute the vector sum of the forces (that is, the net

force) and then use this vector sum as 𝐹 .

Figure 7.4 The relationship between the total work done on an object and how the object’s speed changes.

71
The total work done on an object by external forces is related to the object’s displacement that is, to
changes in its position. But the total work is also related to changes in the speed of the object. To see
this, consider Fig. 6.4, which shows a block sliding on a frictionless table. The forces acting on the block

are its weight 𝑤

⃗⃗ , the normal force 𝑛⃗, and the force 𝐹 exerted on it by the hand.

In Fig. 7.4(a) the net force on the block is in the direction of its motion. From Newton’s second law,
this means that the block speeds up, this also means that the total work Wtot done on the block is
positive. The total work is negative in Fig. 7.4(b) because the net force opposes the displacement; in
this case the block slows down. The net force is zero in Fig. 7.4(c), so the speed of the block stays the
same and the total work done on the block is zero. We can conclude that when a particle undergoes a
displacement, it speeds up if Wtot > 0, slows down if Wtot < 0, and maintains the same speed if Wtot=0.

Let’s make this more quantitative. In Fig. 7.5, a particle with mass m moves along the x-axis under the
action of a constant net force with magnitude F that points in the positive x-direction. The particle’s
acceleration is constant and given by Newton’s second law (F = m.ax).

Figure 7.5 A constant net force 𝐹 does work on a moving object.

As the particle moves from point x1 to x2, it undergoes a displacement ⃗⃗⃗⃗

∆𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 and its speed
changes from v1 to v2.

𝑣2 2 − 𝑣1 2
𝑣2 2 = 𝑣1 2 + 2𝑎 ∙ ∆𝑥 𝑎 ∙ ∆𝑥 =
2
𝑣2 2 − 𝑣1 2 𝑣2 2 − 𝑣1 2
𝑚𝑎 ∙ ∆𝑥 = 𝑚 ⇒ 𝐹 ∙ ∆𝑥 = 𝑚
2 2
1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑚𝑣2 2 − 𝑚𝑣1 2 is obtained.
Hence, the expression 𝑊 = 𝐹 ∙ ∆𝑥 2 2

In this equation the product 𝐹 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗

∆𝑥 is the work done by the net force 𝐹 and thus is equal to the total
1
work Wtot done by all the forces acting on the particle. The quantity 𝑚𝑣 2 is called the kinetic energy
2
1
K of the particle: 𝐾 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2

Like work, the kinetic energy of a particle is a scalar quantity; it depends on only the particle’s mass
and speed, not its direction of motion. Kinetic energy can never be negative, and it is zero only when
the particle is at rest.

72
We can now interpret in above equation in terms of work and kinetic energy. The first term on the
1
right side of equation is 𝐾2 = 2 𝑚𝑣2 2 , the final kinetic energy of the particle (that is, after the
1
displacement). The second term is the initial kinetic energy, 𝐾1 = 𝑚𝑣1 2 , and the difference between
2

these terms is the change in kinetic energy. So equation says:

𝑊𝑇𝑜𝑡 = 𝐾2 − 𝐾1 = ∆𝐾 (7.4)

This work–energy theorem agrees with our observations about the block in Fig. 7.4. When Wtot is
positive, the kinetic energy increases (the final kinetic energy K2 is greater than the initial kinetic energy
K1) and the particle is going faster at the end of the displacement than at the beginning. When Wtot is
negative, the kinetic energy decreases (K2 is less than K1) and the speed is less after the displacement.
When Wtot = 0, the kinetic energy stays the same (K1 = K2) and the speed is unchanged. Note that the
work–energy theorem by itself tells us only about changes in speed, not velocity, since the kinetic
energy doesn’t depend on the direction of motion.

Because we used Newton’s laws in deriving the work–energy theorem, we can use this theorem only
in an inertial frame of reference. Note that the work–energy theorem is valid in any inertial frame, but
the values of Wtot and K2 - K1 may differ from one inertial frame to another (because the displacement
and speed of an object may be different in different frames).

To accelerate a particle of mass m from rest (zero kinetic energy) up to a speed v, the total work done
1
on it must equal the change in kinetic energy from zero to 𝐾2 = 2 𝑚𝑣2 2 :

1
𝑊𝑇𝑜𝑡 = 𝐾 − 0 = 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
So the kinetic energy of a particle is equal to the total work that was done to accelerate it from rest to
its present speed.

Energy associated with position is called potential energy. The potential energy associated with an
object’s weight and its height above the ground is called gravitational potential energy. We now have
two ways to describe what happens when an object falls without air resistance. One way, is to say that
a falling object’s kinetic energy increases because the force of the earth’s gravity does work on the
object. The other way is to say that the kinetic energy increases as the gravitational potential energy
decreases.

We want to find the work done by the weight when the object moves downward from a height y1
above the origin to a lower height y2. The weight and displacement are in the same direction, so the
work Wgrav done on the object by its weight is positive:

73
 𝑊𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣 = 𝐹 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑠 = 𝐹. ∆𝑠. cos(0) = 𝑤(𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) = 𝑚𝑔𝑦1 − 𝑚𝑔𝑦2 = −∆𝑈𝑔
This expression also gives the correct work when the object moves upward and y2 is greater than y1. In
that case the quantity (y1 - y2) is negative, and Wgrav is negative because the weight and displacement
are opposite in direction. Equation shows that we can express Wgrav in terms of the values of the
quantity mgy at the beginning and end of the displacement. This quantity is called the gravitational
potential energy, Ugrav :

𝑈𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ (7.5)

The unit of potential energy is the joule (J), the same unit as is used for work.

Figure 7.6 The work done by a conservative force such as gravity depends on only the endpoints of a
path, not the specific path taken between those points.
Conservative and Nonconservative Forces: When you throw a ball up in the air, it slows down as
kinetic energy is converted to gravitational potential energy. But on the way down the ball speeds up
as potential energy is converted back to kinetic energy. If there is no air resistance, the ball is moving
just as fast when you catch it as when you threw it. Another example is a glider moving on a frictionless
horizontal air track that runs into a spring bumper. The glider compresses the spring and then bounces
back. If there is no friction, the glider ends up with the same speed and kinetic energy it had before
the collision. Again, there is a two-way conversion from kinetic to potential energy and back. In both
cases the total mechanical energy, kinetic plus potential, is constant or conserved during the motion.

A force that offers this opportunity of two-way conversion between kinetic and potential energies is
called a conservative force. We have seen two examples of conservative forces: the gravitational force
and the spring force. An essential feature of conservative forces is that their work is always reversible.
Anything that we deposit in the energy “bank” can later be withdrawn without loss. Another important
aspect of conservative

forces is that if an object follows different paths from point 1 to point 2, the work done by a
conservative force is the same for all of these paths (Fig. 7.6).

Not all forces are conservative. Consider the friction force acting on the crate sliding on a ramp. When
the crate slides up and then back down to the starting point, the total work done on it by the friction

74
force is not zero. When the direction of motion reverses, so does the friction force, and friction does
negative work in both directions. Friction also acts when a car with its brakes locked skids with
decreasing speed (and decreasing kinetic energy). The lost kinetic energy can’t be recovered by
reversing the motion or in any other way, and total mechanical energy is not conserved. So there is no
potential-energy function for the friction force.

In the same way, the force of fluid resistance is not conservative. If you throw a ball up in the air, air
resistance does negative work on the ball while it’s rising and while it’s descending. The ball returns to
your hand with less speed and less kinetic energy than when it left, and there is no way to get back the
lost mechanical energy. A force that is not conservative is called a nonconservative force. The work
done by a nonconservative force cannot be represented by a potential-energy function.

Nonconservative forces cannot be represented in terms of potential energy. But we can describe the
effects of these forces in terms of kinds of energy other than kinetic or potential energy. When a car
with locked brakes skids to a stop, both the tires and the road surface become hotter. The energy
associated with this change in the state of the materials is called internal energy. Raising the
temperature of an object increases its internal energy; lowering the object’s temperature decreases
its internal energy.

∆𝐸 = ∆𝐾 + ∆𝑈 = 0 (7.6)

This remarkable statement is the general form of the law of conservation of energy. In a given process,
the kinetic energy, potential energy, and internal energy of a system may all change. But the sum of
those changes is always zero. If there is a decrease in one form of energy, it is made up for by an
increase in the other forms. When we expand our definition of energy to include internal energy, in
the above equation says: Energy is never created or destroyed; it only changes form. No exception to
this rule has ever been found.

∆𝐾 = −∆𝑈 = 𝑊

In this case, the relationship between work and potential energy can be written as,

𝑊 = −∆𝑈
Thus, the relationship between a conservative force and potential energy can be expressed as,

𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
⃗ 𝑈(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = −
𝐹𝑘𝑜𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑙𝑢 = −∇ 𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂ (7.7)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⃗=
∇ 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

75
7.4 Tools to be used in the experiment
● Air Track (The Air Rail provides almost frictionless movement. Air rails are used to minimize the
friction force as much as possible.)
● Air Supply with Hose
● Glider, Photogate Flag
● Mass hanger, mass set, string
● Pulleys with clamps
● Photogate
● Computer, Interface and Data Studio software

7.5 Experimental Procedure

7.5.1 Newton's Second Law

Figure 7.7 Newton's Second Law Experiment Setup

● Place the air track on a flat surface. Start the air supply.

● Be sure the air track is as level as possible. For this, place the glider that you will use in the
experiment in the middle of the air track. (Do not move the glider on the track while the air supply
is turned off!)

● Control if the glider moves on the air track when you turn on the air supply. If the glider moves
continuously in one direction, it means there is a slope. To eliminate this slope, adjust the screwed
feet under the air track accordingly.

● Set up the experimental setup as shown in Figure 7.7. With the help of a string that will pass
through the pulley, connect the glider to the mass hanger. Adjust the angle of the pulley so that
the string is parallel to the air track.

76
● Measure the diameter (x) of the Photogate Flag on the glider.

● Run "Data Studio" program on the computer. After selecting the channel (1 or 2) that the
photogate is connected to, " Choose sensor or instrument " section will open. Select the "
Photogate " section from here.

● Keep the glider as close to the photogate as possible without interrupting the photogate to make
the initial velocity of the glider more accurate. Click the “Start” button to begin collecting data.

● Determine how long it takes the glider to travel the distance x with the help of the photogate and
datastudio program. Note the measurement values in the table.

● Measure the value of hanging mass m with the help of a balance. Note the measurement values
in the table.

● Write Newton's 2nd Law by showing the forces affecting the hanging mass m on the free body
diagram. Find the tension in the string, T.

● By showing the forces affecting the mass M of the glider on the free body diagram, write Newton's
2nd Law and find the value of the mass M.

● Measure the mass of the glider with the help of a balance. Note the measurement values in the
table.

● Compare the value you found for the mass (M) of the glider with the value you found with the
precision balance.

● Calculate the relative error.

7.5.2 Work-Energy Theorem

● In the first part of the test, when the system consisting of masses m and M was released from rest,
a work is done by the tensile force of the string on mass M. Since this force causes the mass of M
to displacement of x, calculate the work done by the tensile force T on mass M, which you found
in the first part of the experiment.

W=……………………

● Calculate the change in kinetic energy on the glider with mass M starting from rest (v 1 = 0) and
having a velocity v2 after t time, by using below equation:

1 1
∆𝐾 = 𝑀𝑣2 2 − 𝑀𝑣1 2
2 2

77
 ∆𝐾 = ………………..

● Compare your results.

7.6 Measurements and Results

𝑥 = (. . . . . . . ± . . . . . . . ) m M = (. . . . . . . ± . . . . . . . ) kg

Table 7.1 Newton's Second Law experimental results

Measurement Number t (s)

Mean

Error

𝑡 = . (. . . . . . . ± . . . . . . . ) 𝑠

Table 7.2 Newton's Second Law calculated Results

𝒂 (𝒎/𝒔𝟐 ) 𝑻 (𝑵) 𝑴 (𝒌𝒈)

± ± ±

MMeasurement = (. . . . . . . ± . . . . . . . ) 𝑘𝑔

Table 7.3 Calculation results for the work-energy relationship.

𝒗𝟐 (𝒎/𝒔) D𝑲 (𝑱) 𝑾 (𝑱)

78
 Figure 7.8 Free body diagram of the forces acting on the sled of mass M and mass m.

For sled with mass M;

Free-Body Diagram Newton’s Second Law

∑ 𝐹 = 𝑀𝑎

𝑥 → 𝑇 = 𝑀𝑎

𝑦 → 𝑛 − 𝑀𝑔 = 0

for mass m;

Free-Body Diagram Newton’s Second Law

∑ 𝐹 = 𝑀𝑎

𝑦 → 𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔 = −𝑚𝑎

𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚(−𝑎)

𝑀𝑎 − 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚(−𝑎)

79
 𝑚(𝑔 − 𝑎)
𝑀=
𝑎
𝑇 = 𝑚(𝑔 − 𝑎)

7.7 Questions
1. What can you say about the Work-Kinetic Energy relationship according to your results in
section II of the experiment? Does the Work-Energy theorem depend on whether the
force applied to the system is constant or variable? Explain.
3. Show all the forces in the system on the figure.

4. Does the principle of conservation of energy also apply to other types of energy other
than mechanical energy? Discuss.
5. If an object is at rest, can you say that there are no external forces acting on it? Explain.

80
81
 Experiment 7

Collisions in One Dimension

DEU Faculty of Science

Physics Department

2020

82
8.1 Preparation Questions
1. Explain the momentum concept. What does conservation of momentum mean?
2. For each of the following situations, state the types of collisions that are elastic,
inelastic or completely inelastic, with reasons.
• When you release an elastic ball, it hits the ground and bounces and reaches your hand
again.
• When you release another ball from your hand, it bounces off the ground, but reaches
only half the height it was released.
• When you let go of a clay ball, it falls to the ground and stops.

8.2 Aim of the Experiment

Investigation of the conservation principles of momentum and kinetic energy for different types of
collisions made by two bodies in linear motion.

8.3 Linear Momentum

The linear momentum of a particle or an object that can be modeled as a particle of mass m moving
with a velocity v is defined to be the product of the mass and velocity;

𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 (8.1)

The linear momentum is a vector quantity because it equals the product of a scalar quantity m and a
vector quantity v. Its direction is along v, it has dimensions ML/T, and its SI unit is 𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠. If a particle
is moving in an arbitrary direction, 𝑝 must have three components;

𝑝𝑥 = 𝑚𝑣𝑥 𝑝𝑦 = 𝑚𝑣𝑦 𝑝𝑧 = 𝑚𝑣𝑧 (8.2)

Using Newton’s second law of motion, we can relate the linear momentum of a particle to the resultant
force acting on the particle. We start with Newton’s second law and substitute the definition of
acceleration;

𝑑𝑝 𝑑(𝑚𝑣) 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑚
∑𝐹 = = =𝑚 +𝑣 (8.3)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚
If the mass of the system acted under the force 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 does not change ( 𝑑𝑡 = 0), the above expression
𝑑𝑣⃗
is reduced to the form 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑚𝑎 . In this case, we can generally define Newton's II law (net

force 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎 ) as the change of the momentum of the system with time in a more inclusive

83
expression. If the momentum of the particle changes from 𝑝𝑖 at time 𝑡𝑖 to 𝑝𝑓 at time 𝑡𝑓 , integrating
Equation 8.3 gives;

𝑡𝑓
∆𝑝 = 𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑡 (8.4)
𝑡𝑖

To evaluate the integral, we need to know how the force varies with time. The quantity on the right

side of this equation is called the impulse of the force 𝐹 acting on a particle over the time interval ∆𝑡 =
𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 . Impulse is a vector defined by 𝐼 .

Conservation of linear momentum principle: As it is known, the basic quantities that define particles
in classical physics are charge and mass. The total momentum of a system consisting of two particles
of mass m1 and m2 without charge is always conserved. When two particles collide, the total
momentum of the isolated system before the collision always equals the total momentum after the
collision, regardless of the nature of the collision. This is depicted by the following expression;

𝑝1𝑖 + 𝑝2𝑖 = 𝑝1𝑓 + 𝑝2𝑓 (8.5)

Collision can be considered as a short-term interaction between two bodies or more objects that
causes changes in the motion positions of the objects due to the internal forces. These interaction
forces arise from the electrostatic interaction of electrons in the surface atoms of two bodies. The total
momentum of an isolated system just before a collision equals the total momentum of the system just
after the collision. In contrast, the total kinetic energy of the system of particles may or may not be
conserved, depending on the type of collision. In fact, whether kinetic energy is conserved is used to
classify collisions as either elastic or inelastic.

Elastic Collisions, an elastic collision between two objects is one in which the total kinetic energy (as
well as total momentum) of the system is the same before and after the collision. Collisions between
certain objects in the macroscopic world, such as billiard balls, are only approximately elastic because
some deformation and loss of kinetic energy take place.

Inelastic Collision, an inelastic collision is one in which the total kinetic energy of the system is not the
same before and after the collision (even though the momentum of the system is conserved.) In these
collisions, the objects move independently from each other after the collision. Two vehicles moving in
different directions after colliding, a bullet piercing a wedge, can be given as an example.

Perfectly Inelastic Collisions, kinetic energy decreases as in an inelastic collusion. In this collision, the
objects are interlocked and continue to move together after the collision. Two vehicles moving

84
together after colliding, a bullet getting stuck in a wedge, proton and electron colliding to form
hydrogen atom can be given as examples.

Elastic Collision
Both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved for two particles that collide as in Figure 8.1.

Figure. 8.1 Elastic Collision

𝑝1𝑖 + 𝑝2𝑖 = 𝑝1𝑓 + 𝑝2𝑓

Conversation of momentum; (8.6)
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
Conservation of kinetic energy; 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓 (8.7)
2 2 2 2

We shall indicate 𝑣 as positive if a particle moves to the right and negative if it moves to the left.

Inelastic Collision
Kinetic energy is not conserved in an inelastic collision. In other words, there is a loss of kinetic energy
in this type of collision. The total kinetic energy after the collision is smaller than the total kinetic
energy before the collision. The energy difference between the total kinetic energies before and after
the collision is either converted into heat energy or stored as potential energy in colliding objects
(Figure 8.2).

85
 Figure. 8.2 Inelastic Collision

𝑝1𝑖 + 𝑝2𝑖 = 𝑝1𝑓 + 𝑝2𝑓

(8.8)
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓

Perfectly Inelastic Collisions

Consider two particles of masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 moving with initial velocities 𝑣1𝑖 and 𝑣2𝑖 along the same
straight line, as shown in Figure 8.3. The two particles collide head-on, stick together, and then move
with some common velocity 𝑣𝑓 after the collision. Because the momentum of an isolated system is
conserved in any collision, we can say that the total momentum before the collision equals the total
momentum of the composite system after the collision.

Figure 8.3 Perfectly Inelastic Collision

𝑝1𝑖 + 𝑝2𝑖 = 𝑝𝑓
(8.9)
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣𝑓

8.4 Tools to be used in the experiment

Air Track, Air Supply with Hose, Photogate and Flag, Precision balance, Glider, Ruler, Air Track
Accessory kit: Bumper, Needle and wax tube, Computer, Interface and Data Studio software.

8.5 Experimental Procedure

1. Place the air track on a flat surface. Be sure the air track is as level as possible. For this,
place the glider that you will use in the experiment in the middle of the air track.
Control if the glider moves on the air track when you turn on the air supply. If the glider
moves continuously in one direction, it means there is a slope. To eliminate this slope,
adjust the screwed feet under the air track accordingly.

86
 2. Make connections with the computer by placing the photogate as shown in the figure.

Part 1: Elastic Collision

3. Attach bumper to the gliders.
4. Measure the diameter (x) of the Photogate Flag on the glider. Note the measurement
values in the table 8.1.
5. Measure the mass of the glider (with all parts attached) with the help of a balance. Note
the measurement values in the table 8.1.
6. Run "Data Studio" program on the computer. After selecting the channel (1 and 2) that
the photogate is connected to, " Choose sensor or instrument " section will open. Select
the " Photogate " section from here.
7. Start the Air Supply and place the glider in their positions in Figure 8.4. Start the
DataStudio program. Then push the glides with a photogate with your hand slightly and
watch for collisions in the collision zone located in the middle of the photogates.
8. After the gliders made an elastic collision, they will pass through the photogate for a
second time, moving in the opposite direction of their first movement direction. Stop
“Data Studio" program after the gliders pass through the photogate for the second time.
9. Open the Tables for both photogates from the Table tab. (Time at door channel 1 and
time at door channel 2). In the tables, you will get values two time because the glides pass
through the photogate twice. Record these values in Table 8.1.
10. Calculate the velocity values of the masses before and after the collision.
11. Determine whether momentum is conserved or not by calculating the momentum before
and after the collision.
12. Determine whether kinetic energy is conserved or not by calculating the kinetic energy
before and after the collision.

87
 Figure 8.4 Elastic Collision

Part 2: Inelastic Collision

13. Start the Air Supply and place the glides in the positions in Figure 8.5 this time. Attach
needle and wax tube to the gliders. Start the DataStudio program. Then, push the glider
with a Photogate with your hand slightly and observe that the gliders stick together by
hitting the other glider in the collision area located in the middle of the photogate.
14. Stop the DataStudio program after the gliders move together and pass through the
second photogate.
15. Open the Tables for both photogates from the Table tab (time channel 1 and time channel
2). Record the time data you read from the tables in Table 8.2.
16. Calculate the velocity values of the masses before and after the collision.
17. Determine whether momentum is conserved or not by calculating the momentum before
and after the collision.
18. Determine whether kinetic energy is conserved or not by calculating the kinetic energy
before and after the collision.

Figure 8.5 Inelastic Collision

88
8.6 Measurements and Results
Table 8.1 Measurement and calculation results for elastic collision

𝑚 (𝑘𝑔) 𝑥 (𝑚) 𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 (𝑠) 𝑡𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 (𝑠) 𝒗𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 (𝑚/𝑠) 𝒗𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 (𝑚/𝑠)

1.
Mass

2.
Mass

𝒑𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 (𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠) 𝒑𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 (𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠) 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 (𝐽) 𝐸𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 (𝐽)

1. Mass

2. Mass

TOTAL

Table 8.2 Measurement and calculation results for inelastic collision

𝑚 (𝑘𝑔) 𝑥 (𝑚) 𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 (𝑠) 𝑡𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 (𝑠) 𝒗𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 (𝑚/𝑠) 𝒗𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 (𝑚/𝑠)

1. Mass

2. Mass

𝒑𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 (𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠) 𝒑𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 (𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠) 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 (𝐽) 𝐸𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 (𝐽)

1. Mass

2. Mass

89
 TOTAL

8.7 Questions
1. For each type of collision, compare the vector sum of the momentums after the collision with the
initial momentum before the collision. Explain.

2. Is kinetic energy conserved for all types of collisions you have done in the experiment? Explain with
the reasons?

3. In a situation where we cannot neglect the friction in the experimental setup and the environment,
which of the two experiments in which the gliders are pushed towards each other from relatively close
and far distances; could be done with fewer errors provided all other conditions were the same? Why?

4. What are your sources of error in the experiment?

90
91
 Experiment 8

Uniform Circular Motion

(Centripetal Force)

DEÜ Science Faculty

Physics Department

2020

92
9.1 Pre-experiment Questions
1) Explain the concepts of frequency, period, angular frequency, linear velocity and angular velocity.
2) What is the Centripetal Force? Explain.
3) Explain the uniform circular motion.

9.2 Aims of the Experiment

Studying the motion of an object making uniform circular motion and calculating the centripetal force

9.3 Circular Motion

Rotational motion of objects around a fixed axis is defined as circular motion.Suppose that an object
in the xy-plane given in the Figure 9.1 rotates around the z-axis that passes through point O and is
perpendicular to the xy-plane. The orbits of the A and B points on the object will be in the form of rings
shown with a dashed line in the figure. The velocity vectors of points A and B will always be tangent to
these rings. The movements made by the A and B points are called circular motion. The distances of
points A and B to point O are constant throughout the motion The angle made by the displacement
vectors of points A and B with the x or y axis changes with time. However, depending on whether the
velocities vary in magnitude, the motion of the object can be analyzed in two ways. These are Uniform
Circular Motion and Nonuniform Circular Motion, respectively.

If the magnitude of the linear velocity of point A or B is constant throughout the motion, this motion
is called uniform circular motion. (|𝑣𝐴 | = |𝑣′𝐴 |)

If the direction of the speed of an object moving in a circular motion, as well as the magnitude of its
speed, changes over time, this motion is called an nonuniform circular motion. (|𝑣𝐴 | ≠ |𝑣′𝐴 |)

Figure 9.1 Linear velocities of a circular object at different points.

In uniform circular motion, the direction of the velocity constantly changes, even if the velocities
of A and B are equal in magnitude throughout the motion. In this case, these points have an
𝑑𝑣⃗
acceleration according to Newton's 2nd law (𝐹 = 𝑚 ).
𝑑𝑡

93
Let us examine a point particle of mass m that makes a uniform circular motion in a circular orbit of
radius R around the center O as shown in the Figure 9.2 below. Suppose the particle moves
with a distance ∆s from P1 to P2 in the time interval ∆t. The change in the velocity of the particle
during this time will be ∆𝑣 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 .

Figure 9.2 Angular displacement of a circular object.

In uniform circular motion, the radius and velocity vectors are |𝑟1 | = |𝑟2 | = 𝑟 and |𝑣1 | = |𝑣2 | = 𝑣 .
The triangles shown in the figure 9.2 are similar . Because of the edge-angle-edge similarity, the ratios
of the corresponding side lengths are equal. Therefore, equation 9.1 can be written.

⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
|∆𝑣 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
|∆𝑟 ∆𝑟
= ⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 𝑣
→ |∆𝑣 (9.1)
𝑣 𝑟 𝑟

Since average acceleration will be the ratio of the change in velocity to the change with time, it can be
written as in Equation 9.2.

⃗⃗⃗⃗ | 𝑣 ∆𝑟
|∆𝑣
𝑎𝑜𝑟𝑡 = = (9.2)
∆𝑡 𝑟 ∆𝑡

∆𝑡 → 0 ise ∆𝑟 = ∆𝑠
𝑣 ∆𝑠 𝑣 ∆𝑠 𝒗𝟐 (9.3)
𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ( ) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ( ) =
∆𝑡→0 𝑟 ∆𝑡 𝑟 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝒓

As shown in the Figure 9.2, the direction and direction of acceleration 𝑎 will be the same as ∆𝑣 . The
subscript "rad" (defines the radial axis) indicates that the direction of instantaneous acceleration is
always in the direction of the radius at each point of the trajectory and is directed towards the center
of the circle perpendicular to the velocity and trajectory. Hence it is called radial acceleration or
centripetal acceleration.

According to Newton's 2nd law of motion(eq. 9.4), we can say that a force is applied to the object in
the same direction as the acceleration. This force is called the centripetal force and its orientation is
towards the center of rotation.

94
 𝑣2
𝐹=𝑚 (9.4)
𝑟

The concept of velocity in circular motion is expressed in two forms, angular velocity and linear
velocity (also known as tangential velocity due to the possibility of tangent to orbit). Figure 9.1 shows
the linear velocities of points A and B at different times on the object making a circular motion.

In circular motion, the velocity can be expressed by the change of the angle of the displacement vector
of the object with the x-axis with respect to time. The variation of the swept angle with time is called
angular velocity and is denoted by 𝜔
⃗ . Angular Velocity can be defined as the angular displacement in
a certain time interval. Angular velocity, a vector quantity, is in the direction of the rotation axis and
its direction is determined by the right-hand rule. Its equivalent in the SI unit system is rad / s.

Right-hand-rule: Take the axis of rotation in your right palm with your fingertips pointing in the
direction of rotation and take a turn in the direction of rotation. The direction of your thumb gives the
direction of the angular velocity vector. The angular velocity vector is taken as positive if the solid object
rotates counterclockwise, negative if it rotates clockwise.

𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ∆𝜃
𝜔
⃗ = = (9.5)
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡

In addition to these, other concepts related to uniform circular motion are:

Period (T): It is defined as the time it takes for an object that makes a uniform circular motion to
perform a complete rotation and its unit is seconds (s).

Frequency (f "or ν"): It is the number of cycles per unit time and its unit is s-1 or Hertz (Hz). Frequency
and period are inversely proportional (f = 1 ⁄ T).

The linear velocities of the points with different distances to the axis of rotation on an object making
a uniform circular motion are different, but the angular velocities of all points on the object are equal.
In Equation 9.6 below, the relations between angular velocity, linear velocity, frequency and period
are given.

2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑤= , 𝑤 = 2𝜋𝑓, 𝑣= 𝑟 = 𝑤𝑟 (9.6)
𝑇 𝑇

Centripetal acceleration and centripetal force can also be written in terms of angular velocity as
follows.

𝑣2
𝑎= = 𝑤 2 𝑟, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑤 2 𝑟 (9.7)
𝑟

95
 2𝜋 2 2𝜋 2
𝑎=( ) 𝑟, 𝐹 = 𝑚( ) 𝑟
𝑇 𝑇

9.4 Tools to be used to in the experiment

Centripetal Force system, Gripper foot, Stopwatch, DC motor and power source, Mass and mass
holder, Spool and rope

Figure 9.3 Tolls to be used in experiment.

9.5 Experimental Procedur

In this experiment we will examine the centripetal force acting on an object (hooked mass) in uniform
circular motion. For this purpose, set up the experimental setup shown in the Figure 9.4 and ensure
that all ropes are parallel to the relevant surfaces.

Figure 9.4 Experimental setup

1. Step ( r : constant, m : variable )

1. Determine the location of the indicator (any place you choose arbitrarily on the center support,
taking care that the spring does not deform by overstretching) at the end of the spring with the

96
 help of the mass you put in the mass holder that you attach to the free hook of the hooked mass.
Weigh the mass you have hung with the mass holder and record it in Table 9.1.
2. Remove the suspended mass with the mass retainer from the hooked mass. In this case, the
hooked mass will slide towards the center support.
3. Start the engine and observe the circular motion of the experimental setup. Increase the voltage
applied to the motor gradually so that the indicator comes to the place you specified in the
previous stage.
4. After waiting for a while, start the stopwatch and measure the time it takes for the setup to rotate
10 rounds and calculate the period and record it in Table 9.1.
5. Then calculate the centripetal force and record it in Table 9.1.
To find the mass of the hooked object

𝑣2 4π2 𝑟 2 𝑚𝑔𝑇 2
𝑚𝑔 = 𝑀 =𝑀 2 → 𝑀= (9.8)
𝑟 𝑇 𝑟 4π2 𝑟

Use the expression and calculate the error made taking into account the error calculation.

After determining the period of the rotating object in this way, calculate the angular velocity, linear
velocity, frequency and centripetal acceleration values for the object by measuring the radius and write
the following equivalents together with their units.

M is the value of the mass with hook and m is the mass value attached to the mass holder(together
with the mass holder).

Table 9.1 Results

𝑟 = ( ± ) 𝑀real = ( ± )

Measurement 𝑚 (𝑘𝑔) 𝑇 (𝑠) 𝑓 (1/s) ω (rad/s) 𝑣 (𝑚/𝑠)

1 ± ± ± ± ±

2 ± ± ± ± ±

3 ± ± ± ± ±

Measurement 𝑎 (𝑚/𝑠 2 ) 𝐹𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 (𝑁)(= 𝑚𝑔) 𝑀(𝑘𝑔) (Calculate)

1 ± ± ±

2 ± ± ±

3 ± ± ±
Compare the weight of the mass used to balance the indicator with the centripetal force value you find.
Are your results the same?

97
Step 2: (m : constant, r : variable )
After determining the period of the rotating object in this way, calculate the angular velocity, linear
velocity, frequency and centripetal acceleration values for the object by measuring the radius and write
the following equivalents together with their units.

Table 9.2 Results

𝑚 = ( ± )

Ölçüm 𝑟 (𝑚) 𝑇 (𝑠) 𝑓 (1/s) ω (rad/s) 𝑣 (𝑚/𝑠)

1 ± ± ± ± ±

2 ± ± ± ± ±

3 ± ± ± ± ±

Measurements 𝑎 (𝑚/𝑠 2 ) 𝐹𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 (𝑁)(= 𝑚𝑔) 𝑀(𝑘𝑔) (Calculate)

1 ± ± ±

2 ± ± ±

3 ± ± ±

Which physical parameter remained constant at this stage of the experiment?

Has the magnitude of the centripetal force changed?

How did the period and velocity change depending on r? Discuss.

9.6 Post-experiment questions

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 Figure 9.5 Tennis ball rotating in a vertical vertical plane.

1. A student spins a tennis ball tied to the end of a ball in a vertical plane. Draw the free body diagram
for the ball separately for points A, B, C, and D shown in the figure. What can you say about the
velocity of the object at these points?

2. What magnitudes do not change over time in a uniform circular motion?

3. What is the reason for the red indicator to move when the system starts to make circular motion?

4. How can it be said that the centripetal force changes with radius? Has it been observed in this
experiment?

9.7 References
1. Dokuz Eylül University, Faculty of Science, Physics Department, Physics I Laboratory experiment
booklet, 2016.
2. Sears and Zemansky's University Physics, Hugh D. YOUNG, Roger A. Freedman.
3. Physics for Science and Engineers, Raymond A. Serway, Robert J. Beichner.
4. PASCO - Complete-Rotational-System-Manual-ME-8950A
5. PASCO - Centripetal-Force-Accessory-Manual-ME-8952

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100
 Experiment 9

Moment of Inertia

DEU Faculty of Science

Physics Department

2021

101
10.1 Preparation Questions
1. Explain the concept of moment of inertia. Discuss whether it is related to Newton's principle of
inertia.
2. Define the concept of angular momentum. Explain how its direction is determined.

10.2 Aims of the experiment

Investigation of the concepts of moment of inertia, torque and angular momentum in circular motion.

10.3 Rotational Kinetic Energy and Moment of Inertia

The measure of the resistance of an object against the rotational motion is called the moment of
inertia. Suppose a solid body rotating about an axis with an angular velocity 𝜔 consists of many small
particles, each with a mass 𝑚. And let 𝑟𝑖 be the distance of each particle from the axis of rotation.

Figure 10.1 A rigid body rotating with a constant angular velocity 𝜔

When a rigid body rotates about a fixed axis, the linear velocity of particle 𝑖 is expressed by the
equation 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑟𝑖 𝜔. Different particles have different values of 𝑟, but the 𝜔 is the same for all
(otherwise the body would not be solid). Kinetic energy of particle 𝑖:

1 1
𝐾𝑖 = 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖2 = 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2 𝜔2 (10.1)
2 2

The total kinetic energy of the solid body is the sum of the kinetic energies of all the particles:

1 1
𝐾 = (𝑚1 𝑟12 + 𝑚2 𝑟22 + ⋯ ) 𝜔2 = [∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2 ] 𝜔2 (10.2)
2 2
𝑖

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This relation is valid for discrete systems. The quantity in parentheses, the sum of the mass of each
particle multiplied by the squares of their distance from the axis of rotation, is called the "moment of
inertia" of the rigid body.

𝐼 = 𝑚1 𝑟12 + 𝑚2 𝑟22 + ⋯ = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2 (10.3)

𝑖

If the object is assumed to have a continuous structure, the sum symbol in Equation (10.3) is replaced
by the integral sign and by integrating over the whole object, the moment of inertia is expressed by

𝐼 = ∫ 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑚 (10.4)

Here 𝑑𝑚 defines the mass of the infinitesimal part of the object and is the perpendicular distance of
this part from the axis of rotation. The moment of inertia is a quantity that depends on the shape of
the object, its mass distribution, and its axis of rotation. The unit of moment of inertia in the SI system
is 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚 2 .

The total kinetic energy of a body rotating about an axis, given by Equation (10.2), is expressed as:

1
𝐾 = 𝐼𝜔2 (10.5)
2

As can be seen from equation (10.5), the greater the moment of inertia, the greater the kinetic energy
of the rigid body rotating with angular velocity 𝜔.

While it is very difficult to calculate the moment of inertia of a body that does not have a definite
geometric shape with the help of Equation (10.4), it is quite easy to calculate the moments of inertia
of solid bodies with simple shapes. For example, the moment of inertia of a regular disc of radius 𝑅 and
mass 𝑀 about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the disc passing through its center is given by the
following equation:

1
𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅2 (10.6)
2

If the axis of rotation of the same disc is chosen as in Figure (10.4), the moment of inertia is expressed
by the following equation:

1
𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅2 (10.7)
4

A ring of inner radius 𝑅1 and outer radius 𝑅2 has a moment of inertia is defined by the equation

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 1
𝐼 = 𝑀(𝑅12 + 𝑅22 ) (10.8)
2

(a) (b)

Figure 10.2 Moments of inertia of (a) Solid cylinder ve (b) hollow cylinder

10.4 Torque
When a force is applied to an object placed on an axis, the object tends to rotate about that axis. The
tendency of a force to rotate an object about an axis is measured by a physical quantity called torque
(𝜏).

The force applied to turn a wrench about the O-axis, as in Figure 10.3, can generally make an angle 𝜙

with the horizontal. The magnitude of the torque resulting from the applied force 𝐹 is expressed by
the following equation:

𝜏 ≡ 𝑟 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 = 𝐹𝑑 (10.9)

𝑑 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙, indicates the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the direction of the force

and it is called the moment arm (or force arm) of the 𝐹 force. The only component of the 𝐹 force that
causes rotation is the component perpendicular to 𝑟 is 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙. The horizontal component (𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙)
passes through point O and has no rotation effect. In order to make an object rotate about an axis, the
direction of the force applied to the object and where it is applied are important.

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 Figure 10.3 Force applied to the wrench rotated about the O axis

When a force 𝐹 acts on a point at a distance defined by the position vector 𝑟 with respect to point O,
the torque of that force with respect to point O is a vector quantity:

𝜏=𝑟 × 𝐹 (10.10)

The unit of torque in the SI system is N.m.

10.5 Work and Energy in Rotational Motion

As in Figure 10.4, with the effect of a 𝐹 force applied on the object from the P point, the object will
start to rotate around the O axis and the object will travel on the circular orbit 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑟𝑑𝜃 in time dt. In

this case, the work done by the force 𝐹 is:

𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑠 = (𝐹 sin 𝜙 )𝑟𝑑𝜃 (10.11)

If we use the torque expression given in Equation (10.9) in Equation (10.11), we get the work done for
𝑑𝜃 rotation as follows:

𝑑𝑊 = 𝜏 𝑑𝜃 (10.12)

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 Figure 10.4 A rigid body rotates about an axis through O under the action of a force 𝐹 applied to
point P.
1
The kinetic energy of a rotating body was obtained in Equation (10.5) as 𝐾 = 2 𝐼𝜔2 . Time dependent

change of kinetic energy:

𝑑 1 2 1 𝑑 𝑑𝜔
( 𝐼𝜔 ) = 𝐼 𝜔2 = 𝐼𝜔 (10.13)
𝑑𝑡 2 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Since angular acceleration is defined by 𝛼 = 𝑑𝜔/𝑑𝑡,

𝑑 1 2
( 𝐼𝜔 ) = 𝐼𝛼𝜔
𝑑𝑡 2
Time-dependent change of work done From Equation (10.10) and definition of angular velocity

(𝜔 = 𝑑𝜃/𝑑𝑡):

𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝜃
=𝜏 = 𝜏𝜔
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
As a result, the following equation for torque can be written from these last two equations

𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼 (10.14)

The product of the angular acceleration of an object rotating about a fixed axis and the moment of
inertia is equal to the torque acting on the object. The equation (10.14) obtained for rotational motion
can be compared to the relation 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 in translational motion. Therefore, the mass 𝑚 in the
translational motion is replaced by the moment of inertia 𝐼, which expresses the mass distribution in
the rotational motion.

Figure 10.5 shows a circle passing through the center and rotating around an axis perpendicular to
itself (the rotation axis). The force 𝐹 applied perpendicular to the radius causes the circle to rotate
around this secant. But the rotation effect of this force depends on two other things besides its
magnitude.

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 • The distance from the point of applied force to the axis of rotation.
• Angle of force direction with radius direction
With a few simple measurements or observations in daily life, you can come to the following
conclusions:

• Two forces of the same magnitude that make the same angle with the radius direction, the
one whose point of application is farther from the axis of rotation has the greater rotational
effect. In Figure 10.5 (b), the rotation effect of the force applied at the distance 𝑟2 from the
rotation axis is greater.
• The two forces of the same magnitude applied at the same distance from the rotation axis, the
force that makes a larger angle (between 0 − 𝜋/2) with the radius direction has a greater
rotational effect. You can see in Figure 10.5(c) that when 𝛽 = 0, the force will have no
rotational effect.

𝐹 𝛽 𝐹𝑦
𝐹 𝐹
𝐹𝑥
r r r
𝐹 r

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 10.5 Circular motion and force
Based on the above results, the torque (torque) of the force of magnitude |𝐹 | that makes an angle 𝛽
with the radius direction from the distance 𝑑 to the rotation axis as follows

𝜏 = 𝐹𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛽) (10.15)

Torque (𝜏) is the rotational effect of force, and the concept of "rotational moment" is used in circular
motion instead of force in linear motion.

10.6 Angular Momentum

Similarly, the concept of momentum (𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣) in linear motion corresponds to the concept of angular
momentum (𝐿) in circular motion. The rotation of an object's linear momentum vector about any point
is called angular momentum. If the linear momentum vector p of the body is p and the position vector
r connecting this vector to the rotation point (𝑟 and 𝑝 are perpendicular to each other), the angular
momentum vector of the body is:

𝐿⃗ = 𝑟 × 𝑝 = 𝑚(𝑟 × 𝑣) = 𝑚𝑟𝜔𝑟 = 𝐼𝜔 (10.16)

107
where 𝜔 is the angular velocity. The SI unit of angular momentum is 𝑘𝑔𝑚 2 /𝑠. Angular momentum,
similar to linear momentum, is a measure of how difficult it is to change the state of motion of a
rotating body.

If no force acts on the rotating object to change its rotational motion, the angular momentum does
not change, this is the "conservation of angular momentum". Conservation of angular momentum is
one of the important conservation laws of physics and is used in many fields. For example,
conservation of angular momentum is often used in analysis in astronomy, atomic and molecular
physics, classical and quantum mechanics, nuclear physics, high energy and particle physics.

10.7 Tools used in experiment

• Circular disc (Mdisc=1500 g)
• Tripod to fix the circular disc
• Rotation axis with discs of different radii on it
• Stopwatch
• Mass holder and different masses
• Ruler, string
• Sliding caliper

10.8 Experimental Procedure

(a) Horizontal rotating disc (b) Vertical rotating disc

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 Figure 10.6 Tools used in the experiment

10.9 Moment of Inertia

10.9.1 Moment of Inertia of Horizontal Rotating Disc

The system shown schematically in Figure 10.6(a) consists of a disc-shaped table that can rotate around
a vertical axis and a mass 𝑚 falling from height ℎ. The weight of the mass 𝑚 turns the table by pulling
the string on a pulley of radius 𝑟1 . The system moves with the effect of a constant force (the effect of
the tensile force formed by the mass 𝑚). Hence, the motion of mass 𝑚 is uniformly accelerated linear
motion. If the system starts to move from rest, 𝑣0 = 0 and if we consider that the object with mass 𝑚
takes the ℎ path in the vertical plane in 𝑡1 time, we get the linear acceleration of the object as follows:

1
𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0 = ℎ ve 𝑣0 = 0
2
1 2ℎ
ℎ = 𝑎𝑡 2 ⟹ 𝑎= (10.17)
2 𝑡2

The tension in the string is according to Newton's II. law of motion is

2ℎ
𝑇1 = 𝑚 (𝑔 − 𝑎1 ) = 𝑚 (𝑔 − ) (10.18)
𝑡12

In this case, according to the equations (10.10) and (10.14), the torque acting on the rotating disc is:

𝜏1 = 𝑑 × 𝐹 = 𝑇1 𝑟1 (10.19)

𝜏1 = 𝐼1 𝛼1 (10.20)

Here 𝑟1 is the radius of the pulley which the string is wrapped and 𝛼1 is the angular acceleration of the
system. Using the relationship between the angular and linear accelerations, we can obtain the
moment of inertia of the spinning disc from equations (10.17) and (10.20):

𝑎1 2ℎ
𝛼1 = = (10.21)
𝑟1 𝑟1 𝑡12

2ℎ 𝑟12
𝐼1 𝛼1 = 𝑇1 𝑟1 ⟹ 𝐼1 = 𝑚 (𝑔 − ) (10.22)
𝑡12 𝑎1

• Set up the experimental setup as in Figure 10.6 (a) and measure the radius of pulley which the
string is wrapped with a slide caliper. Record the radius value.

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 • Suspend a small mass 𝑚 on the mass holder. Weigh the total mass (mass holder and suspended
masses) on a precision balance.
• Hold the circular disc with your hand and set the height ℎ1 (distance from the ground to the
mass holder) at which mass 𝑚 will be released and measure with a ruler.
• Prepare the stopwatch. Release the disc and start the stopwatch. Measure the descending
time of the mass from height ℎ1 and record it in Table 10.1.
• Measure the mass from the ground in the final state ℎ2
• Calculate the distance taken by the mass in the vertical plane (h= ℎ1 - ℎ2 ).
• Measure the descending time of the mass from the same height ℎ1 5 times and record it in
Table 10.1.
• Calculate the linear acceleration and angular acceleration from equations (10.17) and (10.21).
• Calculate the tension force in the string from equation (10.18).
• Calculate the moment of inertia of the object experimentally using equation (10.22)
(𝐼𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 ).
• Calculate the moment of inertia of the object theoretically using equation (10.6) (𝐼𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐 ).
• Compare the theoretical value you obtained with the experimental value and calculate the
error.

10.9.2 Moment of Inertia of Vertical Rotating Disc

• Set up the experimental setup as in Figure 10.5 (b) in order to understand how the moment of
inertia changes with the change of rotation axis.
• Make the system rotate in a similar way without changing the radius 𝑟 around which the string
is wrapped, the mass 𝑚 suspended and the height at which it is released.
• Measure the descending time of the mass from height ℎ1 5 times and record it in Table 10.2.
• In this case, the radius of the pulley with string is not changed, the magnitude of the torque
will also remain constant:

𝜏1 = 𝜏2
𝐼1 𝛼1 = 𝐼2 𝛼2

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 Calculate the angular acceleration from equation (10.21). Using the results of 𝐼1 and 𝛼1
obtained in the first stage of the experiment, experimentally calculate the moment of inertia
of the vertical rotating disc using the equation below (𝐼𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 ).

𝛼1
𝐼2 = 𝐼1
𝛼2
• Calculate the theoretical value of the moment of inertia of the object using equation (10.6)
(𝐼𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐 ).
• Compare the theoretical value you obtained with the experimental value and calculate the
error.
• Did the disk spin slower or faster in the second stage of the experiment than in the
first stage? Why?
• Are the results found different even though the same disc was used in both stages of
the experiment? Explain why.

10.9.3 Conservation of Energy

In this part of the experiment, it is aimed to find the moment of inertia with the help of conservation
of energy. For this, the energy before the system starts to move and the energy after the system starts
should be equal to each other. Since the disk and mass m are at rest before mass m is released, the
energy in the first case is only the potential energy of mass 𝑚.

𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ (10.23)

After the mass 𝑚 is released, when it starts to move vertically, the disc will also start to rotate.
1
Therefore, the energy of the disc is the kinetic rotational energy given in Equation (10.5) (𝐾 = 2 𝐼𝜔2 ).

Since the mass 𝑚 will move simultaneously, the mass 𝑚 will also gain kinetic energy. If the final
position reference point of the mass 𝑚 is selected, the potential energy will be zero, so the following
equation can be written for the final state energy:

𝐸𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝐸𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠) + 𝐸𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 (𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐) (10.24)

1 1
𝐸𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝐼𝜔2 (10.25)
2 2

By equating the equations (10.23) and (10.25) to each other:

• Calculate the moment of inertia for the horizontal rotating disc.

111
 • Calculate the moment of inertia for the vertical rotating disc.
• Compare the experimental results you have obtained with the theoretical results and calculate
the error.

10.10 Measurements and Results

First stage of the experiment:

𝑟1 = .............. m 𝑚 = .............. kg 𝑀𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐 = 1.5 kg

ℎ1 = .............. m ℎ2 = .............. m ℎ = ℎ1 − ℎ2 = .............. m

Table 10.1 Measurement results for horizontal rotating disc

Measuremen 𝐼𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 (kg.m2
2 2
t (s) a(m/s ) 𝛼 (rad/s ) 𝑇1 (N)
t No. )

Average Value

Error

𝐼𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (. . . . . . . ± . . . . . . . ) 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚2

𝐼𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐 = (. . . . . . . ) 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚2

Second stage of the experiment:

𝑟1 = .............. m 𝑚 = .............. kg 𝑀𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐 = 1.5 kg

ℎ1 = .............. m ℎ2 = .............. m ℎ = ℎ1 − ℎ2 = .............. m

Table 10.2 Measurement results for vertical rotating disc

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 Measuremen 𝐼𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 (kg.m2
2 2
t (s) a(m/s ) 𝛼 (rad/s ) 𝑇1 (N)
t No. )

Average Value

Error

𝐼𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (. . . . . . . ± . . . . . . . ) 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚2

𝐼𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐 = (. . . . . . . ) 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚2

Third stage of the experiment:

𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = (. . . . . . . ) 𝐽

Table 10.3 Calculations for conservation of energy

𝐸𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 (𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐) =
Measuremen 𝐸𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠) 𝐼𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 (kg
t (s) v(m/s) 𝜔 (rad/s) 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 −
t No. (J) .m2)
𝐸𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠) (J)

Average Value

113
Error

𝐼𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (. . . . . . . ± . . . . . . . ) 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚2

𝐼𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐 = (. . . . . . . ) 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚2

10.11 Questions
1. What physical quantity corresponds to the moment of inertia in translational motion, explain?
2. If this experiment were done on the moon, would the moment of inertia change? Explain why?

3. Let the force 𝐹 of equal magnitude in Figure 3(b) applied from the center distance 𝑟1 make an
angle 𝛽1 with the radius direction, and the one applied from a distance of 𝑟2 make an angle of 𝛽2
with the radius direction. Find the relation between 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , 𝛽1 , 𝛽2 if both torques are equal.
4. If 𝑟1 =𝑟2 and 𝛽2 = 900 , can the torque of the two forces be equal? Explain why.

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