1

21EN101
Communicative English

Semester 1
All Programmes

SRI SHAKTHI
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(An Autonomous Institution )

Approved by AICTE, New
Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University,
Chennai
COIMBATORE- 641 062
2
 3

Communicative English L T P C
21EN101
(Common to all Programmes) 3 0 0 3
COURSE OBJECTIVES
● To enhance learners’ listening skills so as to help them to comprehend conversations and lectures in diverse
contexts.
● To develop the speaking skills of learners with fluency and appropriacy to express their ideas, views, and
opinions in varied formal and informal contexts and social situations.
● To inculcate the habit of reading using different types of reading strategies for understanding contextual
situations.
● To develop the learners to write various writing forms effectively and coherently in an appropriate style.
● To develop linguistic competence and performance to express ideas effectively and appropriately in
different contexts.
UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 9
Parts of speech, Word formation (Inflectional, Derivational Prefixes, and Suffixes), Homonyms and
Homophones, Verbal Analogy, Reading an editorial, Formal Letter writing (Business/ Leave, on duty
permission) Informal Letter Writing (letter to a friend)
UNIT II BASICS OF WRITING 9
Sentence Pattern, Sentence Structure (simple compound complex), Phrases and Clauses, Direct and
indirect speech, Dialogue writing, Listening to formal conversation – IELTS Pattern
UNIT III PRESENTATION AND REPORTS 9
Phrasal Verbs, Framing Questions, and Question Tags, Poster presentation, Note making, Short report
on an event, Group discussion, Listening to the formal conversation – BEC Pattern
UNIT IV EXTENDED GRAMMAR CONCEPTS 9
Error Spotting, Conditional and relative clauses, Modifiers, Cause and effect, Mini presentation,
Roleplay.
UNIT V TECHNICAL VOCABULARY 9
Abbreviations and acronyms, Vocabulary (Collocations, misspelled/ confused words.) Resume writing,
Extempore.
Theory:45 Tutorial: 0 Practical: 0 Project: 0 Total: 45 Hours
Course Outcome - At the end of the course, students should be able to
CO1 Listen and comprehend technical and non-technical spoken experts critically and functionally.

CO2 Write different forms of writing effectively and apparently create an advanced level of writing in English.

CO3 Read different genres of text, analyzing and interpreting it by guessing the meaning from the context
and employing it for new ideas, to learn and present.

CO4 Speak fluently using the appropriate vocabulary, modulation, articulation, and pronunciation.

CO5 Familiarize the soft skills needed for employability and gain a functional understanding of the language.

INDEX
 4

S.No. Topics Page No.

Introduction

1.1 Parts of Speech 8

1.2 Word Formation 12
1.3 Homonyms and Homophones 19
1.4 Verbal Analogy 27
1.5 Reading an Editorial 30
1.6 Formal Letter Writing 34
1.7 Informal Letter Writing 38
2.1 Sentence Pattern 40
2.2 Sentence Structure (simple compound complex) 53
2.3 Phrases and Clauses 59
2.4 Direct and Indirect speech 68
2.5 Dialogue Writing 78
2.6 Listening to a Formal Conversation – IELTS Pattern 85
3.1 Phrasal Verbs 88
3.2 Framing Questions, and Question Tags 113
3.3 Poster Presentation 123
3.4 Note Making 126
3.5 A Short Report on an Event 130
3.6 Listening to the Formal Conversation – BEC Pattern 136
4.1 Spotting Errors 139
4.2 Conditional Clauses 149
4.3 Relative Clauses 154
4.4 Modifiers 160
4.5 Cause and Effect 164
5.1 Abbreviations and Acronyms 166
5.2 Collocations 172
5.3 Commonly Misspelled/ Confused Words 174
5.4 Resume Writing 176
 5

The Importance of Communicative English

Developing communicative English skills is of paramount importance in

today's globalized world. English, as a lingua franca, has become the primary
means of communication among people from diverse linguistic backgrounds.

The significance of enhancing one's communicative English abilities cannot be

overstated, as it offers a plethora of benefits and advantages across various

aspects of life.

Global Communication: English is the most widely spoken language

globally, making it the default language for international business, diplomacy,

and academia. Proficiency in English opens doors to effective communication

with people from different countries and cultures.

Career Opportunities: Many multinational companies and organizations

use English as their primary language for communication. A strong command

of English enhances job prospects greatly, as it is often a prerequisite for

employment in competitive sectors such as IT, finance, and tourism.

Education: English is the medium of instruction in many prestigious

universities worldwide. For students aspiring to pursue higher education

abroad, proficiency in English is essential to excel academically and engage in

meaningful research.

Access to Information: A significant portion of the world's knowledge,

including scientific research, literature, and technology, is available in English.

Proficiency in English allows individuals to access this vast repository of

information, keeping them informed and up to date.

Enhanced Cultural Awareness: Learning English provides insights into

English-speaking cultures and their values. This cultural exposure fosters

tolerance, understanding, and a broader perspective on the world.
 6

Boosting Confidence: Expressing oneself clearly and confidently in

English can significantly boost an individual's self-esteem and self-assuredness.

This, in turn, improves overall communication skills in any language.

Networking: English is often the language of choice for international

conferences, seminars, and networking events. Developing strong English

communication skills facilitates effective networking, which can be crucial for

personal and professional growth.

Travel and Tourism: English proficiency makes travelling more

convenient and enjoyable. It allows travellers to communicate effectively with

locals, navigate transportation systems, and seek assistance when needed.

Internet and Technology: The majority of online content is in English.

Being proficient in English enables individuals to navigate websites, use apps,

and engage with digital platforms seamlessly.

Cross-Cultural Communication: In a world marked by multiculturalism

and diversity, English serves as a common bridge between people from various
backgrounds. Effective cross-cultural communication is essential in both

personal and professional relationships.

Enhanced Marketability: For entrepreneurs and business professionals,

the ability to communicate fluently in English opens doors to a broader

customer base and international markets. It also facilitates successful

negotiations and collaborations.

Global Citizenship: Proficiency in English aligns with the concept of global

citizenship. It empowers individuals to engage in global issues, contribute to

international discussions, and work towards solutions to worldwide challenges.

Education and Skill Transfer: English is often used as a medium for

transferring technical skills and knowledge. Whether it's learning new software,
 7

acquiring a technical skill, or understanding advanced machinery, English

proficiency is advantageous.

Personal Growth: Learning a new language, especially one as widely used

as English, stimulates cognitive growth and enhances problem-solving skills. It

also encourages individuals to step out of their comfort zones and embrace new
challenges.

Enhanced Opportunities for Collaboration: Collaborating on projects,

research, or initiatives with individuals from different countries becomes more

accessible and productive when everyone can communicate effectively in

English.

In conclusion, developing communicative English skills is not merely a

choice but a necessity in today's interconnected world. The benefits and

advantages extend beyond the realms of career growth, education, and

business success; they encompass personal development, cultural enrichment,

and global awareness. As the world continues to evolve, English proficiency

remains a valuable asset that empowers individuals to navigate the complexities

of our global society with confidence and competence.

Importance of Communication
 8

Unit – 1
1.1 Parts of Speech
Parts of speech are words in English grammar that are designed to reflect their roles in

grammatical contexts or have equivalent grammatical features.

Words are regarded as the smallest component. These are classified into various parts

of speech depending on their use and purposes.

In English grammar there are the below mentioned parts of speech. The following are

some of the parts of speech followed by parts of speech exercises that can help in better
understanding of the topic;

Noun - This refers to the name or title of an individual or person, location or place, or an
object or thing.

Pronoun: This is a term or the word that is employed in place or position of a noun.
Verb: It describes the activity or situation of things and people.

Adjective: A word that expresses or defines the quality a noun or that of a pronoun.
Adverb - A term used to qualify verbs, adjectives, or some other adverbs.

Preposition: This part of speech is a term that depicts the connection or link of nouns
or pronouns to another nouns or pronouns.

Conjunction: It is used to build connection between the two or more terms or phrases
or sentences.

Interjection: A word or sound that conveys strong feelings or emotions in a short

period of time.
 9

Article/ Determiners- (Some consider it as a part of speech and some don't)-

Exercises- 1
Find out the correct and the most appropriate type of speech.

1. Sheela went to the stationary to purchase *books* ( __________ ).

2. She went to the mall *but* ( __________ ) did not purchase anything new.

3. I *liked* ( __________ ) *her* ( __________ ) better than anyother classmate.

4. A beautiful girl was doing her tasks *quickly* ( __________ ).

5. *She*( __________ ) goes for the morning walk regularly.

6. When she was *lying*( )in the park an insect bit her.

7. *You* ( __________ ) took him by holding his hand.

8. A *rich* ( __________ ) man purchased a *stunning* ( __________ )jewellery.

9. *Hurrah! *( __________ ) I have cleared all examinations.

10. The kitten is hiding *under* ( __________ ) the table.

11. *Alas!* ( __________ ) He coudn't come here.

12. The body of the cupboard is made of *iron*. ( __________ )

13. This is not *your* ( __________ ) pencil but his.

14. There is still some juice *in *( __________ ) the bottle.

15. Sheetal is *performing* ( __________ ) her responsibilities properly.

16. The painting mader by the artist is *almost*( __________ ) impeccable.

17. We shall not leave *unless* ( __________ ) you permit us.

18. The path is *to* ( __________ ) cross by.

19. The Jasmine flowers smell *sweet*. ( __________ )

20. She *frequently* ( __________ ) goes to the temple.

 10

Exercises - 2
An underlined word appears in each of the sentences below. You must depict or know

which part of speech the phrase or the term belongs to.

1. He was having a very *high*

a. Adjective b. verb c. pronoun

2. Today he is the *happiest* man in the entire universe

a. Verb b. adjective c. preposition

3. They have several renowned *friends*.

a. Noun b. adverb c. interjection

 11

4.*Choose* the most liked dress for the party.

a. Verb b. pronoun c. noun

5. Nina is the creative student *in* the classroom.

a. Interjection b. preposition c. verb

6. A sports bike goes *fast*.

a. Adverb b. verb c. adjective

7. He was fuming in anger *but*never said a single word.

a. Interjection b. noun c. conjunction

8. There seems to be a dog *under*the table.

a. Conjunction b. interjection c. preposition

9. These people reside in a tiny clustered village *above*the stream of water.

a. Adverb b. pronoun c. preposition

10. She *cut*herself while chopping the fruits.

a. Verb b. adjective c. adverb

11. He was *angry*due to the prank.

a. Verb b. adjective c. pronoun

12. They have *other*aspects to look into as well.

a. Adverb b. verb c. adjective

 12

1.2 Word Formation

Inflection and Derivation

Those morphemes that can stand alone as words are called free morphemes
(e.g., boy, food, in,on). The morphemes that occur only in combination are called

bound morphemes (e.g., -ed, -s,-ing). Bound grammatical morphemes can be

further divided into two types:

Inflectional morphemes (e.g., -s, -est, -ing) and derivational morphemes (e.g., - ful,

-like, -ly, un-, dis-).

Derivational morphemes are added to forms to create separate words: {‑er}

is a derivational suffix whose addition turns a verb into a noun, usually meaning

the person or thing that performs the action denoted by the verb. For example,

{paint}+{er} creates painter, one of whose meanings is “someone who paints.”

Inflectional morphemes do not create separate words. They merely modify

the word in which they occur in order to indicate grammatical properties such as

plurality, as the {-s} of magazines does, or past tense, as the {-ed} of babecued
does etc.

Inflectional morphemes just create the different forms of the same word while

derivational morphemes create new words.

• Inflectional affixes are all suffixes.

• Derivational affixes may be either suffixes or prefixes

English has eight inflectional morphemes-

{PLU} = plural Noun -s boys

{POSS} = possessive Noun -’s boy’s

{COMP} = comparative Adj -er older

{SUP} = superlative Adj -est oldest
 13

{PRES} = present Verb -s walks

{PAST} past Verb -ed walked

{PAST PART} = past participle Verb -en driven

{PRES PART} = present participle Verb -ing driving

There are indefinite numbers of derivational morphemes.

For example, the following are some derivational suffixes:

• {-ize} attaches to a noun and turns it into a verb: rubberize

• {-ize} also attaches to an adjective and turns it into a verb: normalize

• {-ful} attaches to a noun and turns it into an adjective: playful, helpful

• {-ly} attaches to an adjective and turns it into an adverb: grandly, proudly

• A different {-ly} attaches to a noun and changes it into an adjective: manly,

friendly

English also has derivational prefixes, such as:

{un-}, {dis-}, {a-}, {anti-}, all of which indicate some kind of negation: unhappy,

dislike, asymmetrical, anti-aircraft.

Inflection can be ‘regular’ or ‘irregular’-

Regular- Plural Marker ‘-s’

Dog – Dogs
Cat – Cats

Book - Books
Irregular

Child – Children
Sheep – Sheep etc.

Prefixes

Prefixes are letters that we add to the beginning of a word to make a new word with a

different meaning. Prefixes can, for example, create a new word opposite in meaning to
 14

the word the prefix is attached to. They can also make a word negative or express relations

of time, place ,or manner. Here are some examples:

base word prefixed word type of meaning

possible impossible opposite

able unable opposite/negation

payment non-payment negation

war pre-war time (before)
place (outside
terrestrial extraterrestrial
of/beyond)
manner (too
cook overcook
much)

I’m sorry I was unable to attend the meeting.

Non-payment of fees could result in a student being asked to leave the course.
Has anyone ever really met an extraterrestrial being? (meaning a being from another

planet)
The meat was overcooked and quite tasteless.

The most common prefixes

prefix meaning examples

anti-government, anti-racist, anti-
anti- against/opposed to
war
auto- self autobiography, automobile
de-classify, decontaminate,
de- reverse or change
demotivate
dis- reverse or remove disagree, displeasure, disqualify
down- reduce or lower downgrade, downhearted
extra- beyond extraordinary, extraterrestrial
hyper- extreme hyperactive, hypertension
il-, im-, illegal, impossible, insecure,
not
in-, ir- irregular
inter- between interactive, international
mega- very big, important megabyte, mega-deal, megaton
mid- middle midday, midnight, mid-October
 15

mis- incorrectly, badly misaligned, mislead, misspelt

non- not non-payment, non-smoking
over- too much overcook, overcharge, overrate
out- go beyond outdo, out-perform, outrun
post- after post-election, post-war
pre- before prehistoric, pre-war
pro- in favour of pro-communist, pro-democracy
re- again reconsider, redo, rewrite
semi- half semicircle, semi-retired
sub- under, below submarine, sub-Saharan
super- above, beyond super-hero, supermodel
tele- at a distance television, telepathic
trans- across transatlantic, transfer
ultra- extremely ultra-compact, ultrasound
remove, reverse,
un- undo, unpack, unhappy
not
under- less than, beneath undercook, underestimate
make or move
up- upgrade, uphill
higher
Writing prefixes: hyphens (super-hero or supermodel)
There are no absolute rules for when to use a hyphen or when to write a prefixed word

as one whole word (see the examples in the table). A good learner’s dictionary will tell
you how to write a prefixed word.

Suffixes

A suffix is a letter or group of letters added at the end of a word which makes a new

word.

words suffix new words

forget, use -ful forgetful, useful
state, - statement,
govern ment government
complicate, complication,
-ion
create creation
 16

The new word is most often a different word class from the original word. In the

table above, the suffix -ful has changed verbs to adjectives, -ment, and -ion have
changed verbs to nouns. If you see a word ending in -ment, for example, it is likely to be

a noun (e.g. commitment, contentment).

Suffixes: spelling

Often, the suffix causes a spelling change to the original word. In the table above, the -

e ending of complicate and create disappears when the -ion suffix is added. Other
examples of spelling changes include:

1. beauty, duty + -ful → beautiful, dutiful (-y changes to i)

2. heavy, ready + -ness → heaviness, readiness (-y changes to i)

3. able, possible + -ity → ability, possibility (-le changes to il)

4. permit, omit + -ion → permission, omission (-t changes to ss)

A good learner’s dictionary will give you information on the correct spelling of words

with suffixes.

Common suffixes and examples

Noun suffixes

suffix examples of nouns

-age baggage, village, postage
-al arrival, burial, deferral
-ance/-ence reliance, defence, insistence
-dom boredom, freedom, kingdom
-ee employee, payee, trainee
-er/-or driver, writer, director
brotherhood, childhood,
-hood
neighbourhood
capitalism, Marxism, socialism
-ism
(philosophies)
capitalist, Marxist, socialist (followers of
-ist
philosophies)
 17

-ity/-ty brutality, equality, cruelty

amazement, disappointment,
-ment
parliament
-ness happiness, kindness, usefulness
-ry entry, ministry, robbery
-ship friendship, membership, workmanship
-sion/-tion/-xion expression, population, complexion

Adjective suffixes

Suffix Examples of adjectives

-able/-ible drinkable, portable, flexible
-al brutal, formal, postal
-en broken, golden, wooden
-ese Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese
-ful forgetful, helpful, useful
-i Iraqi, Pakistani, Yemeni
-ic classic, Islamic, poetic
-ish British, childish, Spanish
-ive active, passive, productive
-ian Canadian, Malaysian, Peruvian
-less homeless, hopeless, useless
-ly daily, monthly, yearly
-ous cautious, famous, nervous
-y cloudy, rainy, windy

Verb suffixes

Suffix Examples of Verbs

-ate complicate, dominate, irritate
-en harden, soften, shorten
-ify beautify, clarify, identify
economise, realise, industrialize (-
ise is most common in British
-ise/-ize
English; -ize is most common in
American English)
 18

Adverb suffixes

suffix Examples of Adverbs

-ly calmly, easily, quickly
-ward(s) downwards, homeward(s), upwards
-wise anti-clockwise, clockwise, edgewise
 19

1.3 Homonyms & Homophones

A homonym is a word that has the same spelling and sound as another word,

but a different meaning.

For example, saw (a cutting tool) and saw (the past tense of see) are homonyms. They

have the same spelling and sound but different meanings.

Word origin: Greek, "having the same name"

(homos = same, onoma = name)

Examples of Homonyms

• The boys are playing with a ball outside /

Cinderella met the prince at the ball

• The bat flies around at night /

I lost my baseball bat.

• This book is very interesting /

I would like to book a flight to Paris.

• She put her necklace inside the jewelry case /

In that case, you should go home.

• In those hot days we used the fan /

She is a great fan of the band.

• The old lady couldn't walk fast /

It is a religious fast.

• The room seems just fine /

He got a fine for parking on the sidewalk.

• They turn left instead of right /

He left as soon as he could.
 20

• That is a terrible lie /

You can lie on your back.

• Your suitcase was pretty light /

There is nothing like the light of sun.

• We are trying to train our dog /

The train will be here soon.

• Be careful not to trip /

They had a wonderful trip to the country.

• I can't bear this noise any longer /

There was a giant bear in front of us.

• I hope that all is going well /

She lowered her bucket into the well for some water.

Exercise:

Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate homonym in the following sentences.

1. The Queen honoured the brave ______. (knight/night)

2. This dress ____ to be the perfect fit for Mary. (seems/seam)

3. This _____ of the brave Queen goes back to a thousand ages. (tale/tail)

4. There was a ____ in my shoe. (whole/hole)

5. I can come to your house _____. (later/latter)

6. This perfume has a strong _______ (cent/scent)

7. Will she be able to _______ the pain? (bear)

8. ___ your work, you should do it on your own. (its/it’s)

9. Tina will ____ the prize tomorrow. (except/accept)

10. The dog has been _____ (bark)

 21

Homophones

A homophone is a word that has the same sound as another word, but a different

meaning.
For example, meat and meet are homophones.

Word origin: Greek, "having the same sound"

(homos = same, phone = sound)

Examples of Homophones

• I can't bear this noise any longer /

The poor boy had bare feet.

• She has long, dark hair /

The king needed an heir.

• They can't look him in the eye /

This is between you and I.

• You should be together /

There is a bee in the room.

• She can buy it in the market /

Wait for us by the river.

• Our dear Janet is getting married /

We saw a deer in the forest.

• I am doing this for you /

Four bowls of soup, please.

• He is standing right here /

We couldn't hear a thing.

• We arrived an hour ago /

This is our house.
 22

• There is a hole in your shirt /

The whole room was quiet.

• They know everything about it /

No, and that's final.

• She doesn't eat meat /

We meet every now and then.

• He has one test left /

They finally won.

• You are always right /

I write my own letters.

• The sea was calm that day /

It was too dark to see anything.

• Jonathan is my son /

The sun is high up in the sky.

• Let's go to his place /

There were two of them /

I can help, too.

• He seemed so weak at first /

It'll probably happen this week.

Note that these example homophones all have different spelling and the same
pronunciation, but homophones can also have the same Note that these example

homophones all have different spelling and the same pronunciation, but homophones
can also have the same.

Exercise

1 - I didn't ________________ what she said.

 23

a. Hear b. here

2 - They forgot to take ______________ printouts.

a. There b. their c. they're

3 - Venison is the meat from a _____________.

a. Dear b. deer

4 - The house is by the ________________.

a. See b. sea

5 - She held the _________________ in her hand.

a. Reigns b. rains c. reins

6 - They tried to ______________ the painting.

a. Steel b. steal

7 - He had to ______________ the button on.

a. Sow b. sew

8 - I hope the ___________ is fine.

a. Weather b. whether

9 - He was a medieval ____________.

a. Night b. knight

10 - The building __________ is huge.

a. Site b. sight

11 - She's as mad as a March ____________.

a. Hair b. hare

12 - She gave him a ___________ of her mind.

a. Peace b. piece

13 - He ______________ a snowball at the police officer.

a. Threw b. through

14 - It's a _______________ of time.

a. Waist b. waste
15 - They didn't ___________ us of the danger.

a. Warn b. worn
16 - They read the poems __________.
 24

a. Allowed b. aloud

17 - It's made from wheat ____________.

a. Flower b. flour

18 - They've got a ___________ at the Ritz.

a. Suit b. suite c. sweet

19 - On the ____________, I enjoyed it.

a. Whole b. hole

20 - It's not much ____________ to go.

a. Father b. farther

21 - You're no ___________ of mine!

a. Sun b. son

22 - He's the ___________ to the throne.

a. Air b. heir

23 - The tea's a bit ____________.

a. Weak b. week

24 - She's the ____________ owner.

a. Soul b. sole

25 - The book is ____________ back at the library in two weeks.

a. Dew b. due

26 - You slow a car with the ____________.

a. Brake b. break

27 - The negative feeling you get when you do something wrong is ___________.
a. Gilt b. guilt

28 - The cyclist was ___________ very fast.

a. Peddling b. pedalling\pedaling

29 - It was ____________ madness.

a. Sheer b. shear
30 - The eagle is a bird of ______________.

a. Prey b. pray
31 - Could you __________ the film for a minute?
 25

a. Paws b. pause

32 - After standing for an hour in the heat, he ___________.

a. Feinted b. fainted

33 - Don't tell them anything- they're not very __________.

a. Discrete b. discreet

34 - He's very old-fashioned and ____________.

a. Stayed b. staid

35 - Floating __________ are used to help boats navigate.

a. Boys b. buoys c. bouys

36 - He's very __________ and worries about his appearance all the time.
a. Vein b. vane c. vain

37 - They took blood from my ____________.

a. Vane b. vein c. vain

38 - I am an innocent ______________ in all of this.

a. Pawn b. porn

39 - That's a _____________ tree.

a. Beach b. beech

40 - We have to make sure the timing's right- we must be in ____________.

a. Sink b. sync

41 - They __________ a huge fish.

a. Caught b. court

42 - It was like pulling __________ from a shell.

a. Muscles b. mussels

43 - A person who produces chicken is a ____________ farmer.

a. Paltry b. poultry

44- Your perfume has a wonderful ______________.

a. Scent b. Sent
45- I banged my __________ on the leg of the table.

a. Toe b. Tow
46- I had an apple and a __________ for lunch.
 26

a. Peer b. Pear

47- we should _____________ the plane now.

a. Bored b. Board

48- The wind ___________ the door closed.

a. Blue b. Blew
49 - What _________ do you take to work?

a. Root b. route
50 - He wants to lose some __________ before summer.

a. Weight b. wait
 27

1.4 Verbal Analogy

Using word analogies is a useful way of building vocabulary. Word analogies can be
created using many different categories. In verbal analogies, the student is given one pair

of related words and another word without its pair. The student must find words that
have the same relationship to the word as the first pair. For example: fire is too hot, as ice

is too cold.

Pairs of words in verbal analogies can be related in many ways, including the following
types:

Type of Analogy Examples

things that go
bat/ball, bow/arrow, salt/pepper, bread/butter, fork/knife
together

big/small, stop/go, hot/cold, tall/short, wide/narrow, early/late,

opposites
graceful/clumsy, laugh/cry, dark/light, sharp/dull

big/large, stop/halt, cold/icy, thin/slim, small/tiny, sad/unhappy,

synonyms
show/reveal, hide/conceal, hint/clue

green/color, ants/insect, rabbit/mammal, table/furniture,

object and
pants/clothing, 3/odd number, apple/fruit, lunch/meal,
classification
uncle/relative, sandal/shoe, spring/season

object and group whale/pod, kitten/litter, bird/flock, cow/herd, lion/pride, wolf/pack

object and related plant/sprout, butterfly/caterpillar, cat/kitten, mother/baby,

object dog/puppy

object and a grass/green, sponge/porous, marshmallow/soft, elephant/big,

characteristic desert/dry, gold/shiny, party/happy, skunk/smelly, ball/round

object and car/garage, stove/kitchen, tub/bathroom, fire/fireplace, lion/zoo,

location eraser/pencil

object and part of hand/fingers, book/pages, foot/toes, fireplace/bricks, year/month,

the whole turtle/shell
 28

object and
pen/write, knife/cut, shovel/dig, book/read
function

performer and
teacher/teach, movie star/act, artist/paint, fish/swim, bird/fly
action

verb tenses eat/ate, win/won, buy/bought

cause and effect plant/grow, fire/burn, trip/fall, spin/dizzy

problem and
hungry/eat, thirsty/drink, itch/scratch, broken/repair, tired/sleep
solution

degrees of a big/enormous, cold/freezing, hot/burning, wave/tsunami,

characteristic small/miniscule

Exercises
1. Odometer is to mileage as compass is to ________.

a. Speed b. hiking c. needle d. direction

2. Marathon is to race as hibernation is to _________.

a. Inter b. bear c. dream d. sleep

3. Window is to pane as book is to _______.
a. Ovel b. glass c. cover d. page
4. Cup is to coffee as bowl is to __________.

a. Dish b. soup c. spoon d. food5.

5. Yard is to inch as quart is to __________.

a. Gallon b. ounce c. milk d. liquid

6. Elated is to despondent as enlightened is to ___________.

a. Aware b. ignorant c. miserable d. tolerant

7. Optimist is to cheerful as pessimist is to _____________.

a. Gloomy b. mean c. petty d. helpful

8. Reptile is to lizard as flower is to ___________.

a. Petal b. stem c. daisy d. alligator

 29

9. Play is to actor as concert is to ____________.

a. Symphony b. musician c. piano d. percussion

10. Sponge is to porous as rubber is to ______________.

a. Massive b. solid c. elastic d. inflexible

11. CUP : LIP :: BIRD : _____?

a. Bush b. Grass c. Forest d. Beak

12. Flow : River :: Stagnant : _______?

a. Rain b. Stream c. Pool d. Canal

13. Paw : Cat :: Hoof : _________ ?

a. Lamb b. Elephant c. Lion d. Horse

14. Ornithologist : Bird :: Archaeologist : __________ ?

a. Islands b. Mediators c. Archaeology d. Aquatic

15. Peacock : India :: Bear : _______?

a. Australia b. America c. Russia d. England

16. REASON : SFBTPO :: THINK : _________?

a. SGHMJ b. UIJOL c. UHNKI d. UJKPM

17. Carbon : Diamond :: Corundum : ___________ ?

a. Garnet b. Ruby c. Pukhraj d. Pearl

18. NATION : ANTINO :: HUNGRY : _________?

a. HNUGRY b. UHNGYR c. YRNGUH d. UNHGYR

19. Architect : Building :: Sculptor : __________?

a. Museum b. Stone c. Chisel d. Statue

20. Eye : Myopia :: Teeth : _________?

a. Pyorrhoea b. Cataract c. Trachoma d. Eczema

 30

1.5 Reading and Editorial

The dictionary defines an editorial as ‘a piece of writing that gives the author’s

opinion on a subject’. They are opinions on a given subject/topic, written in a strongly

worded format, usually with several points.

In print & digital media, editorials are kind of news articles where one or a group
of knowledgeable people express their opinion on a newsworthy topic or socio-economic

issue. These editorials are usually published in a separate column across newspapers or a
website where they can be read by a larger audience.

Editorials are one of the most common type of content published by news
networks and websites. Content like these are also known as op-eds. These usually come

from a single author and express a clear opinion on a newsworthy topic. They are usually
popular content types and can serve a variety of purposes.

Why are Editorials Important?

Editorials give a detailed analysis of a topic/current event. They are not as informal
as a daily news piece, but neither as formal as a research paper. They serve as a medium

of thought and opinion of a writer or a group of writers. Reading editorials will help you
broaden your horizons and make you a well-opinionated person.

The topic of the editorial can be anything from political news, regional news, sports
news, to culture, to popular trends. As a reader, you may be interested in editorials for a

variety of reasons, such as gaining insight into trivial societal issues for UPSC, or perhaps
you are simply curious as to how an industry leader views are given in the news headlines.

To master the comprehension of editorial,

1. Read regularly.

2. Focus on key issues.

3. Make notes.

4. Reflect & analyze.

5. Practice writing.

6. Discuss with others.

 31

Sample Editorial 1
Secure and fair: On e-commerce trade practices and regulation

Efforts to regulate unfair online trade practices were overdue

September 11, 2023 12:10 am | Updated 07:39 pm IST

India’s efforts to regulate insidious e-commerce trade practices, known as dark patterns,
are a welcome step, and long overdue. The government’s consultations with sector

stakeholders and consumer advocacy groups culminating with the draft guidelines to
prevent and regulate dark patterns — public comments have been sought by October 5

— will, it is hoped, generate the much-needed attention this issue deserves. When the
British ‘user experience researcher’ Harry Brignull coined the term dark patterns in 2010,

Google (now Alphabet) was considered a benign search engine, and Facebook (now
Meta) enabled long-lost connections and an unprecedented access into personal lives

even when people lived oceans apart. Dark patterns of profit-making had emerged, but
consumer awareness about the consequences to privacy, and time, energy, and money

spends was unclear. Examples of dark patterns that have since become ubiquitous
include the auto check mark for travel insurance while booking flight tickets; the

mandatory requirement of entering emails or phone numbers to access e-commerce

sites, which are then used to send text messages or emails that become difficult to block;

or birthday wishes that nudge users to buy themselves a gift.

With greater awareness about the surplus profit-making methods of online e-commerce,

governments are scrambling to regulate this sector and its trade practices. Last March,
the European Data Protection Board issued guidelines on how to recognise and avoid

dark patterns on social media platforms, and the United States’ Federal Trade
Commission last September warned of a “rise in sophisticated dark patterns designed to

trick and trap consumers”. The guidelines in India detail ways to identify and prevent

false urgency, basket sneaking, confirm shaming, forced action, and a subscription trap
by online platforms. A 2021 journal article estimated that over 50% of e-commerce sites

used dark patterns to sell their products. Now, in what is truly the era of the Fourth
 32

Industrial Revolution, net technology giants have systematically collected the

behavioural footprint of digital users to sell their or third party products, and amassed
profits that are often larger than the Gross Domestic Products of several nations

combined. India’s efforts so far to regulate the sector have been confined to preventing
tax leakages and protecting the interests of brick and mortar merchants. The new-found

focus on consumers, along with the wider view of the need to safeguard privacy in
relation to personal data on e-commerce sites and social media platforms, should boost

user confidence and ensure a safe, secure, free, and fair digital environment.

Read the above passage and frame 5 short questions, 5 True or False questions,
and 5 words for meanings.

Sample Editorial 2

India that is Bharat: On a name game

There is no need for one name to be given primacy over the other

September 07, 2023 12:20 am | Updated September 09, 2023 12:51 pm IST

India and Bharat have both evoked the same emotions among patriots for
decades, but these labels of pride have now been weaponised for narrow political ends.
The Bharatiya Janata Party government at the Centre has decided to use Bharat instead
of India in some official communication and documents, a practice that its
representatives say will now expand. ‘India, that is Bharat,...’ is how the Constitution of
India names the country, and the use of one or the other has been largely contextual all
this while. The cultural echoes of Bharat have never been in doubt, and the current hype
around it is more about a campaign to discard the use of India, as if both cannot exist in
harmony. India, according to this telling, is a foreign imposition, and hence unsuitable
for national dignity. Bharat, linked as it is to various ancient sources, goes beyond the
geographical and cultural landscape that constitutes the modern republic of India. In
that sense, both names are an outcome of India’s nation-building journey. Labouring to
tease out the foreign from the native in the expanse of this nation that hosts a multitude
of ethnic, linguistic, and genetic diversity and that has been formed as a result of
 33

millennia of migrations and cross-currents of human interactions serves no purpose

other than creating new flashpoints in society.

This farcical hubbub hoisted upon the country should have been allowed to
dissipate and recede, but the knee-jerk reaction of the Opposition gave it the aura of a
fundamental identity question before the nation. The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh has
been asking for privileging the use of Bharat over India for long, but the Opposition
bloc’s decision to label itself INDIA as an acronym also might have influenced the BJP’s
hurry in the naming exercise. Far from demonstrating a nation’s strength and pride, the
government’s name game undermines the confidence and soft power of the nation.
Bharat has been part of popular culture, political and cultural idioms, and literature
across many Indian languages. Similarly, India is also used by millions within and outside
the country who yearn for its progress. It is possible that contexts and constituencies of
these proper nouns might vary, but that is the very reason to desist from attempting to
impose the use of one and edge out the other. Whether it is India or Bharat, the essence
of the meaning that it conveys remains the same. The needless juxtaposition of the two
names should not affect the bonding of the inhabitants in the pursuit of a misplaced
cultural combat. Let India and Bharat coexist as they have always been.

Read the above passage thoroughly and debate the topic in the classroom.
 34

1.6 Formal Letter Writing

Letter writing is an important topic in the English writing skills section for school

students. Everyone must know how to write a Letter. While writing a formal letter, one
has to follow a simple Letter Writing Format.

A Formal letter can be written for various reasons. Here we have covered the Formal
Letter Format written for different purposes. On the other hand, an Informal letter is

written to one’s friends, family or relatives. As an Informal letter is not an official letter,
one does not have to follow the format of an informal letter strictly.

Sample

16 Ring Road
Nagpur – 01

August 30, 2023

The Director
ABC Classes

35 Patel Street
Delhi – 18

Dear Sir,

Sub.: Enquiry about CAT Coaching Classes.

This is with reference to your advertisement in the ‘The Times of India’ for CAT Coaching

classes. I have passes the B.Sc. degree examination with Statistics as the main subject. I am
keen on joining your institute for the coaching classes.

Kindly let me know about the procedure of applying for the qualifying test and its date. I

would also like to know the duration of the coaching programme, the duration and the
number of classes per week along with the available mode of classes. Information about the
 35

fees payable and the study materials is highly appreciated. Could you please send me a copy

of your prospectus?

I would like to enroll as soon as possible. Your early response will enable me to decide fast.

Thanking you,

With kind regards,

XYZ

Exercise

1. Write a letter of complaint to the Transport Corporation about a bus conductor.

36
 37

2. Write a letter to your city’s mayor demanding that a children’s park be built in your

neighborhood.
 38

1.7 Informal Letter Writing

Informal letters are personal letters that are written to let your friends or family

know about what is going on in your life and to convey your regards. An informal letter
is usually written to a family member, a close acquaintance, or a friend. The language

used in an informal letter is casual and personal.

Informal Letter Format

Letter to Your Cousin Enquiring about Her First Visit to Ethiopia

34, Park Avenue

Mumbai – 400023

24th September, 2021

Dearest Maria,
I was so glad to hear from my mother that you are back home after the trip. Hope you

had a safe and enjoyable trip. I have been waiting to hear all about the trip from you.
Since this was the first time you have been to a foreign land, I guess every little bit of the

trip was as exciting as you expected it to be. I have heard from my friends residing there
that the place is extremely beautiful and that the people there are very endearing.

However, I was worried when I knew that there were a few bomb blasts during your stay
there. Hope all of you there were safe. I hope everything else was fine except for this.

I had spoken to your mother earlier, and she told me that you would be coming home
after two weeks. I saw your pictures on Instagram as well. I can’t wait to meet you and

hear all your stories. Waiting eagerly for your reply.

Your loving cousin,

Sarah

Exercise

Write a letter to your friend Rudra inviting him to spend the summer vacation at your place in

Mumbai. You are Sakshi/ Saksham. Do not exceed 120-150 words.

39
 40

Unit – 2

2.1 Sentence pattern

Sentence structure is a grammatical component that tells you exactly where and
how each component of a sentence should be placed in order to blend and make sense.

The Collins Dictionary defines sentence structure as “the grammatical arrangement of

words in sentences.” In other words, the sentence structure is what defines the way a

sentence will look and sound.

Basic Parts and Components of a Sentence

Before we look into how sentence structure works, we will have to first learn about
the basic structure of a sentence and the components that make up a sentence.

Parts of a Sentence

A sentence, in the English language, consists of at least a subject and a predicate.

In other words, a sentence should have a subject and a verb.

Subject

The subject can be a noun or a pronoun that does the action.

For example:

• The sun is shining.

• The sky is clear.

• Today is Wednesday.

Predicate

The verb is the action performed by the particular subject in the sentence.

For example:

• I love macaroni and cheese.

• Merin has a pet.

 41

• Anusha can draw.

Components of a Sentence

Like a sentence has two parts, it has five main components that make up the structure

of a sentence, and they are,

• Subject

• Verb

• Object

• Complement

• Adjunct

Now, let us look at each of these components in detail.

Subject

A noun that performs the action in a sentence is considered as the subject. It

answers the question ‘who’ or in other words, a subject can be identified by asking the
question ‘who’. A subject takes the first place in most cases, especially in declarative or

assertive sentences.

For example:

• The child kept crying.

• Our school team won the match.

• My son is in the eighth grade.

• Hard work pays.

• No one came to the wedding.

Verb

In every sentence the most important word can be said to be the verb. A verb
shows action or activity or work done by the subject. Remember that all verbs including
 42

main verbs, helping verbs, stative verbs and action verbs come under this category. Most

often, verbs appear immediately after the subject.

For example:

• Neena is writing a letter.

• It was too dark.

• I feel tired.

• My phone is not working.

• Tarun’s dog ran away.

Object

An object is a noun or pronoun that receives the action done by the subject. Objects are
of two types and they are,

• Direct Object

• Indirect Object

Direct Object

A noun or pronoun that receives the action directly is the direct object in the sentence.

It answers the question ‘what’. Direct objects mostly appear immediately after the verb
and are the primary objects in the sentence.

For example:

• Harry bought a new car.

• My mom made a cake.

• I met my friend.

• She knows all the songs.

• We watched a movie.
 43

Indirect Object

An indirect object is a noun or pronoun that is a secondary object. It can be

identified by asking the question ‘whom’. When there is an indirect object in a sentence,
it is mostly placed after the verb and before the direct object.

For example:

• Vandhana gave Keerthana a cake.

• My mom bought me a new dress.

• I gave him a chocolate.

• They gave us coffee with breakfast.

• He lent his friend a pen.

Complement

The words required to complete the meaning of a sentence can be referred to as

the complement of the sentence. A complement can be an adjective, a name, a position

or a profession.

For example:

• It grew dark.

• He is a dentist.

• That’s her dog, Bruno.

Complements are further divided into two types based on which component it speaks
about. The two types of complement are,

• Subject Complement

• Object Complement

Subject Complement

The complement which expresses the quality or identity or condition of the subject is
called Subject Complement.
 44

For example:

• She is a doctor.

• I am Sindhu.

• Nandhu is clever.

• The students are very excited.

• My brother is a teacher.

Object Complement

The complement which expresses the quality or identity or condition of an object is

called Object Complement.

For example:

• They made her angry.

• The students elected Sreya the class leader.

• They named their daughter, Thara.

• Marley met her friend, Ryan.

• Nobody found the movie interesting.

Adjunct

An adjunct is a word or a phrase that gives more information about an action, an

event, a quality and so on. In short, it can be said that these words can
include adverbs and adverb clauses. Adjuncts can be identified by asking questions

‘when’, ‘where’, ‘why’, ‘how’, ‘how often’ and ‘to what extent’. When using adjuncts, keep

in mind that adjuncts can be used in the beginning, middle or end of the sentence and
that there can be more than one adjunct in a sentence.

Take a look at the following examples to understand how adjuncts can be used.

• Yesterday, we met at the park.

• He is very tired.
 45

• Due to his ill-health, he could not come home for Christmas.

• My father reads the newspaper everyday.

• This workout routine is extremely exhausting.

The Different Types of Sentence Structures in English Grammar

In English grammar, there are a number of sentence structures that you can use to
make your speech or writing sound or look a lot more organised, interesting and

professional. Some of the commonly used sentence structures are as follows.

• Subject + Verb (SV)

• Subject + Verb + Object (SVO)

• Subject + Verb + Complement (SVC)

• Subject + Verb + Adjunct (SVA)

• Subject + Verb + Object + Complement (SVOC)

• Subject + Verb + Object + Adjunct (SVOA)

• Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object (SVIODO)

• Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Complement (ASVC)

• Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Object (ASVO)

• Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object (ASVIODO)

• Subject + Verb + Adjunct + Adjunct (SVAA)

• Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Adjunct + Adjunct (ASVAA)

Examples of Sentence Structure

Looking at examples will help you understand how each sentence structure

works. So, here are a few examples for you.

SV
• The stars / are shining.

Subject / Verb
 46

• The birds / are chirping.

Subject / Verb
• It / is raining.

Subject / Verb
SVO

• Children / love / ice creams.

Subject / Verb / Object

• Noah / does not like / bitter gourd.

Subject / Verb / Object

• I / have / a pencil.
Subject / Verb / Object

SVC
• I / am / an Indian.

Subject + Verb + Complement

• Carol / is / a nurse.

Subject + Verb + Complement

• My name / is / Gina.

Subject + Verb + Complement

SVA

• Madhu / reached / early.

Subject / Verb / Adjunct

• All of us / are leaving / for Tokyo.

Subject / Verb / Adjunct

• He / went / upstairs.
Subject / Verb / Adjunct

SVOC

• We / lost / our cat, / Quinny.

Subject / Verb / Object / Complement

• My friends / make / me / happy.

Subject / Verb / Object / Complement
 47

• Everyone / found / the book / controversial.

Subject / Verb / Object / Complement

SVOA

• It / is / my birthday / next month.

Subject / Verb / Object / Adjunct

• Lakshmi / reached / school / after 9 a.m.

Subject / Verb / Object / Adjunct

• My brother / plays / football / everyday.

Subject / Verb / Object / Adjunct

SVIODO
• The Board / offered / me / the job.

Subject / Verb / Indirect Object / Direct Object

• Rohit / gave / Reshmi / his favourite book.

Subject / Verb / Indirect Object / Direct Object

• Neetu / bought / herself / a hat.

Subject / Verb / Indirect Object / Direct Object

ASVC

• Suddenly, / it / grew / dark.

Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Complement

• Normally, / the weather / is / good.

Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Complement

• Occassionally, / my dog / gets / restless.

Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Complement

ASVO
• Last week, / we / celebrated / Holi.

Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Object

• Usually, / we / get / a token.

Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Object

• Every year, / we / visit / the orphanage.

Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Object
 48

ASVIODO

• Today, / the teacher / gave / us / our papers.

Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Indirect Object / Direct Object

• Yesterday, / my mom / bought / me / a bicycle.

Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Indirect Object / Direct Object

• Every time he comes home, / my brother / gets / my mom / her favourite

chocolates.

Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Indirect Object / Direct Object

SVAA

• They / go / to work / by bus.

Subject / Verb / Adjunct / Adjunct

• We / meet / every evening / on the way back home.

Subject / Verb / Adjunct / Adjunct

• Jancy / went / to the grocery store / last Saturday.

Subject / Verb / Adjunct / Adjunct

ASVAA
• Normally, / my parents / come / by bus / to Pondicherry.

Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Adjunct / Adjunct

• Last year, / my friends and I / went / to Meghalaya / for a month.

Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Adjunct / Adjunct

• Usually, / Finn’s parents / would come / to the airport / as soon as his flight

lands.
Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Adjunct / Adjunct

Find out the Sentence Structure

1. My dog is acting weird lately.

2. It is getting too cold here.

3. The sky is blue.

4. Every year, the company updates its registry.

 49

5. Brittany bought me a pair of shoes.

6. Nobody knows the answer.

7. The movie was great.

8. I will come home as soon as I finish work.

9. In September, she will be travelling to New York.

10. My brother’s phone is not working.

Check if you got it right from the answers given below.

1. My dog / is acting / weird / lately.

Subject / Verb / Complement / Adjunct (SVCA)

2. It / is getting / too /cold / here.

Subject / Verb / Adjunct / Complement / Adjunct (SVACA)

3. The sky / is / blue.

Subject / Verb / Complement (SVC)

4. Every year, / the company / updates / its registry.

Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Object (ASVO)

5. Brittany / bought / me / a pair of shoes.

Subject / Verb / Indirect Object / Direct Object (SVIODO)

6. Nobody / knows / the answer.

Subject / Verb / Object (SVO)

7. The movie / was / great.

Subject / Verb / Complement (SVC)

 50

8. I / will come / home / as soon as I finish work.

Subject / Verb / Adjunct / Adjunct (SVAA)

9. In September, / she / will be travelling / to New York.

Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Adjunct (ASVA)

10. My brother’s phone / is not working.

Subject / Verb (SV)

Exercise 2

Choose the best answer

1. Boys are playing in the ground

A. SVO

B. SVC
C. SVA

D. SVOO
2. They made her my secretary

A. SVOO
B. SVOC

C. SVCA
D. SVO

3. Sentries have been posted all round the building

A. SVO

B. SVAA
C. SVA

D. SVC
4. He is sleeping

A. SV
B. SVO
 51

C. SVC

D. SVA
5. I teach him English

A. SVA
B. SVOO

C. SVOC
D. SVO

6. India become independent in 1947

A. SVOA

B. SVA
C. SVOO
D. SVAC

7. She was a friendly person

A. SVA
B. SVO

C. SVOO
D. SVC

8. Tell me your name

A. SVO

B. SV
C. VOO

D. SOC
9. The boys are playing foot ball now

A. SVOA
B. SVC

C. SVA

D. SVOC
10. I smell something burning

A. SV
B. SVOC
 52

C. SVO

D. SVOO

Exercises 3
1. He bought his girlfriend a ring.

2. She sings and dances.

3. She made the problem complicated.

4. She goes to school.

5. John and Marry are swimming.

6. He brought me a cup of tea.

7. The company has been very successful.

8. They are in class.

9. He is brave.

10. I called my dog Dodo.

 53

2.2 Sentence Structure

Sentence structure is the order of all the parts in a sentence: subject, predicate,

objects, phrases, punctuation, etc. It deals a lot with independent and dependent clauses
and how they combine (explained below), the placement of words and phrases next to

what they modify, as well as the use of proper grammar.

Simple, Compound and Complex Sentences

A simple sentence is a short sentence consisting of a subject and a predicate. In

other words, it can be said that a simple sentence is one main clause. It can also be a

combination of a phrase and a clause.

A compound sentence is a sentence that has more than one main clause. It should
have at least two main clauses and they can be combined using a coordinating

conjunction or a conjunctive adverb; whereas, a complex sentence should have a main

clause and a subordinate clause. The two clauses can be combined using a subordinating

conjunction or a correlative conjunction.

Types of Sentence Structure

Depending on how you combine clauses, you can create four different types of
sentence structure:

1. Simple: 1 independent clause

2. Compound: 2 or more independent clauses

3. Complex:1 independent clause + 1 or more subordinate clauses

4. Compound-Complex: 2 or more independent clauses + 1 or more subordinate

clauses

Note: Sentences are also categorized by their function, i.e., declarative, interrogative,

exclamation, and imperative. These are separate from the types of sentence structure
(complex, compound, etc.), and the two categories can be mixed and matched.

Let’s take a deeper look at each type of sentence structure and how to form it.
 54

Simple sentences

Simple sentences are pretty simple: just a single independent clause, no more, no less.
This includes subject and verbs, but can also include objects.

“Life itself is the most wonderful fairy tale.”—Hans Christian Anderson

“Real glory springs from the silent conquest of ourselves.”—Joseph P. Thompson

Compound sentences

A compound sentence joins together two or more independent clauses into a single
sentence. You can connect the independent clauses in two ways:

• Using a comma and a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so,
known as FANBOYS) between the clauses.

• Using a semicolon between the clauses.

“It may seem difficult at first, but everything is difficult at first.”—Miyamoto Musashi

“Be yourself; everyone else is already taken.”—Oscar Wilde

“We know they are lying, they know they are lying, they know we know they are lying, we

know they know we know they are lying, but they are still lying.”—Aleksandr Isayevich
Solzhenitsyn

Complex sentences

A complex sentence uses one main independent clause with any number of subordinate

clauses. While compound sentences use coordinating conjunctions to join the clauses
together, complex sentences use subordinating conjunctions, explained earlier.

If the subordinating clause comes first, use a comma before the independent clause. If

the independent clause comes first, you don’t need a comma at all.

“Until the lion learns to write, every story will glorify the hunter.”—African proverb
 55

“When a person can’t find a deep sense of meaning, they distract themselves with

pleasure.”—Viktor Frankl

“It is during our darkest moments that we must focus to see the light.”—Aristotle

Compound-complex sentences

As the name suggests, compound-complex sentences combine compound sentences

with complex sentences. They require at least two independent clauses and at least one
subordinating clause. To combine them, follow the specific grammar rules for each; be

sure you’re using your coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions in the
right places.

“If you’re going to be crazy, you have to get paid for it, or else you’re going to be locked

up.”—Hunter S. Thompson

“Don’t aim for success if you want it; just do what you love and believe in, and it will come
naturally.”—David Frost

Exercise 1 – Identify the Type of Sentence

Identify whether the following sentences are simple, compound or complex sentences.

Also, mention which of the clauses is the main clause and the subordinate clause.

1. I did not know that this food was meant only for the staff.

2. She is innocent, so she has appealed to the court.

3. If you are not ready with the song, it is better to let them know.

4. She will come home or I will stay back at her place.

 56

5. In the evening, I am going to the park.

Exercise 2 – Combine the Sentences to Form Compound Sentences

Combine the following sentences using a coordinating conjunction or a conjunctive

adverb to form compound sentences.

1. My mother is sick. My mother is going to the doctor.

2. Jibin has gone to Hyderabad. Jibin has not found any jobs yet.

3. Nalini was not satisfied with her birthday dress. Nalini wore it anyway.

4. Jaffar called me yesterday. I was not able to attend his call.

5. Tina had to present the paper today. Nancy volunteered to do it.

 57

Exercise 3 – Combine the Sentences to Form Complex Sentences

Combine the following sentences by making use of a subordinating conjunction or a

correlative conjunction to form complex sentences.

1. You speak up. Nobody is going to know.

2. You are the only friend. You taught me right from wrong.

3. I was not happy. I went to the reception for the sake of my friend.

4. You do not finish it. You will have to face the consequences.

5. I do not know the person. He owns a brand new Mercedes Benz.

58
 59

2.3 Phrases and Clauses

In any language, a sentence can be divided into various parts. Phrases and clauses

are one among the divisions that can be done. In this article, you will learn what phrases
and clauses are, how they can be used and the difference between them. The article also

gives you a number of examples to give you a clearer idea of the topic.

Comparison: Phrase vs. Clause

A phrase is a group of words.

A clause is also a group of words.

Subject and verb are not parts of a phrase.

Subject and verb are the mandatory elements of a clause.

The phrase is a part of a clause.

The clause is a part of a sentence.

A phrase cannot act as a complete sentence.

A clause can act as a complete sentence.

Phrases cannot make any complete sense or meaning of their own.

Clauses can make complete sense or meaning of their own.

A phrase always functions as a single part of speech (noun/adjective/preposition etc.).

A clause may function as a complete speech.

Example: The students of this batch are attentive. Note: “The students of this batch” is an

example of a phrase in this sentence. Example: The students of this batch are
attentive. Note: The whole sentence is an example of a clause here.
 60

What Is a Phrase? – Meaning and Types

A phrase is a part of a sentence that consists of a group of words that give more

information about the subject, action or event in a sentence. A phrase cannot stand on
its own and will not convey meaning if separated from the sentence. According to the

kind of function it does, it can be classified into various types and they include the
following.

1. Noun Phrase

2. Verb Phrase

3. Adverb/Adverbial Phrase

4. Prepositional Phrase

5. Adjective/Adjectival Phrase

1. The Noun Phrase

From a structural point of view, we can define a noun phrase as a group of words

with a noun as its head (main word). On the other hand, from a functional point of view,
we can define a noun phrase as a group of words that function/works/acts like a noun.

Example 1: The players of this team are stronger.

Here, “The players of this team” is a noun phrase because the head or main word of this
phrase is “players,” a noun. Thus the structure of the phrase clearly indicates that it’s a

noun phrase.

Example 2: To swim is good for health.

Here, “To swim” is a noun phrase because the phrase functions as a noun, though the

head of the phrase is a verb. If the phrase as a whole acts as a noun in a sentence, we can
consider the phrase as a noun phrase, no matter which word class the head of the phrase

belongs to.
 61

Note: A phrase can be a noun phrase both structurally and functionally, as we find in the

first example, “The players of this team.” This phrase has a noun as the head; that’s why it
is a noun phrase structurally. Similarly, the phrase also functions as a subject/noun of the

sentence; thus, we can consider it as a noun phrase functionally.

However, in many cases, a phrase may not be structurally a noun phrase; still, it can be
functionally a noun phrase. As we notice in example 2, “To swim” doesn’t have any noun

as its head, but it is still considered a noun phrase since the phrase as a whole functions
as a noun phrase.

2. The Verb Phrase

A phrase that consists of a group of words and functions like a verb is called a verb
phrase. Usually, a verb phrase has two different parts: auxiliary and lexical. There can be

more than one auxiliary verb, but a single main verb/lexical verb is considered the head
in a verb phrase. Let’s see an example.

Example 1: I am writing an article on phrases.

Here, “am writing” is a verb phrase because the phrase functions as a verb. “am” is the

auxiliary verb in the phrase, and “writing” is the main/principal/lexical verb or head.

Note: The usual verb phrase structure is that there can be one or more auxiliary verbs

before the principal verb or head, but there will be no other words after the head.
However, there are some exceptions. We will talk about them now.

Example 1: We should respect the younger people too.

Example 2: We should have respected the younger people too.

In example 1, we find a modal auxiliary “should” and simple infinitive “respect” as the
lexical part of the phrase. However, in such a structure, we can have perfect infinitive as

the lexical part as we find in example 2, “should have respected.”

These two types of infinitives (simple & perfect) may have their passive form too.
 62

Example 1: It should be done by tomorrow.

Example 2: It should have been done by yesterday.

Note: The above verb phrase structures that we have discussed are also called complex
verbs. But don’t get confused with complex verbs with phrasal verbs. They are different

in terms of their structure. Let me give you a brief but clear idea about phrasal verbs
now

3. The Adverbial Phrase

An adverbial phrase is a group of words that works as an adverb in a clause. Like

adverbs, adverbial phrases also modify verbs and are used as an adverbial complement
or adjunct in a clause.

Example 1: They work so quickly.

In the above example, the phrase “so quickly” is an adverbial phrase since it modifies the
verb “work.”

In an adverbial phrase, the head is always an adverb. However, like the adjective phrase,

an adverbial phrase also may have a modifier before it, a qualifier after it, or both modifier
and qualifier. There are three possible structures of an adverbial phrase. Let’s see the

structures with examples.

Example 1: He walks very fast. (Modifier + adverb/head)

Example 2: The horse is running fast enough. (Head/adverb + qualifier)

Example 3: They work quite fast indeed. (Modifier + head/adverb + qualifier)

Note: In an adverbial phrase, besides the adverb as head, both the modifier and

qualifier are adverbs.

4. The Preposition Phrase

 63

We know that prepositions are words used with nouns, pronouns, and gerunds to

connect them with other words in the clause. Structurally, the head of such a phrase is
always a preposition, and that head takes a noun, pronoun, or gerund as completive.

Example 1: My brother is now at university. (Preposition/head + noun)

Example 2: My uncle stays with us. (Preposition/head + pronoun)

Example 3: No one from our group has any objection to swimming. (Preposition/head +
gerund)

Note: The head of a preposition phrase is called “prepend,” and anything

(noun/pronoun/gerund) used with it is called completive.

Remember! In most preposition phrases, the “prepend” sits beside the completive.

However, in some cases, especially in informal English, “prepend” may sit far from the

“completive.” Let’s clear the concept by looking at some examples.

Example 1: Who are you talking with?

Example 2: Where are you from?

Example 3: What are they talking about?

5. The Adjective Phrase

A group of words that functions as an adjective is called an adjective phrase. An

adjective phrase modifies or gives information about a noun or a pronoun. As a

grammatical unit, it can work as a complement in a clause.

Example 1: The sailors were brave enough to survive the storm.

Here, the phrase “brave enough” is an adjective phrase since it modifies the noun

“sailors.”

Structurally, the head of an adjective phrase is always an adjective. However, that head
may have a modifier before it, a qualifier after it, or both modifier and qualifier. There are

three possible structures of an adjective phrase.

 64

Example 1: Our leader is very sincere. (Modifier + adjective/head)

Example 2: My course teacher was kind enough to help me. (Head/adjective + qualifier)

Example 3: The fishermen were very passionate indeed. (Modifier + head/adjective +

qualifier)

Note: In an adjective phrase, both the modifier and qualifier are adverbs.

What Is a Clause? – Meaning and Types

A clause is also a part of a sentence that consists of a subject and a verb, unlike phrases.
They can be divided into two main types depending on how they behave in a sentence.

The different types of clauses are:

1. Main Clause or Independent Clause

2. Subordinate Clause or Dependent Clause

We already have come to know from the comparison table that a clause is a group of
words that must have a subject and a finite verb. Also, a clause can form a sentence or

becomes a part of a sentence and may function as a noun, adjective, or adverb.

1. Main Clause or Independent Clause

A clause that can be used on its own is called an independent clause. That means

an independent clause can express a complete sense by making a complete sentence of

its own. Independent clauses are also known as the principal or main clauses.

Example 1: He is an outstanding student. (One-clause sentence)

Example 2: I know that he is an exceptional student. (Two-clause sentence)

In example 1, we notice that a single and independent clause makes a sentence. This type
of one-clause sentence is called a simple sentence. But in the second example, we see

two clauses in the sentence. One is “I know,” and another is “that he is an exceptional
student.”
 65

“I know” is an independent clause here since it can make sense independently. On the

other hand, the other clause doesn’t make any sense without the help of the independent
clause. I will talk about that other clause in detail in the next segment of the post.

2. Subordinate or Dependent Clause

When a clause is used with another clause to form a complex sentence we call it a
dependent clause. That means a dependent clause cannot make any sense of its own

without the help of any independent clause. Dependent clauses are also known as
subordinate or conditional clauses.

Example 1: He called me because I wanted to go with him.

In the above example, there are two clauses. “He called me” is an independent clause

since we can use this clause independently. This clause doesn’t need to depend on the
other clause to make sense.

In contrast, the other clause, “because I wanted to go with him,” is a dependent

clause since it cannot make any sense without being dependent on the other clause of
the sentence. Based on the function of dependent clauses in sentences, we can have three

kinds of dependent clauses.

1. The Noun Clause

Any dependent clause that is able to function as a noun is called a noun clause.

Example 1: I believe that he can do it.

In this example, the clause “that he can do it” is a dependent clause that acts as the object
of the independent clause. That proves, it is a noun clause.

2. The Adjective Clause

When a dependent clause can act as an adjective, we call it an adjective clause. In other

words, if any dependent clause modifies any noun in a sentence, it is called an adjective
clause.
 66

Example 1: He knows the boy who took the money.

Here, the clause “who took the money” is a dependent clause that acts as a modifier of

the noun of the principal clause, “the boy.” Thus it is an adjective clause.

3. The Adverbial Clause

If a dependent clause works as an adverb, it is called an adverbial clause. That means, if

a dependent clause modifies any verb in a sentence, it is called an adverbial clause.

Example 1: The train had left before I reached the station.

The example shows the dependent clause “before I reached the station,” modifying the

verb of the independent clause “left.” That means the dependent clause of the given
example sentence is an adverbial clause.

Exercise:

Identify the phrases and clauses in the following sentences and state which of them is a

phrase and a clause.

1. I completed my project, but I was not satisfied with it.

2. Jacob knew about it; however he kept asking everyone about it.

3. I was waiting at the park.

4. They all sang extremely well.

5. The girls in the black dresses are the ones who won the competition last year.

6. In the meantime, I will help you with your domestic chores.

7. Santana and Brittany are good dancers.

 67

8. When we reach home, we will call you.

9. We were planning our summer vacation.

10. She finally agreed to come with us to the slumber party.

Find the type of phrase and clause:

11. Anu and Teena

12. Have been searching

13. Beside the trees

14. Extremely well

15. The house on 6th street

16. I did not bring my umbrella.

17. When the little boy saw his mom

18. Collect your parcel from the courier office.

19. Though we left home early

20. As soon as I reach the office

 68

2.4 Direct and Indirect Speech

Direct speech:

Reporting the message of the speaker in exact words as spoken by him.

Example: Rama said, “He is busy now”.

Indirect speech:

Reporting the message of the speaker in our own words

Example: Rama said that he was very busy then.

Rules for Direct and Indirect Speech

Rules for converting Direct into Indirect speech

To change a sentence of direct speech into indirect speech there are various factors
that are considered such as reporting verbs, modals, time, place, pronoun, tense, etc. we

will take up all the factors one by one.

Rule 1 - Direct To Indirect Speech Conversion - Reporting Verb

1. When the reporting verb of direct speech is in past tense then all the present tenses
are changed to corresponding past tense in indirect speech.

Direct to indirect speech example:

Direct: she said, “I am happy‟

Indirect: She said (that) she was happy

2. In indirect speech tenses do not change if the words used within the quotes („‟) talk of

Habitual action or Universal truth.

Direct to indirect speech example:

Direct: He said, “We cannot live without air‟.

Indirect: He said that we cannot live without air.

 69

3. The tenses of direct speech do not change if the reporting verb is in future tense or

present Tense.

Direct to indirect speech example:

Direct: She says/will say, “she is going”

Indirect: She says/will say she is going.

Rule 2 - Direct Speech to Indirect Speech conversion - Present Tense

1. Present Perfect Changes to Past Perfect.

Direct to indirect speech example:

Direct: "I have been to Boston", She told me.

Indirect: She told me that she had been to Boston.

2. Present Continuous Changes to Past Continuous

Direct to indirect speech example:

Direct: "I am playing the guitar", she explained.

Indirect: She explained that she was playing the guitar.

3. Present Perfect Changes to Past Perfect

Direct to indirect speech example:

Direct: He said, "she has finished her homework“.

Indirect: He said that she had finished her homework.

4. Simple Present Changes to Simple Past

Direct to indirect speech example:

Direct: "I am unwell", she said.

Indirect: She said that she was unwell.

 70

Rule 3 - Direct Speech to Indirect Speech conversion - Past Tense & Future Tense

1. Simple past Changes to Past Perfect

Direct to indirect speech example:

Direct: She said, “Irvin arrived on Sunday."

Indirect: She said that Irvin had arrived on Sunday.

2. Past Continuous Changes to Past Perfect Continuous

Direct to indirect speech example

Direct: "We were playing basketball", they told me.

Indirect: They told me that they had been playing basketball.

3. Future Changes to Present Conditional

Direct to indirect speech example

Direct: She said, "I will be in Scotland tomorrow."

Indirect: She said that she would be in Scotland the next day.

4. Future Continuous Changes to Conditional Continuous

Direct to indirect speech example

Direct: He said, "I'll be disposing the old computer next Tuesday.”

Indirect: He said that he would be disposing the old computer next Tuesday.

Rule 4 - Direct Speech to Indirect Speech Conversion - Interrogative Sentences

1. No conjunction is used, if a sentence in direct speech begins with a question

(what/where/when) as the "question-word" itself acts as a joining clause.

Direct to indirect speech example

 71

Direct: “Where do you live?” asked the boy.

Indirect: The boy enquired where I lived.

2. If a direct speech sentence begins with auxiliary verb/helping verb, the joining clause
should be if or whether.

Direct to indirect speech example

Direct: She said, „will you come for the party‟?

Indirect: She asked whether we would come for the party.

3. Reporting verbs such as „said/ said to‟ changes to enquired, asked, or demanded

Direct to indirect speech example

Direct: He said to me, „what are you wearing‟?

Indirect: He asked me what I was wearing.

Rule 5 - Direct Speech to Indirect Speech Conversion - Changes in Modals

While changing direct speech to indirect speech the modals used in the sentences
changes like:

1. Can becomes Could

2. May becomes Might

3. Must becomes had to /would have to

Check the examples:

Direct: She said, “She can dance”.

Indirect: She said that she could dance.

Direct: She said, “I may buy a dress”.

 72

Indirect: She said that she might buy a dress.

Direct: Rama said, „I must complete the assignment‟.

Indirect: Rama said that he had to complete the assignment.

4. There are Modals that do not change like (Could,Would,Should, Might,Ought

to)

Direct: She said, „I should clean the house‟

Indirect: She said that she should clean the house.

Rule 6 - Direct Speech to Indirect Speech Conversion - Pronoun

1. The first person in the direct speech changes as per the subject of the speech.

Direct speech to indirect speech examples

Direct: He said, “I am in class Twelfth.”

Indirect: He says that he was in class Twelfth.

2. The second person of direct speech changes as per the object of reporting speech.

Direct speech to indirect speech examples

Direct: She says to them, "You have done your work.”

Indirect: She tells them that they have done their work.

3. The third person of direct speech doesn't change.

Direct speech to indirect speech examples

Direct: He says, "She dances well.”

Indirect: He says that she dances well.

 73

Rule 7 - Direct Speech to Indirect Speech Conversion - Requests, Command, Wish,

and Exclamation

1. Indirect Speech is supported by some verbs like requested, ordered, suggested and
advised.

Forbid-forbade is used for the negative sentences. Therefore, the imperative mood in
direct speech changes into the Infinitive in indirect speech.

Direct: She said to her „Please complete it‟.

Indirect: She requested her to complete it.

Direct: Hamid said to Ramid, „Sit down‟.

Indirect: Hamid ordered Ramid to sit down.

2. In Exclamatory sentences that express (grief, sorrow, happiness, applaud) Interjections

are removed and the sentence is changed to an assertive sentence.

Direct: She said, „Alas! I am undone‟.

Indirect: She exclaimed sadly that she was broke.

Rule 8 - Direct Speech to Indirect Speech Conversion - Punctuations

1. In direct speech the words actually spoken should be in („‟) quotes and always begin
with a capital letter.

Example: She said, “I am the Best.”

2. Full stop, Comma, exclamation or question mark, are placed inside the closing
inverted commas.

Example: They asked, “Can we sing with you?”

3. If direct speech comes after the information about who is speaking, comma is used to
introduce the speech, placed before the first inverted comma.
 74

Direct speech example: He shouted, “Shut up!”

Direct speech example: “Thinking back,” he said, “she didn't expect to win.” (Comma is

used to separate the two direct speeches and no capital letter to begin the second
sentence).

Rule 9 - Direct Speech to Indirect Speech Conversion - Change of Time

1. In direct speeches, the words that express nearness in time or place are changed to
words that express distance in indirect speech. Such as :

• Now becomes then

• Here becomes there

• Ago becomes before

• Thus becomes so
• Today becomes that day

• Tomorrow becomes the next day

• This becomes that

• Yesterday becomes the day before

• These becomes those

• Hither becomes thither

• Come becomes go

• Hence becomes thence

• Next week Or month becomes following week/month

Examples:

Direct: He said, „His girlfriend came yesterday.‟

Indirect: He said that his girlfriend had come the day before.

2. The time expression does not change if the reporting verb is in present tense or

future tense.

Examples:
 75

Direct: He says/will say, „My girlfriend came yesterday.‟

Indirect: He says/will say that his girlfriend had come yesterday.

Rules for Converting Indirect Speech into Direct Speech

The following rules should be followed while converting an indirect speech to direct
speech:

1. Use the reporting verb such as (say, said to) in its correct tense.

2. Put a comma before the statement and the first letter of the statement should be in
capital letter.

3. Insert question mark, quotation marks, exclamation mark and full stop, based on the

mood of the sentence.

4. Remove the conjunctions like (that, to, if or whether) wherever necessary.

5. Where the reporting verb is in past tense in indirect, change it to present tense in the
direct speech.

6. Change the past perfect tense either into present perfect tense or past tense as
necessary.

Check the examples:

• Indirect: She asked whether she was coming to the prom night.

Direct: She said to her, “Are you coming to the prom night?”

• Indirect: The girl said that she was happy with her result.

Direct: The girl said.‟I am happy with my result”.

 76

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

Present Simple Tense do /does V1 Past Simple Tense did + V1 V2
Present Progressive Tense is/am/are + V4 Past Progressive Tense was /were + V4
Present Perfect Tense has /have + V3 Past Perfect Tense had + V3
Present Perfect Progressive has been /have
Past Perfect Progressive had been + V4
been + V4
Past Simple Tense did + V1 V2 Past Perfect Tense had + V3
Past Perfect Tense had + V3 Past Perfect Tense had + V3
Past Perfect Progressive had been + V4 Past Perfect Progressive had been + V4
Future Simple Tense will + V1 would + V1
Future Progressive Tense will be + V4 would be + V4
Future Perfect Tense will have + V3 would have + V3
Future Perfect Progressive will have been +
would have been + V4
V4

EXERCISES:
(I) Read the following sentences and convert them into indirect speech.

1) Rahul told to me, “When are you leaving?”

2) “Where do you live?” the stranger asked Aladdin.

3) The teacher said to Shelly, “Why are you laughing?”

4) Dhronacharya said to Arjun, “Shoot the bird’s eye.”

5) “Call the first convict,” said the jury.

 77

Change the sentences in to direct speech

1. John said that he was very busy then.

2. He said that the horse had been fed.

3. John said that he knew/knows her name and address.

4. She said that German is/was easy to learn.

5. He said that he was writing letters.

 78

2.5 Dialogue Writing

Dialogue is what the characters in your short story, poem, novel, play, screenplay,

personal essay—any kind of creative writing where characters speak—say out loud.

For a lot of writers, writing dialogue is the most fun part of writing. It’s your

opportunity to let your characters’ motivations, flaws, knowledge, fears, and personality
quirks come to life. By writing dialogue, you’re giving your characters their own voices,

fleshing them out from concepts into three-dimensional characters. And it’s your
opportunity to break grammatical rules and express things more creatively.

Read these lines of dialogue:

“NoOoOoOoO!” Maddie yodeled as her older sister tried to pry her hands from the merry-

go-round’s bars.

“So I says, ‘You wanna play rough? C’mere, I’ll show you playin’ rough!’”

“Get out!” she shouted, playfully swatting at his arm. “You’re kidding me, right? We

couldn’t have won . . . ”

Dialogue has multiple purposes. One of them is to characterize your characters.

Read the examples above again, and think about who each of those characters are. You

learn a lot about somebody’s mindset, background, comfort in their current situation,
emotional state, and level of expertise from how they speak.

Another purpose dialogue has is exposition, or background information. You can’t

give readers all the exposition they need to understand a story’s plot up-front. One
effective way to give readers information about the plot and context is to supplement

narrative exposition with dialogue. For example, the protagonist might learn about an
upcoming music contest by overhearing their coworkers’ conversation about it, or an

intrepid adventurer might be told of her destiny during an important meeting with the
town mystic. Later on in the story, your music-loving protagonist might express his fears

of looking foolish onstage to his girlfriend, and your intrepid adventurer might have a
 79

heart-to-heart with the dragon she was sent to slay and find out the truth about her

society’s cultural norms.

It can communicate subtext, like showing class differences between characters

through the vocabulary they use or hinting at a shared history between them. Sometimes,

a narrator’s description just can’t deliver information the same way that a well-timed quip
or a profound observation by a character can.

Monologues

In contrast to dialogue, a monologue is a single, usually lengthy passage spoken by one

character. Monologues are often part of plays.

The character may be speaking directly to the reader or viewer, or they could be speaking

to one or more other characters. The defining characteristic of a monologue is that it’s
one character’s moment in the spotlight to express their thoughts, ideas, and/or

perspective.

Often, a character’s private thoughts are delivered via monologue. If you’re familiar with
the term internal monologue, it’s referring to this. An internal monologue is the voice an

individual (though not all individuals) “hears” in their head as they talk themselves
through their daily activities. Your story might include one or more characters’ inner

monologues in addition to their dialogue. Just like “hearing” a character’s words through
dialogue, hearing their thoughts through a monologue can make a character more

relatable, increasing a reader’s emotional investment in their story arc.

Types of dialogue

There are two broad types of dialogue writers employ in their work: inner and outer

dialogue.

Inner dialogue is the dialogue a character has inside their head. This inner dialogue can
be a monologue. In most cases, inner dialogue is not marked by quotation marks. Some

authors mark inner dialogue by italicizing it.

 80

Outer dialogue is dialogue that happens externally, often between two or more

characters. This is the dialogue that goes inside quotation marks.

Things to avoid when writing dialogue

Using a tag for every piece of dialogue: Dialogue tags are words like said and

asked. Once you’ve established that two characters are having a conversation, you don’t
need to tag every piece of dialogue. Doing so is redundant and breaks the reader’s flow.

Once readers know each character’s voice, many lines of dialogue can stand alone.

Not using enough tags: On the flip side, some writers use too few dialogue tags,
which can confuse readers. Readers should always know who’s speaking. When a

character’s mannerisms and knowledge don’t make that abundantly obvious, tag the
dialogue and use their name.

Dense, unrealistic speech: As we mentioned above, dialogue doesn’t need to be

grammatically correct. In fact, when it’s too grammatically correct, it can make characters
seem stiff and unrealistic.

Anachronisms: A pirate in 1700s Barbados wouldn’t greet his captain with “what’s up?”

Depending on how dedicated you (and your readers) are to historical accuracy, this
doesn’t need to be perfect. But it should be believable.

Eye dialect: This is an important one to keep in mind. Eye dialect is the practice of writing
out characters’ mispronunciations phonetically, like writing “wuz” for “was.” Eye dialect

can be (and has been) used to create offensive caricatures, and even when it’s not used
in this manner, it can make dialogue difficult for readers to understand. Certain well-

known instances of eye dialect, like “fella” for “fellow” and “‘em” for “them,” are generally
deemed acceptable, but beyond these, it’s often best to avoid it.

Points to Write Dialogues

Dialogue Writing can be confusing unless understood properly. Various things need to

be kept in mind when writing dialogues. The following points will help you in writing
good dialogues –
 81

Dialogues should be short

If you write lengthy dialogues, the readers might get confused

Proper tenses should be used in each dialogue

Use simple English that all can understand

Always remember to include two or more people for dialogue writing Dialogues can not
be written for one person

The dialogues should be divided among the speakers, and the paragraphs should be
changed for each dialogue

Always use punctuation marks like question marks and exclamation marks

Quotation marks are very important when writing dialogue

Open quotation marks should be placed when the dialogue begins and closing quotation

marks should be placed at the end

Punctuation marks are placed inside the quotation marks

Always add a comma to separate the dialogue from the tags

You should always use the voice of the dialogue in a proper way

You can include character traits of each speaker to make the readers recognise the
speaker on their own

Write a dialogue between Aarush and his friend, Ravish, about vacation plans.

Aarush – Hi Ravish. How are you doing? I have been waiting for an hour for you. Where

have you been?

Ravish – Hey! I am fine, and I’m so sorry I got a little late because of the jam-packed road.

Aarush – Never mind. Sanitise your hands now and tell me how everything at the office

is?
 82

Ravish – Oh yes! Thanks for reminding me. Well, I am not very happy doing this job. They

make me work a lot and do not pay on time. I feel so tired.

Aarush – I guess this is the same for each one of us. Deadlines are short, and payment is
late. I feel like going away from this boring and bustling life.

Ravish – I feel the same, to be honest. Oh! I have an idea!

Aarush – What is it? You sound very happy.

Ravish – We are going to get a week off this month. So why don’t we plan a vacation?

Aarush – This sounds superb. We can probably ask Muskan, Avi and Tanya too. All of us

can go on a trip and enjoy it together.

Ravish – Yes. We’ll be away from all the stress for at least a week. I think we should go to
Shimla or Mussoorie. It is snowing over there.

Aarush – What an idea! And I have a friend in Shimla who can help us find a budget-

friendly and comfortable hotel.

Ravish – I am in! Let us fix it as soon as possible so that we can book the tickets for the
destination and hotels too.

Aarush – Let’s go home and do a conference call with the others.

Ravish – Perfect! See you then.

Aarush – See you, friend.

Sample Questions for Dialogue Writing

o Write dialogues between Manisha and her father. They are discussing her career.
83
 84

o Vijay and Mina are discussing politics. Write a dialogue between them. You can

fabricate all the necessary details.

 85

2.6 Listening to Formal Conversation - IELTS Pattern

IELTS Listening test 1 - Listen to the audio and answer the questions. As you finish,

press 'check' and proceed to the next section.

https://ielts-up.com/listening/5.1.mp3

Questions 1-5

Complete the information below. Write NO MORE THAN ONE WORD OR A

NUMBER for each answer.

Apartment for rent

Street Bridge street
Street № (1)
Included utilities Gas, heat, water, (2) ________________ , phone
Not included (3)
utilities
Public transport Underground, (4)
Tenant’s name John (5)

Questions 6-8

Choose THREE letters, A-F.

Which THREE things should the caller bring to the meeting?

A. Driving license
B. Passport
C. Tax bill
D. Employment contract
E. Reference from a friend or colleague
F. Reference from an employer

Questions 9-10

Choose the correct letters, A, B, or C.

9. What time do the caller and apartment manager decide to meet?

 86

A. 5:30 PM
B. 6:00 PM
C. 6:30 PM

10. Where do they decide to meet?

A. Near the manager’s apartment

B. At the caller’s future apartment
C. At the office

IELTS Listening Test 2

PART 1
Questions 1 – 8

Complete the form below.

Write NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS AND/OR A NUMBER for each answer.

Link to follow:

https://www.ielts.org/about-the-test//-/media/files/listening-sample-task-type-1.ashx
 87

PACKHAM’S SHIPPING AGENCY – customer quotation form

Example

.K..e..n..y
...a…..

Name: Jacob 1 …………

Address to be collected from: ………… College, Downlands Rd

Town: Bristol

Postcode: 3 …………

Size of container:

Length: 1.5m

Width: 4 ………… Height: 5 …………

Contents: clothes

6 …………

Total estimated value: 8 £…………

 88

Unit - 3

3.1 Phrasal Verbs

Phrasal verbs can be said to be formed by the combination of a verb and an adverb

or a preposition. In some cases, it is a combination of all three parts of speech – verb,

adverb, and preposition. Though each of these parts of speech has different functions,

they play the role of the verb when they are put together. They can also act as a phrase
and that is why these verbs are called phrasal verbs.

Definition of a Phrasal Verb

The Oxford Learner’s Dictionary defines a phrasal verb as “a verb combined with

an adverb or a preposition, or sometimes both, to give a new meaning, for example, ‘go
in for’, ‘win over’ and ‘see to’.” According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, a phrasal
verb is defined as “a phrase (such as take off or look down on) that combines a verb with
a preposition or adverb or both, and that functions as a verb whose meaning is different

from the combined meanings of the individual words.” The Cambridge Dictionary defines
a phrasal verb as “a phrase that consists of a verb with a preposition or adverb or both,

the meaning of which is different from the meaning of its separate parts.”
Types of Phrasal Verbs

Phrasal verbs can be divided into four main types or rather two main categories
based on how they behave when used in sentences. They are:

1. Transitive Phrasal Verbs

2. Intransitive Phrasal Verbs

3. Separable Phrasal Verbs

4. Inseparable Phrasal Verbs

Transitive Phrasal Verbs

Just like normal transitive verbs, a transitive phrasal verb can be identified by its
demand for an object.

For example :
• It was not possible for Veena to do away with all of it as they brought back so

many memories of the past.

 89

• Can you fill in the required details so that we can move forward with the screening

process.

Intransitive Phrasal Verbs

Intransitive phrasal verbs behave exactly like intransitive verbs. They do not require

an object to complete the sentence they are used in or make sense of the context.
For example:

• My car broke down all of a sudden while driving through the ghat section.
• It has been years since we met, we should definitely catch up.

Separable Phrasal Verbs

Separable phrasal verbs include transitive phrasal verbs which have the
characteristic property of separating the phrasal verb with the object in between. There

is, however, a word order which should be taken into account when separating the phrasal
verb.

For example:

• I am not the kind of person who holds all of this against you.
• Dhiraj is the one who is taking care of the applications for gold loan. Can you

please hand it over to him?

Inseparable Phrasal Verbs

Inseparable phrasal verbs, as the name suggests, cannot be separated from each

other and have to be used together, no matter what.

For example:

• You will have to account for all the losses that have been incurred.
• Harish was asked to check out of the hotel before 9 p.m. on Tuesday.

How to Use Phrasal Verbs?

As fun and interesting as it is to use phrasal verbs, there are a few pointers you
have to keep in mind when using them in your daily communication. Following a
 90

particular word order and conjugating it to represent the tense of the sentence are the

two things you have to learn and put into practice.

Conjugating Phrasal Verbs

As far as the conjugation part is concerned, all you have to remember is to employ

the same rules of conjugation you would if the verb stands by itself. When the phrasal
verb is used as a main verb, you have to conjugate the verb alone according to the

respective tense and not change the preposition in the phrasal verb.

For example:

1. Heera dropped out of school due to her illness. (Drop out)

2. My friend, Sharon, had broken up with her boyfriend last month. (Break up)

3. The security guard asked around the whole building to know whose car was parked
right in front of the gate. (Ask around)

4. I hung out with my friends after the wedding reception. (Hang out)

Note that, in the above sentences, the prepositions remain the same whereas the verbs

‘dropped’, ‘asked’ and ‘hung’ have been conjugated in the simple past form and the verb
‘broken’ has been conjugated in the past participle form. Keep in mind that irregular verbs

take the same spellings as they do when used as normal verbs conjugated in the different
forms.

Using the Right Word Order

Word order comes into the picture mainly when you are attempting to split up the
phrasal verbs. Always bear in mind that intransitive phrasal verbs and inseparable phrasal

verbs have to be used together. The verb and the participle/preposition should go next
to each other.

With separable phrasal verbs, it is different. They are transitive and always have a

direct object to complete them. You can separate the phrasal verb by putting the direct
object in between the verb and the preposition.
 91

For example:

• Kate let me down when she did not show up for my court hearing.

Some phrasal verbs will always require to be separated by the direct object in between.

For example:

• We are very glad that we have you around during this difficult time.

When noun phrases act as the object, it can also be placed in between the verb and the

preposition.
For example:

• He was asked to leave all of it out for approval.

Examples of Phrasal Verbs

Phrasal verbs are most often a topic that confuses a lot of people, especially

second language learners and new learners of the language. Since the multiple words
used in a phrasal verb have different meanings and have a completely different meaning

when used together, they end up being a slightly puzzling topic for some.

Phrasal verbs can be conjugated to suit the tense of the sentence and can be used

like a normal verb. Here are a few examples of phrasal verbs.

i) Give up – combination of a verb (give) and a p

ii) reposition (up)

Individually, the verb ‘give’ means to give something to someone and the

preposition ‘up’ shows the position of some object. The magic happens or the confusion
begins when both the verb and the preposition are used together. The phrasal ‘give up’

means to surrender or to stop making an effort in doing something.

Let us look at how the phrasal verb ‘give up’ can be conjugated to represent the

different verb forms in English.

i) Simple Past Form

➢ The captain gave up at the last quarter.
 92

ii) Infinitive Form

➢ It was not easy for the coach to give up trying to encourage the team even
in such a hopeless situation.

iii) Gerund Form

➢ Giving up is not the solution to the problem, it is just the easiest choice.

iv) Past Participle Form

➢ I have given up on them.

List of Common English Phrasal Verbs and their Meanings:

Phrasal Verb Meaning (Most Common)

Aim At To point a weapon at someone or something.

Ask For To request something.

When you ask someone to go with you to a certain place or for a special
Ask Out occasion, to spend time together and have fun. If one or both parties involved
are interested in a romantic way, then it is considered a date.

Back Down To withdraw your position in a fight, argument, plan, etc.

When you leave an emotional situation, or to allow someone to handle

Back Off
something alone.

Back Up To walk or drive a vehicle backwards.

When someone punches, kicks, or hits someone repeatedly using fists or with
Beat Up
an object.

Beef Up To make changes or an improvement.

Believe In To feel confident about something or someone.

Bite Off To use your teeth to bite a piece of something.

Blow Away When the wind moves an object or person from where it was.

Blow Off When the wind removes something from its place.
 93

Blow Out To extinguish or make a flame stop burning.

Blow Up To make something explode.

Boil Down To To have determined or analyzed the solution or reason for something.

When someone loses self-control and is emotionally and/or mentally agitated.

Break Down
This meaning has a noun form for a situation where someone loses self-control.

Break In To enter a place illegally and with the use of force.

Break Off To remove a part of something with force.

Break Out To escape from a place, situation or way of life.

Break Through To make a way through a barrier or a surface.

Break Up To stop a fight.

Bring Back To return something you’ve borrowed.

Bring Over To bring someone or something from one place or area to another.

Bring Up To bring something from a lower level/place to a higher level/place.

Brush Off To remove something(dust particle, insect, etc) with your hand.

To practice and review your knowledge or a skill that you haven’t used in a
Brush Up
while.

Build In/Into To add a fixture or component to a certain area or place through construction.

Bump Into When you meet people by accident or unexpectedly.

Burn Down When someone uses fire to destroy a structure.

Burn Out When a candle stops burning because there is nothing left to burn.

Burn Up To destroy something with heat or fire.

Burst Out To suddenly do or say something.

Butt In To interrupt a conversation or activity.

 94

Call Back To call someone again.

Call In To request that someone come and help.

Call Off To cancel an event that has been previously planned.

Call Up To be chosen to take part in a military mission.

Calm Down To become less violent, nervous, excited or angry.

Care For To nurture or take care of someone or something.

Carry Away To do something out of the ordinary due to strong emotions.

Carry On To continue doing something or to continue on in life despite an obstacle.

To move something or someone from one place to another using your arms or
Carry Out
an object.

Catch On To understand or realize something.

Catch Up To move faster to reach someone or something that is ahead of you.

When you are emotionally and/or sexually unfaithful to your

Cheat On
girlfriend/boyfriend or spouse.

Check In To register at a hotel or airport upon arrival.

Check Out To leave a hotel or other form of an accommodation after your stay there.

Chicken Out To refrain from doing something because of fear.

Chop Up To cut something into pieces with a knife.

Clean Out To clean or clear the inside of something thoroughly.

Clear Out To remove things completely from an area or place.

Clear Up To do something to solve a problem or a misunderstanding.

Clog Up When something in a drain or valve prevents the flow of water or other liquids

Close Down When the activities or services of a business permanently end.

 95

Close Off To block an entrance or pathway.

Come About When something happens or occurs.

Come Across The way other people perceive something or someone.

Come Apart When something breaks or separates piece by piece.

Come Back To return to a place.

Come Down To move from a higher to a lower position or from north to south.

Come Down To When a situation is reduced to a certain outcome.

Come Down
When you start to experience the symptoms of a disease or illness.
With

Come In When someone or something enters a place, building, or room.

When something is removed or breaks off from where it was originally attached
Come Off
to.

Come On To appear on television or be heard on the radio.

Come Out To leave a place.

Come Over To make a visit.

Come Through When someone or something expected arrives.

Come Up When something appears or happens, either expected or unexpected.

Come Up With When you think of a solution, idea, plan, or excuse.

Con Into To persuade someone to do something through lies and deception.

Con Out Of To persuade someone to give or do something through lies and deception.

Cool Off To lose temperature.

Count On To rely on someone for support when you need it most.

Count Up To count all of something or people in a group.

 96

Cover Up To use something to conceal something else.

Crack Down To take more action than usual against wrongdoing.

Cross Off To remove or delete someone or something from a list.

Cut Back When you spend less money on something.

Cut Down To do less of something or to use something in smaller amounts.

To completely remove or separate a part of something by cutting it with

Cut Off
something sharp like a knife or a pair of scissors, etc.

Cut Out To remove something using a knife or a pair of scissors.

Cut Up When you use a knife or scissors to cut something into several pieces.

Deal With When you do everything you must do to solve a problem or complete.

Do Away With To dispose of something.

Do Over To do something again in order to improve or correct mistakes.

Do With To make a connection between two or more things.

Do Without To manage well without something or someone.

Doze Off To go to sleep unintentionally.

Dress Up To wear formal clothes, or a costume for a special occasion.

Drop In To visit someone unexpectedly or without making arrangements first.

Drop Off To gradually decline/become less.

Drop Out To quit a school program or training course.

Dry Off To dry something or a surface quickly.

Dry Out To remove water or other liquid from a container.

Dry Up When all the liquid and/or moisture evaporates.

Eat Up When someone consumes all their food.

 97

Empty Out To remove everyone or everything from a space.

End Up The end result of something planned or unplanned.

Fall Apart When something breaks all at once or piece by piece.

Fall Behind To move slower than others.

Fall Down To fall to the ground.

Fall For When you have an intense attraction to something or someone.

Fall Off When something drops to a lower level.

Fall Out To fall from or through something.

Fall Over When someone or something falls from an upright position to the ground.

Fall Through If things do not go as planned, or if a plan, deal or agreement fails.

Feel Up To When you have/don’t have the energy and confidence to do something.

When you defend yourself/resist an attack, or make an effort against an

Fight Back
opponent in a competition.

Figure On To expect or plan for something.

Fill In To add personal information in the blank spaces of an official document.

Fill Out To complete a form.

Fill Up To fill something completely.

Find Out To become aware of something or someone.

Fix Up To make plans or arrangements with someone or for others.

Flip Out To become very mad or lose control over your emotions.

Float Around When an object or a person is near, but you cannot pinpoint the exact location.

Follow Up To find out more about something, or take further action in regards to it.

Fool Around To waste time doing unimportant or silly things.

 98

When someone becomes irrationally upset or angry, sometimes to the point of

Freak Out
confusion.

To become successful in the professional environment or make consistent

Get Ahead
progress in life.

Get Along To have good interactions with others.

Get Around To To do something that needed to get done at an earlier time.

Get Away To escape from something.

Get Back To return to a place.

Get Back At To get revenge.

When you talk to someone at a later time either because you are busy or you
Get Back To
have obtained additional or new information.

Get Behind To learn, work, or progress more slowly than others.

Get By To pass someone or something.

Get Down To move to a lower place or level.

Get In To arrive or enter a place, room, building, etc.

Get Off To leave a form of transportation, except a car.

Get Off On To be excited or to truly enjoy doing something.

When you move your body and either stand, sit, lie, kneel, etc. towards
Get On
something (non-separable).

Get Out To leave or escape.

Get Out Of To receive a benefit and/or satisfaction from doing something.

Get Over To move past an obstacle to the other side.

Get Over With To finish something that needs to get done.

Get Through When a message, meaning, or idea is understood or accepted.

 99

Get To To arrive to or assist someone to a place.

Get Together To meet and spend time together.

Get Up To move to a higher level/position.

Give Away To give something for free or without expecting anything in return.

Give In To surrender to something.

Give Out To distribute something.

Give Up To stop doing something without completing it.

Go About To take the necessary steps to get something done.

Go After When you do your best to get something no matter how difficult it is.

Go Ahead To proceed to do something that you were hesitant about.

Go Along With to accept or agree with a decision, rule, opinion, etc.

Go Around To follow a circular path.

Go Away To move or travel from one place to another place.

Go Back To return to a place, time, activity, or a person.

Go Back On When you fail to fulfill a promise you made to someone.

Go Beyond To be more than or better than what is normal or expected.

Go By To pass someone or something quickly.

Go Down To move to a lower position, place, price, level, etc.

Go For To try to obtain.

Go In To enter a place, building, room, etc.

Go In For To enter a place or area for a specific reason.

Go In/Into To enter a place, room, building, etc. usually through a door.

 100

Go Off To leave unannounced.

Go On When something takes place.

Go Out To leave a place or area you’re in.

Go Over To review something.

Go Through
When you make a decision to do something, and actually do it.
With

Go Up To move or extend to a higher level or farther North.

Go With To accompany someone to a place.

Goof Around To waste time doing silly or unimportant things.

Gross Out To be disgusted with someone or something.

Grow Out Of To become too big or too tall for your clothes.

Grow Up When you physically change from a child to an adult.

When you return something to the person who owns it after the person has
Hand Back
given it to you

Hand In To give something to a person of authority.

Hand Out To distribute something free to other people.

Hand Over To give upon request or demand.

Hang Around To spend time in a place or an area.

Hang On When you hold something, often for support of comfort.

Hang Out To hang something, usually wet clothes, to dry.

Hang Up To hang clothes or an object on a hook, hanger or rod.

Have On To wear clothing, cosmetics, perfume, etc.

Head Back To go to a place where you’ve been before or where you started from.
 101

Head For When a situation becomes more likely.

Head Toward To move in the direction where someone or something is.

Hear About When you learn details about something or someone.

Hear Of When you learn about something or someone.

Heat Up To make something warmer or cause a rise in temperature.

Help Out To assist people with something.

Hit On To suddenly have a solution to a problem or an interesting idea.

When you don’t forgive or have little respect for someone because of
Hold Against
something they did.

Hold Off To delay something.

Hold On When you wait for a short time.

Hold Out To extend your hand or an object in front of you.

Hold Up To hold someone or something up in the air.

Hook Up When you connect two electrical devices together.

Hurry Up To do something quickly.

Keep At To continue doing an activity even though it may be difficult.

Keep Away To avoid getting close to someone or something.

Keep Down To make sound, music and noise minimal.

Keep From To stop yourself or other people from doing something.

Keep Off To avoid discussing a particular subject or topic.

Keep On To continue doing something.

Keep To When you don’t share information.

Keep Up To continue to do something.

 102

Kick Back To illegally pay extra money to someone as part of the price.

Kick Out To force someone to leave an organization or place.

To use force to cause someone or something to fall from its place, whether
Knock Off
intentionally or accidentally.

Knock Out When someone is struck hard enough to cause them to lose consciousness.

Knock Over To make contact with something or someone in such a way it or they fall.

Know About To have knowledge of or be familiar with something.

Lay Down To place something on a surface or an object.

Lay Off When a company or business ends a worker’s employment.

When a period of time or a series of events cause an event, situation or

Lead Up To
conversation to happen.

Leave Behind When you don’t take something or someone with you when you leave.

Leave Off To accidentally or intentionally not include a person or thing on a list.

Leave Out To not include someone or something.

When you have a portion that still remains from something after you have used
Leave Over
or eaten the rest of it.

Let Down To disappoint someone.

Let In To allow someone or something to enter a place.

Let Off To allow someone to leave a car, bus, train etc.

Let On To tell something that is a secret or private.

Let Out When you give permission for someone to leave or be released from a place.

Let Up When someone or something becomes less intense or strong.

Lie Around To be lazy or to not do anything.

 103

Lift Up To raise someone or something to a higher level.

Light Up To illuminate something.

Lighten Up When a conversation is changed or a person changes to become less serious.

Line Up To form in a row one after another or side-by-side.

Live With To share the same residence.

Lock In To secure people or things behind a closed door.

Lock Out When you don’t have the key or passcode to enter a secured place.

Lock Up When you shut the windows and doors of a place or building.

Look Around To turn your head to see what or who is around you.

Look At To divert your eyes to someone or something.

When you consider someone or something as unimportant or with little to no

Look Down On
value. The opposite of yesterday’s phrasal verb.

Look Forward To anticipate a future event because it either makes you happy and/or you
To benefit from it.

Look Into To investigate or get more facts about something.

Look Out To remain alert.

Look Over To examine or inspect something or someone.

Look Up When a situation becomes better.

This particular phrasal verb is used to say you view someone with respect and/or
Look Up To
admiration.

Luck Out To have exceptionally good luck.

Make For To go in a certain direction, typically in a hurry.

Make Of To understand the meaning of something.

 104

Make Up To invent a story.

Mess Up When something is dirty or unorganized.

Mix Up To put or combine different things together so they’ll merge successfully.

Monkey
To try to play with or repair a device that you have no true knowledge about.
Around With

When you bring your personal belongings and stuff to a new place where you
Move In
will live. Yesterday’s phrasal verb, Move Out, has the opposite meaning.

When you permanently remove all your belongings and personal items from a
Move Out
place where you live or stay.

Narrow Down To reduce the number of options or possibilities.

Pay Back When you return money that you owe someone.

Pay For To purchase merchandise.

Pay Off To repay money that is owed to a person or entity.

Pay Up To pay all the money that is owed or asked for.

Pick On To tease and/or criticize someone over a period of time.

Pick Out When you are able to recognize something or someone from a group.

Pick Up To get someone or something from somewhere.

Pile Up To put things in a pile or heap.

Piss Off [Informal] To be angry about something.

Plan Ahead To prepare for a future event or situation.

Plan For To prepare for a big event or expectation in the future.

Plan On When you have the intention to do something.

Plug In To connect an electrical device to an electrical outlet.

 105

To connect an electrical appliance/machine to another piece of equipment or

Plug In/Into
to a power source.

To block a narrow passage such as a hole, drain, or pipe so that nothing can
Plug Up
flow through.

Point Out To make someone aware of something.

Point To When you aim at something or someone using your finger or hand.

Print Out To produce a hard copy of a computer document.

Pull Off To succeed in doing something difficult or tricky.

Pull Out When something or someone leaves a place.

Pull Over To drive your vehicle to the side of the road to stop.

Pull Through To recover from an injury or illness.

Punch In To enter data or record time on a device.

Punch Out To record the time you leave the workplace using a special clock.

Put Away To place something where it cannot be seen or isn’t in the way of other things.

Put Back When something is causing a project to slow down.

Put Down To place something on a surface or an object.

When you invest or make a deposit. In this example, the amount almost always
Put In
separates the verb.

Put Off To become offended by someone or something.

Put Out To extend a part of your body.

Put Past To not be surprised by a person’s actions. [Always used with the negative]

To cause someone or something to be in a certain state or to do something

Put To
extra.

Put Together To assemble or connect the parts of something.

 106

Put Up To move an object to a higher level.

Put Up To To encourage or persuade someone to do something.

Put Up With To tolerate or accept something that you’d rather not.

Ring Up To call someone on the phone.

When someone asks for a price for something that is too high, when someone
Rip Off
cheats or steals.

Rip Up To tear something (i.e. paper, cloth, etc.) into pieces.

Rule Out When someone or something is excluded as a possibility.

Run Across To move or run from one side to the other.

Run Around To go from one place to another in a hurry.

Run Down To hit someone or something with a vehicle.

Run Into When something collides with another object by accident.

When people exit a place very quickly. Run In/ Run Into is the opposite of this
Run Out
meaning.

Run Over When someone is injured or killed by a vehicle.

Run Up To run from a lower elevation or level to a higher elevation or level.

Screw On To ensure the top of a container/bottle is sealed.

Screw Out Of To cheat or deceive someone.

Screw Up To make a mistake or do something really bad.

See About To seriously think about doing something.

Sell Out When all the inventory of a particular product has been purchased.

Set Up To organize or plan for an activity/event to happen.

Settle Down To begin living a stable and routine life.

 107

Settle For To accept something even though it’s not what you want or need.

Shake Up To mix something in a container by shaking it.

Show Off To overly display your skills or what you have.

Shut Off To stop the operation of an electrical or mechanical device.

Shut Up To stop talking.

To write your name on a list to indicate the day and time you arrived at a certain
Sign In
place.

Sign Out To write your name on a list to indicate the day and time of your departure.

Sit Down To change from a standing to a sitting position.

Slow Down To do something slower.

Sneak In/Into To enter a place quietly to avoid being seen or heard.

Sneak Out To leave a place without being noticed.

Sort Out To arrange or separate things into groups according to similarities.

When someone’s attention is not in the present moment. [Adj.] {spaced out} To
Space Out
describe a person whose attention isn’t in the present moment.

Stand Around To stand in one place or area when you should be doing something.

Stand For To support or represent an idea, belief, etc.

Stand Up To rise from sitting or lying down to a vertical position.

Start Off The beginning of an event, activity or time period.

Start Out To begin a trip or venture to some place.

Start Up To start something.

Stay Off To avoid discussing a certain subject or topic.

Stay Out To spend time out of your own home.

 108

Stay Up To remain in a place that is higher than ground level.

Step On To place your foot on something or someone.

Stick Around To stay in a place or with someone for any period of time.

Stick Out To extend something outward.

Stick To When something is attached to another by some form of adhesive.

Stick Up To use a weapon, especially a gun, to rob someone.

Stick With To continue to use or do something.

Stop Off To make a quick stop on your way to a destination.

Stop Over To visit someone for a short period of time.

Straighten Out To make something straight.

Stress Out To feel very worried, nervous or anxious.

When you move something from the ‘on’ state to the ‘off’ state. Synonymous
Switch Off
with “Turn Off.” Yesterday’s “Switch On” is the opposite.

When you move something from the ‘off’ state to the ‘on’ state. Synonymous
Switch On
with “Turn On,” while “Switch Off” is the opposite.

Take Apart To disconnect or separate the parts of an object.

Take Back To return something or someone.

Take In To be successfully tricked or deceived by someone.

Take Out To remove an object from an area, place or container.

To direct your anger towards someone or something when you’re really upset
Take Out On
about someone or something else.

Take Up On When you accept an invitation or offer from someone.

To talk to someone as if they are less intelligent than you by conveying a tone
Talk Down To
of voice or attitude that says so.
 109

Talk Into To convince someone to do something.

Talk Out Of To convince someone not to do something.

Talk To To have a conversation with someone.

Tear Down To deconstruct a building or home.

Tear Off To remove with force.

To be able to differentiate something or someone from something or someone

Tell Apart
else.

Tell On To inform an authoritative figure about what someone else did.

Think About To consider something prior to making a final decision.

Think Ahead To think and plan carefully for a future situation or event.

Think Up To use your imagination to create a plan, idea, or a solution.

Throw Away To dispose of something you no longer find useful in a waste bin, trash, etc.

Throw Out When you get rid of something by putting it in a trash can, bin, etc.

Throw Up To vomit or puke.

Track Down To locate someone or something after a long search

Trade In To exchange something old for something new.

To convince or persuade someone to believe something untrue or to do

Trick Into
something for you.

Try On To see how something fits or looks before purchasing.

Try Out To show that you are qualified to do something.

Turn Around When someone or something moves until it faces the opposite direction.

Turn Down To decrease the temperature, sound, etc.

Turn In To give someone or something to the police or someone of authority.

 110

Turn Into To transform.

Turn Off To stop a device from functioning.

Turn On To cause someone to feel interested and/or attracted.

Turn Out To attend an event, meeting, etc.

To move an object so that the part that is on top becomes the bottom and vice
Turn Over
versa.

Turn Up To increase the controls of an electronic or mechanical device.

Use Up To completely consume or use all of a supply.

Zip Up To close an item that has a zipper.

Exercise

(I) Fill in the blanks by choosing the most appropriate phrasal verbs from the list of phrasal
verbs given below. Conjugate them to suit the tense of the sentence.

(stand for, narrow down, hold on, run into, check out, go through, fall apart, pull off, fill

in, hold against)

1. Make sure you _________________ of the hotel at the right time, else they will charge you
extra.

2. Levin was asked to _________________ for Suresh.

3. _________________ the whole itinerary before you make a decision.

4. Tom and Jerry ____________________ after their last meeting.

5. Please _________ for a minute, I forgot to take my car keys.

6. It is not good to _______ such a silly issue _______ her for so many years.

7. Do you think Andreah would be able to __________ it __________ all by herself?

 111

8. We have _____________ the possibilities of them finding us.

9. Do you know who we ______________ on our way here?

10. Nelson Mandela _________________ for the rights of his people.

(ii) Complete the following sentences by choosing the most appropriate phrasal verb
from the list given. Make sure you conjugate them as well.

(Call off, turn off, bring up, give away, dawn on, break down, take off, call in, hold on, turn

down, sell out, fill in, take up, go through, take off)

1. The truth of the matter finally _______________ Tina.

2. Please _______________ your socks before you enter the room.

3. The employees __________________ the strike.

4. The neighbour asked us to ___________________ the music.

5. Please ___________________ the lights when you leave.

6. The flight will ________________________ any moment now.

7. ________________ the study materials the teacher gave you.

8. _________________ the surgeon immediately, the patient needs her.

9. Please _________________ this application and submit it there.

10. Tim and his family ________________ the kid as their own.

11. All the tickets for the Avengers were ______________________.

12. My car _____________________ in the middle of the road.

13. The kid decided to ____________________ a new hobby.

14. The judges will ___________________ to their decision for a while.

15. Please don’t ____________________ all your money.

(iii) Exercise 2 – Fill in the blanks with the appropriate phrasal verb.

(Give up, call off, get away with, work up, show up, make up, come up, put up, clean up,

hang up)

1. Timothy finally ___________________ at the wedding.

2. Never _____________________ on your dreams.
 112

3. ___________________ the room before you leave to play.

4. The convict is trying to ______________________ a story.

5. Mark Antony’s speech __________________ the Roman people.

6. The convention was _________________ due to the pandemic.

7. You can’t _________________ such a horrible thing.

8. The parents couldn’t ____________________ with the naughty kid.

9. The speaker _______________________ on me.

10. Can you __________________ with a new topic?

 113

3.2 Framing Questions and Question Tags

A question tag can be generally described as a simple statement followed by a

short question. Question tags are most often used in spoken language to confirm
something that is said and also to encourage the listener to give an answer. In written

language, the use of question tags can be seen only in dialogue writing and in stories
which include dialogues.

Definition of a Question Tag

A question tag or a tag question, according to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, is

defined as “a phrase such as ‘isn’t it?’ or ‘don’t you?’ that you add to the end of a

statement in order to turn it into a question or check that the statement is correct, as in,
you like mushrooms, don’t you?” The Cambridge Dictionary defines a question tag as “a

short phrase such as “isn’t it” or “don’t you” that is added to the end of a sentence to
check information or to ask if someone agrees with you”, and according to the Merriam-

Webster Dictionary, a question tag is “a question (such as isn’t it in “it’s fine, isn’t it?”)
added to a statement or command (as to gain the assent of or challenge the person

addressed)”. The Collins Dictionary definition of a question tag is as follows – “In grammar,
a question tag is a very short clause at the end of a statement which changes the
statement into a question. For example, in ‘She said half price, didn’t she?’, the words
‘didn’t she’ are a question tag.”

Forming and Using Question Tags in Sentences

While question tags can look pretty easy to use, there are a few things you have

to be mindful of when using them. Take a look at the following points to learn how to
use a question tag accurately in a sentence.

a. A sentence with a question tag takes the form – Statement, question tag?
b. The punctuation of a sentence with a question is as follows – Capital letter to begin

the sentence, a comma at the end of the statement, followed by the tag question and

a question mark.
 114

c. The use of pronouns in question tags is another thing you need to focus on. If a

pronoun is used as the subject, use the same pronoun in the question tag. On the

other hand, if a noun (name of a person/place/animal/thing/idea) or a noun phrase

acts as the subject in the statement, use a pronoun based on the gender/number in

the question tag.

d. If the statement is positive or affirmative, the question tag should be negative, and if

the statement is negative, the question tag used should be positive.

e. For example: You are happy, aren’t you? (Positive statement – negative tag)

f. You aren’t happy, are you? (Negative statement – positive tag)

g. When a statement expresses emotions of anger, surprise or interest, the question tag

used has to be positive even though the statement is positive. For example: You think

it is something to be proud of, do you?

h. When there are two verbs (a main verb and an auxiliary/helping verb) in a sentence,

the question tag should be formed using the auxiliary verb. For example: They were

waiting for her, weren’t they?

i. If the sentence contains a modal auxiliary verb, the question tag has to be formed

using the modal verb. For example: The students should bring their parents for the

meeting, shouldn’t they?

j. Sentences with ‘have’, ‘has’ and ‘had’ as the main verb use the positive and negative

form of ‘do’ as the question tag. For example: You have a pair of shoes, don’t you?

k. Sentences with pronouns such as ‘nothing’ and ‘nobody’ should be considered

negative statements and a positive tag has to be used. For example, Nothing is

working, is it?
 115

l. Sentences with action verbs in the simple present tense form a question tag using the

verb ‘do/does’ and its corresponding negative form. For example: He teaches

Chemistry, doesn’t he?

m. A sentence in the past tense will have question tags formed using the verb ‘did’. For

example: Harry and Ron played tennis, didn’t they?

n. As far as imperative sentences are concerned, use the positive or negative form of the

verb ‘will’ to form the question tag.

 116

Positive Statement – Negative Tag Negative Statement – Positive Tag

Subject + Verb Question Tag + Subject + Verb Question Tag +

Pronoun Pronoun

Simple Present Tense

I am Aren’t I? I am not Am I?

You are Aren’t you? You are not Are you?

He is Isn’t he? He is not Is he?

She is Isn’t she? She is not Is she?

It is Isn’t it? It is not Is it?

They are Aren’t they? They are not Are they?

We are Aren’t we? We are not Are we?

Simple Past Tense

I was Wasn’t I? I was not Was I?

You were Weren’t you? You were not Were you?

He was Wasn’t he? He was not Was he?

She was Wasn’t she? She was not Was she?

It was Wasn’t it? It was not Was it?

They were Weren’t they? They were not Were they?

We were Weren’t we? We were not Were we?

Simple Future Tense

 117

I will Won’t I? I will not Will I?

You will Won’t you? You will not Will you?

He will Won’t he? He will not Will he?

She will Won’t she? She will not Will she?

It will Won’t it It will not Will it?

They will Won’t they? They will not Will they?

We will Won’t we? We will not Will we?

Present Perfect Tense

I have Haven’t I? I have not Have I?

You have Haven’t you? You have not Have you?

He has Hasn’t he? He has not Has he?

She has Hasn’t she? She has not Has she?

It has Hasn’t it? It has not Has it?

They have Haven’t they? They have not Have they?

We have Haven’t we? We have not Have we?

Past Perfect Tense

I had Hadn’t I? I had not Had I?

You had Hadn’t you? You had not Had you?

He had Hadn’t he? He had not Had he?

She had Hadn’t she? She had not Had she?

 118

It had Hadn’t it? It had not Had it?

They had Hadn’t they? They had not Had they?

We had Hadn’t we? We had not Had we?

Future Perfect Tense

I will have Won’t I? I will not have Will I?

You will have Won’t you? You will not have Will you?

He will have Won’t he? He will not have Will he?

She will have Won’t she? She will not have Will she?

It will have Won’t it It will not have Will it?

They will have Won’t they? They will not have Will they?

We will have Won’t we? We will not have Will we?

Sentence with Modal Verbs

I/You/We/They/H Wouldn’t I/You/We/They/He/ Would

e/ I/you/we/they/he/ She/It wouldn’t I/you/we/they/he

She/It would she/it? / she/it?

I/You/We/They/H Couldn’t I/You/We/They/He/ Could

e/ I/you/we/they/he/ She/It couldn’t I/you/we/they/he

She/It could she/it? / she/it?

I/You/We/They/H Mustn’t I/You/We/They/He/ Must

e/ I/you/we/they/he/ She/It mustn’t I/you/we/they/he

She/It must she/it? / she/it?

 119

I/You/We/They/H Shouldn’t I/You/We/They/He/ Should

e/ I/you/we/they/he/ She/It shouldn’t I/you/we/they/he

She/It should she/it? / she/it?

I/You/We/They/H Can’t I/You/We/They/He/ Can

e/ I/you/we/they/he/ She/It can’t I/you/we/they/he

She/It can she/it? / she/it?

Sentence with Action Verb in the Simple Past Tense

I/You/We/They Don’t I/You/We/They do Do

like I/you/we/they? not like I/you/we/they?

He/She likes Doesn’t he/she? He/She does not like Does he/she?

It rings Doesn’t it? It does not ring Does it?

Sentence with Action Verb in the Simple Past Tense

I/You/We/They Didn’t I/You/We/They did Did

liked I/you/we/they? not like I/you/we/they?

He/She liked Didn’t he/she? He/She did not like Did he/she?

It rang Didn’t it? It did not ring Did it?

Positive Statements with Negative Question Tags

1. Shahina is the new lead, isn’t she?

2. They have confirmed, haven’t they?

3. Tharun and Varun are on their way to the airport, aren’t they?
4. Her father is a doctor, isn’t he?

5. The baby elephant that fell into the well was rescued by the locals, wasn’t it?
6. Arranging transport and accommodation for the guests had been their first

priority, hadn’t it?

 120

7. You like cookies, don’t you?

8. Bring me some tissue papers, will you?

9. They bought a new LED television, didn’t they?

10. You have been looking for an apartment, haven’t you?

Negative Statements with Positive Question Tags

1. Ritu and Brinha were not the best of friends from the start, were they?

2. Sheena will not be attending the ceremony, will she?

3. She would not have done that, would she?

4. They have not arrived yet, have they?

5. Buying a new car when you already had a loan wasn’t a good idea, was it?

6. Making small talk isn’t your forte, is it?

7. Balu, the bear isn’t the one that saves Mowgli from the monkeys, is it?
8. All students have not submitted their assignments yet, have they?

9. Tina had not informed the others about the change of venue, had she?
10. You cannot survive without your phone, can you?

Positive Statements with Positive Question Tags to Express Interest, Anger and
Surprise

1. She is going ahead with her decision, is she?

2. So they are moving to Italy, are they?

3. You think this is a joke, do you?

4. You’re just going to sit there, are you?

5. So this is the way it is going to be from now on, is it?

EXERCISE:

Add question tags to these statements to make questions:

1. You come from China,______

2. He had to leave at 7 o'clock,______

 121

3. She hasn't got a dog,______

4. It isn't snowing,_______

5. Jenny was hoping to come,______

6. It's stopped raining,__________

7. He'd better come on time,__________

8. We've done this before,_________

9. You don't like football,________

10. She won't be late,_________

11. Annie's French,________

12. It was last week that we met,__________

13. That's wrong,____________

14. You'd never have thought it,__________

15. The sun will be shining tomorrow,__________

16. He'd rather go home,__________

17. He can't sing,__________

 122

18. You should leave earlier,_______

19. I must stop,_____

20. Let's start,______

21. You must be there by 11:30 a.m., ___________

22. Gowri is not present today, ___________

23. The teacher had asked you to submit an address proof, ___________

24. He is the prime suspect, ___________

25. Harini and Gowtham were not here, ___________

 123

3.3 Poster Presentation

Poster Presentation

Poster Presentation is an excellent way to present information and are required for many
courses, projects, and conferences.

Organize the content strategically

so that it as clear and easy to read

as possible. Use PowerPoint to

quickly and easily format your

content into an eye-catching

poster. Once you have formatted

the poster and finalized all the

content, you are ready to present

your poster!

Organizing the Content

1. Place an interesting title at the top of your poster. Aim for the title to span the
entire width of your poster, as this makes it easy to read. Create a title that will draw

people toward your poster to find out more about your topic. Consider defining the
scope of the research, asking a rhetorical question, or hinting at a surprising or

interesting finding.
• For example, “New Poetry Discovered in the Journals of WW2 Soldiers” would

be an interesting title for a poetry poster.

2. Start with an introduction in the top left corner of the poster. Underneath the

title, state what your poster is about and the impact your findings could have in the
real world. Include your reasons for researching the topic and mention any related

model studies.
• If you're making a scientific poster, include your hypothesis in the introduction.

• This section is generally only 1 paragraph long.

 124

3. Detail your research methods next. Use steps or a flowchart to describe how,

when, and where your research was conducted. This gives your research validity. Place
this section next to the introduction, such as in the top right corner.

• For example, if you collected water samples for a geography project, explain
where you got the water from, when you collected it, and the method that you

used to take the sample.

• If your poster is summarising the work of artists or researchers, such as in poetry,

geography, or history, explain why you chose the publications that you used and
detail the modes of research you utilized.

• If you are making a scientific poster, include all the materials that you used, your
method of statistics, and why you chose the method that you used. Use sub-

headings, such as “Materials” or “Steps” to break up the section.

4. Use the centre of the poster to display your results or main points. This
information should make up the bulk of your poster. Place this section in the middle

of your poster to help it stand out. When you write your main points, consider who
your audience is and think about what information they would be interested in.

• For example, if you are making a poster for a children's poetry fair, lots of funny
poems and poetry facts would likely draw the children to your poster.

• If you are making a scientific poster, use annotated graphs and tables to visually
display the data that you have collected.

• If you’re making a history or geography poster, consider placing an essay,

timeline, or map in this space.

5. Write a short conclusion to summarise your findings. Summarise your results in

bullet points or a few sentences to outline the key findings. Consider bolding your

key conclusions to make them stand out. Place this information at the bottom of your
poster.

• Contemplate ending with a memorable quote. For example, if you are making a
history poster, you could find a profound Nelson Mandela quote to finish with.
 125

• If you are making a scientific poster, compare your results to the hypothesis and

comment on whether your predictions were correct.

6. Include references and acknowledgments in the bottom right corner. If you

used any references in your poster, include the full citations in this section. Finish the

section by acknowledging anyone that helped you with the project, such as mentor,
sponsors, or tutors.

• This section can have a smaller font than the rest of the poster if you have limited
space.

7. Add visuals to make your poster stand out. Visuals help to break up large

sections of text in your poster and make it easier and more interesting to read. Where
relevant, include photos, graphs, and charts. Place images next to or below the text

that it relates to.

• Use high-resolution photos to ensure that the images don’t look fuzzy when

they are printed.

• Avoid using Clip Art, as this tends to look unprofessional.

Activities

a. How Cinemas Evolved

Through the Years

b. How to Fight Poverty

c. Modern Female World
Leaders
d. The Possibility of Life on
Mars
e. The Evolution and Improvement of Wireless Communication
 126

3.4 Note Making

Introduction to Note Making in English Grammar

Note-making is a process of creating a record of important details from sources

such as passages, paragraphs etc. The source can also be written documents or oral

communication. Note-making means recording the essence of information that is crucial.

Benefits of Note Making

Some of the benefits that the process offers are mentioned below.

1. It plays a major role while you are taking an exam or academic assessment

2. It helps capture the idea in a more effective way, especially if the notes made are
easier for you to understand

3. It also helps in fast thinking, and comprehension, memory retention, and prepares

an ever-lasting record
4. It maintains a primary record of lectures, meetings or studies for later use by

students
5. Furthermore, note-making helps in summarizing and overviewing a group of

information which lends a hand in recognizing central issues

How to Begin Note-Making?

Note making is a process that in itself needs a process to start with. This is

mentioned below!

Give a Quick Read

It is important to give a quick look over the passage to get a sense of the

information, its tone, ideological inclination, etc. Moreover, it helps you in knowing the
main idea of the passage as well as the author’s aim in writing. you must read at one

stroke and leave the critical or knotty sections for when you begin your intensive reading.
This should not take more than 3-5 minutes.

Intensive Read
After you are done with your quick reading session, you can now start reading

attentively and carefully. As you have already gone through the passage once and are
 127

attuned to its main idea, reading the passage carefully now assists you in developing a

clear grasp of the facts, opinions, arguments, and counter-arguments mentioned by the
author.

• Furthermore, many passages contain a huge amount of information which you

have put into categories of relevant, somewhat relevant or irrelevant. Doing this,
in turn, will help you in better note making and preparation.

• You must also remember that there may be sections or opinions that you may not
agree with. You should not let any such information have an impact on the notes

you prepare in any way or manner. During this phase, skipping any sentence or
phrase is not advisable even if you feel it is not pertinent.

Know the Word Limit

Typically, for note making questions, the word limit you must adhere to is 50-100

words. However, as per specific question patterns, the permitted word limit may change.

Note Making Format

Note making is an art. Be it for article writing, jotting down ideas for an essay on

environment, story writing, or for competitive exams, you need to have an outline so
as to avoid missing any important detail. Here is a rough format you can follow to solve
note making questions for exams:

• Heading/Title– This is the starting section of your note which must convey the

central idea of the passage. Various sub-headings and points hereon elaborate on
this heading. It must be short, clear and crisp.

• Subheadings, Points, and Sub-points– Subheadings are fundamental

components of a passage which further contain important information that needs

to be delineated into points and subpoints.

• Abbreviations and Symbols– In order to shorten long words, it is common and

permitted to use abbreviations. However, make use of abbreviative forms

judiciously and remember to provide a key at the end of your note, listing all the

full forms. Common symbols like ‘&, @,#, %, etc are also permitted.
 128

Note Making Sample

Here, the keys used in the note-making

practice, along with the actual referenced

words are mentioned below!

Key Word
Intrvw Interview
Deposns Depositions
Doc Document
Edu Education
Anlytcl Analytical
Trstwrthy Trustworthy
Comm Communication
Crtcl-Critical Critical
Confdntlty Confidentiality
Anlys Analysis
Thnkng Thinking

After getting familiar with the basic

details, let us go through a sample to

understand how one can answer such

questions and score well in the exam:
129
 130

3.5 A Short Report on an Event

Organizing Your Event Report

Determine the presentation style and format for each audience. Event reports can be

bound, stapled, emailed PDFs, PowerPoint presentations, and so on.

• Make sure the event report is organized into clear sections. You want to determine

how the results of the event compared to the objectives for it. Summarize the main
outcomes of the event.

• Tailor the event report for the needs and interests of each sponsor and audience.
Consider the objectives of the sponsors. To some degree, sponsors are the key

audience for an event report. They want to know whether it was worth sponsoring
the event. So consider what they will want to know and what their hot buttons are.

• Tailor the event report to also meet the specific needs of the uniqueness of the
event and sponsors. Don’t write a color-by-numbers report. Other audiences for

the event report include senior executives and financial managers.

Create a process to track information you will need throughout the event.

• Tracking key information before, during, and after the event will allow for a more
specific, and ultimately more effective, report. It will also allow you to compile it all

in a timelier fashion.
• Consider data collection to be continuous, using multiple people if necessary

(including possible interns) to collect data. The bottom line is that you should not
wait to create the report until the end of the event.

Boil it down to the key points.

• One problem with some event reports is that they do little more than regurgitate

the agenda or focus on feel-good, booster-ish statements. Don’t do that. Instead,

highlight the key points with a clear, analytical eye.

• Pick out some of the event highlights to discuss in detail. Consider which three
things worked best, and which three points were most surprising.
 131

• Avoid packing the article with mundane details, such as the luncheon menu or

a detailed summary of the entire presentation of the keynote speaker. You want
to pull out the things that mattered.

Putting the Right Content in Your Report

Write an executive summary.

• The event report should include an executive summary that is a concise version of
the more detailed full report. Think of the executive summary as being like an

introduction.
• You could create two reports – an executive summary designed for people who

have some interest in the event’s outcome, and a more detailed fuller report for
people actually involved in setting up or sponsoring the event.

• In the executive summary, you want to boil down and focus on the key objects and
results. The executive summary should be brief – just one or two pages. It should

summarize the key elements delivered by the event, and it should include a brief
interpretation of the data.

Include visuals in your event report.

• It’s often more effective to offer a chart illustrating statistical trends, instead of just

presenting readers with a bunch of numbers.

• If the event included a new product, you

could present a photo of it. Photos of the

actual event could help illustrate the event

report. Try to get photos of sponsors’

exposure on the site to document it for the

report. Again, this is a task that can’t wait

until after the event.

• Samples, reproductions, and other on-site

examples are good to include. Report the number of people who received sponsor

coupons, etc. Document both on-site and off-site exposure generated by the
event, in the media, to the audience, for sponsors.
 132

Document all advertising and media exposure.

• You want to assess the media that was generated compared to the objectives
outlined.

• Focus on print ads and articles in which sponsors’ names and ads appeared, in
addition to gathering circulation figures and advertising rates.

• Document television advertising, public service announcements, ratings and rate

card values, and news coverage.

• Don’t forget to document radio, rate card ads, values for ads and promotions,
audited reports, and so on.

Include a statement of the event’s objectives.

• It’s really important to link the event’s objectives with its results, so make sure that

you include a reminder of what the event’s original mission was and which goals
were set.

• You might include a listing of your event program. You should also discuss who
the key participants were in the event at some point. Keep these sections brief,

though.
• Make sure to spend the most time listing and discussing the specific key outcomes

of the event and matching them to the outcomes that were listed. Be realistic, and
don't try to sugarcoat things that didn't work.

Include financial information in the event report. It’s important to provide a detailed
discussion of the event’s budget and what was actually spent (or potentially brought in).

Make sure to include a comparison of budgeted expenditures versus actual ones, as well
as highlighting things that worked well and areas needing improvement.

• You should detail all costs, including marketing and promotional activities, staff
expenses, and sponsorship costs. It’s a good idea to include a detailed budget.

Financial managers and senior executives will want to see evidence that backs

up conclusions.
• Include an accounting of revenue, such as fees, sponsorships, and exhibits. But

make sure that you compare revenues to revenue projections. Compared to

what? That's a good question to ask.
 133

Include statistics that will be relevant to the readers. You don’t want a report that’s

packed with only feel-good information. The number of people who attended is one
statistic you should include. It’s a good idea to provide data that has a measurable aspect

to it.
• Other pertinent statistics and data can include the number of sales leads

generated and the number of visitors to a specific booth. Providing data gives
more credibility to the event report. Provide participant/attendee information.

Include demographics, attendance figures, and audience research results (such

as purchasing habits.

• Report on the number of people who respond to sponsors’ campaigns, as well

as donations to charitable organizations. Document the economic impact and

employee participation.
Have a qualitative element that contextualizes the data. Your report should include

some statistics, but you also need human quotes to provide contextual feedback.

• Gather quotes and feedback from participants and event team members so that
the assessment of the event's successes and failures doesn’t come only from the

event report’s author. It will be seen as more credible.

• Consider including third-party research as well. Placing a value on media

exposure is one example of something a third party could research.

• Assess the space and set ups. You should spend some time assessing the

effectiveness of the location and the set ups from the vantage point of others.
Discuss how space was used by the conference, event, etc.

Finalizing Your Event Report

Be timely with the report. Try to write and publish the report pretty quickly after the
event. Make sure you schedule it on your calendar to make sure that happens. Some

people suggest issuing an event report within 30 days, but others say you should do it
within a few days.
 134

• Whatever the deadline is, make sure that you meet it. Perhaps you are writing the

event report for an agency that has been commissioned by a specific client. Pay
attention to all requests.

• The bottom line is that your audience will expect both a thorough and a timely
report. So take the time to be thorough and get it right, but don’t wait so long it

seems dated.
Proofread your event report. Make sure that your event report contains proper

grammar and avoid spelling, punctuation, and other proofing errors.

• Make sure that your answers contain depth. A good rule of thumb is the writing

technique “show, don’t tell.” That means it’s a good idea to provide some
specific examples to back up more general points that are made in the report.

• Don’t forget your audience, and make sure that your writing sounds formal and
professional. An event report is not a casual document; it’s an essential

document to determine whether the event was worth it, so it needs to be

authoritative.

Hints

The following points are important to write a report of an event:

1. Give title or specific heading of the topic.

2. Write the place, date, and time of
the event.
3. Mention the reporter’s name.
4. Write the report in the past tense,
reported speech, and passive form
of expression.
5. Include the expressions of the
audience present in the event.
6. Content should be related to the
topic to present your ideas and
make the report interesting.
7. Write the conclusion of your findings.

Example 1: Report Writing Example of Annual Sports ceremony at high school

Reported by Mathew, the staff reporter
September 4, Josef High School
 135

The annuals sports ceremony is organized like a festival in Josef High School. The
school authority organized this ceremony. They chose a big ground as a venue. The
school has many potential students who were good at sports. The mayor of the city was
there as the chief guest. The students were so excited. A team was organized to manage
the whole ceremony. Some Volunteers also started to set up the ground and scoreboard.

In sports ceremonies, there are different activities as sports performed by the

students. First, an opening ceremony took place as a cultural function. A fantastic stage
was prepared for award distribution, speeches, and cultural function. After the cultural
function, the names of the participants and games were announced.

The school principal delivered a speech about the heritage of sports day in their
school. After that, a singing competition started. It was an interesting activity.

Now the turn was athletic games such as high jump, long jump, table tennis, and 500
meters racing. In the end, volleyball, basketball, and football matches were played. All
participants were very enthusiastic.

At the end of the ceremony, the principal announced the names of the winners.
The mayor of the city was the chief guest of the ceremony. He distributed prizes to the
winners. A memorable day came to an end, and the participants returned home with great
joy.
 136

3.6 Listening to Formal Conversation – BEC Pattern

Listening Test

Listen to the radio interview about how false information spreads and do the
exercises to practice and improve your listening skills.

Preparation
https://bd748f642cf8b253d59c-
5c160b94f727c0d27cbeccc854542bc6.ssl.cf1.rackcdn.com/5_teens_-
_listening_skills_practice_-_c1_-_how_false_information_spreads.mp3

Match the vocabulary with the correct definition and write

a–j next to the numbers 1–10.

1…….. inaccuracies a. to prove that something is true

2…….. to vaccinate b. to write or say the words of a writer, book, etc.
3…….. to cite c. an African mammal with a long nose that eats ants
4…….. measles d. a plan to trick or deceive someone
5…….. an aardvark e. to intentionally damage property belonging to others
6…….. a hoax f. to change something so that it doesn’t work as
intended
7…….. to vandalise g. statements that are not correct
8…….. to verify h. not based on facts or proof

9…….. to tamper with i. to give a person an injection to prevent them getting a

something disease
10.…….. unfounded j an infectious disease which covers the body in small
red spots

1. Check your understanding: multiple choice

Circle the best answer to these questions.

1. Which statement about circular reporting is true?

a. It is the spread of true information.
b. It is when false information is validated by one other source only.
c. It only occurs with information on Wikipedia.
d. It may involve several publications.
 137

2. Which statement is true about journalists?

a. They are not permitted to copy information from Wikipedia.
b. They refuse to copy information from Wikipedia.
c. As soon as they include information in an article, they verify the
information.
d. Many journalists may publish inaccuracies in several articles.

3. Which statement is correct?

a. Another name for a coati is a Brazilian aardvark.
b. The American student changed the information on Wikipedia to what he
believed to be the truth.
c. Many people believed that a Brazilian aardvark was the same as a coati.
d. When writers wrote about the Brazilian aardvark they knew it was a joke.
4. Which statement is true about Wikipedia?

a. Some people add false content to a Wikipedia entry intentionally.

b. Updating information on Wikipedia is against the law.

c. There is hardly any true information on Wikipedia.

d. Many true facts on Wikipedia initially appear as false information.

5. What is true about childhood vaccines and autism?

a. There is a clear connection between childhood vaccines and autism.

b. Circular reporting incited many parents not to vaccinate their children.

c. The claims that they were connected first appeared on Wikipedia.

d. The media proved early on that the claims about vaccines and autism

were false.

6. Which statement is correct?

a. Generally speaking, it’s easy to identify false information.

b. If the original source is Wikipedia or the media, the information is almost

always false.

c. Reflecting critically on what we read is something most people often do.

d. Lack of time to think and investigate can cause us to believe things that

aren’t true.
 138

2. Check your understanding: gap fill

Complete the expressions from the audio with a phrase from the box.

1. ___________________(using as few words as possible), it’s the confirmation of false

information.

2. ___________ and __________(not at all) is obvious as being false.

3. ____________then he forgot about it and ______________(spent no time

thinking about it).

4. That’s not to say that all information on Wikipedia is false _________ (not at

all).

5. ___________________ unsupported claims were picked up by the media and

(became known by lots of people very quickly).

6. We often ________________ (accept things as they appear, rather than

thinking carefully about

them).
Discussion

1. Do you use Wikipedia? What’s your opinion of it?

2. Have you ever believed information and later discovered it was false? What
happened?
 139

Unit – 4
4.1 Spotting Errors
The foundation of any language is its words, phrases, and sentences. A

misuse of them renders an expression meaningless. Such statements would be

difficult to understand. Therefore, it is essential to grasp the language's origins

in order to comprehend written material and its expression.

Generally, in competitive exams, these types of questions have

sentences divided into four parts marked as (a), (b), (c), and (d), and the fifth
option (e) refers to ‘No error’. The candidates are required to find out the part

of the sentence containing the error.

The faults could have to do with how the article is used, a preposition,
the sentence's tense, a verb, a noun, a pronoun, an adverb, an adjective, a

conjunction, subject-verb agreement, etc. Sometimes the mistake may also

involve the inappropriate use of certain terms.

We must be aware of the fact that there is no "shortcut" to finding the

answers to these issues. Grammar principles and how to use them must be

well understood. Practice these questions after thoroughly studying the rules.
More practice results in increased confidence. For a noticeable increase in

score, repeat the exercises again and over. So, let's practice and review the
guidelines for 'Spotting the Error' questions.

Error Spotting Rules

1. After let, if a pronoun is used, that noun must be in the Objective Case.

• Let he do it
Let him do it.

2. When two or more personal plural pronouns come together, the correct order
starts with the First person (we) followed by the second person (you) and
third person (they) respectively.

• You, they and we must go together.

We, you, and they must go together.
 140

3. When two or more singular personal pronouns are used together, the
sequence must be a second person(you) followed by a third person (he) and
first person (I) respectively. (It must be used in positive sentences)

• I, you, and he must help the needy.

You, he, and I must help the need.

4. Singular nouns combined by either or, neither nor pronoun must be singular.

• Neither Sudha nor Rama did their homework.

Neither Sudha nor Rama did her homework.

5. When two singular nouns are combined by and refer to the same
person/thing, the pronoun used must be singular.

• The director and vice chancellor is not intelligent in their duties.

The director and vice chancellor is not intelligent in his duties.

6. When two singular nouns are combined using “and” the pronoun used must be
plural.

• Rama and Sudha are not honest in her dealings

Rama and Sudha are not honest in their dealing.
7. Each of or None of + Plural noun/pronoun is takes singular pronoun/helping verb

• Each of the boys have participated in the game.

Each of the boys has participated in the game.

8. Either/Neither are used for referring to two persons/things; any, none and no one
is Say/suggest/ propose/speak/reply/explain/listen/write is always followed by
to.

• I suggest you take some rest.

I suggest you to take some rest.

9. After transitive verbs; discuss, describe, reach, order, tell, demand, attack,
resemble, ridicule, no preposition is used.

• He ordered for the food.

He ordered the food.
• He demands to his release.
He demands his release.

10. No preposition is used after today, tomorrow, or yesterday.

• I met him on yesterday.

I met him yesterday.
 141

11. Verbs used after “about, after, at, before, for, in on” must be in V+ing form.

• He will meet his parents before leave for France.

He will meet his parents before leaving for France.

12. The preposition used after two words must be made clear if these two words
take some preposition or not.

• He is aware and prepare for his duties.

He is aware of and prepare for his duties.

13. Hardly is followed by then and inversion of the sentences is used. Scarcely is used
when

• Hardly had we step out of the home, when it began to rain.

Hardly had we step out of the home, then it began to rain.
• Scarcely had we step out of the home, then it began to rain.
Scarcely had we step out of the home, when it began to rain.

14. Correct use of not only but also

• He lost not only his shoes but also his books.

He not only lost his shoes but also his books.

15. Ago is always used in the past indefinite tense.

• He had met him two years ago

He met him two years ago.

16. Much is used with past participle and adjectives and adverbs of comparative
degree. Very is used with the present participle.

• The news is much surprising.(present participle)

The news is very surprising.
• I was very surprised at his behavior.
I was much surprised (past participle) at his behavior.

17. Too means more than required which is used in negative sentences. It cannot
be used in a positive sense like too glad, too pleasant, too healthy.

• The palace is too pleasant to look at.

The palace is very pleasant to look at.

18. used for more than two things/persons

• Neither of the three girls was presented in the class.

Neither of the two girls was presented in the class.
 142

19. If+ she/I/you+ were takes nominative cases of the pronoun.

• If you were him, you would have accepted the proposal.

If you were he, you would have accepted the proposal.

20. If a principal verb is used after: about, before, for, from, in, on, use verb+ing form.

• You must tell me before taking any decision.

You must inform the examiner after completing your exam

21. Too----To and so ----- that should not be intertwined

• He is too weak that he cannot walk.

He is too weak to walk
• He is so weak to walk
He is so weak that he cannot walk.

22. Elder and eldest must be used for persons (strictly these are used for the
members of the same family) Older is used to refer to a person who ahead of
age.

• My older brother is very protective.

My elder brother is very protective.
• He is two years elder to me
He is two years older to me

23. All the adjectives referring to the same noun must be in the same degree of
comparison.

• He is the most handsome and wiser student of the class.

• He is the most handsome and wisest student of the class.

24. Adjectives like “unique, ideal, perfect, complete, universal, entire, extreme,
chief, do not admit the comparative degrees because they represent their
superlative degree themselves.
• He is the most perfect boy.
He is the perfect boy.
• It is the most complete assignment.
It is the complete assignment.

25. The adjectives inferior, superior, senior, junior, prior etc. take the preposition to,
not than.

• He always felt inferior than her younger sister.

He always felt inferior to her younger sister.
 143

26. When the subjects joined by nor/or are of different numbers, the verb must
be plural and the plural verb must be placed next to the verb.

• Neither teachers nor principal was present in the assembly.

Neither principal nor the teachers were present in the assembly.

27. Words like “together with, along with, as well as, in addition to” do not make the
subject plural.

• Alisha along with Anil are going for a picnic.

• Alisha along with Anil is going for a picnic.
28. Rule for dependent clause - if we mention a plural subject in the independent
clause which is necessary for the sentence, the verb must agree with that subject.

• She is one of the best teachers who has ever taught me.
• She is one of the best teachers who have ever taught me.

29.When helping verbs like am, is, was, were used with the personal
pronouns, the other pronoun must be nominative case.

• I am him.
I am he.
• He was me
He was I.

30. Know followed by how, where, when, and why takes to+V1

• I know to drive.
• I know how to drive.

31. After the bid, let, behold, watch, see, feel, we use the bare infinitive (without to)

• I watched him to grow.

I watched him grow.
• I let him to cry.
I let him cry.

32. To+V1 is not used after can, could, may, might, should, will, would, must, dare
not, need not.

• He dare not to speak to me.

He dare not speak to me
• He could not to write.
He could not write a letter.

33. Than is always followed by bare infinitive.

• He had better leave than to stay.

 144

He had better leave than stay.

34. When but is used as a preposition and followed by a verb “to” is not used.

• He did nothing but to weep.

He did nothing but weep.

35. Some Nouns always remain singular. The verb and pronoun associated
with these nouns are also always singular.

Hair, information, aircraft, furniture, money, advice, sheep, fish, bread.

36. Some nouns are always in the plural form.

Scissors, trousers, spectacles, gloves, socks,

37. If the main topic, jist or crux of the sentence is singular, the verb and pronoun will
also be singular.

The pronunciation of Worcestershire, Choir, and Penguin is very confusing.

38. Normally we treat all collective nouns singularly.

• The group of students has come first.

• My team has won the match.
• A bunch of keys was found in the trash.

39. When the subject of the collective noun comes before the collective noun its
usage will be plural.

• A band of robbers has attacked the city.

• Robbers of a band have attacked the city.

40. All material nouns are treated singularly.

• Gold is expensive.
• Water is healthy.
• Oxygen is important.

41. When the material noun is countable, its usage becomes plural too.

• Diamonds are a woman's best friend.

• Please pick up all bricks and stones from the floor.
• My house is made of bricks and stones
• My house is made of brick and stone
42. Similar Sounding Words

• Practice and Practise

• Advice and Advise
 145

There are a few pairs of words like the above in English vocabulary that have
differences between 'c' and 's’. We must remember that there is a grammatical
difference between these words.

• Advice is a noun. E.g. Thank you for your valuable advice.

• Advise is a verb. E.g. Thank you for advising me
• Practice is a noun. Eg How is your football practice going?
• Practise is a verb. E.g. Are you practising football every day?

43. Both 'a' and 'an' are used to identify anything that is generalized in a
statement. ’A book' means any book and 'an umbrella' means any umbrella,
rather than a specific book or umbrella.

• 'A' is always used before nouns starting with a consonant sound.

• 'An' is always used before nouns starting with a vowel sound.

44. Usage of 'the’

(a) Anything specific stated in a sentence should be preceded by 'the’

Eg. Amitabh, the actor of the movie, is the favorite of the director who says he is
nothing but the best.

E.g. the best, the most hardworking, the most beautiful, etc

(b) Any natural resources will always have 'the’.

Eg. the sun, the moon, the Ganga, the Himalayas, etc.

(c) Superlative degree of adjectives will always have 'the’.

E.g. the best, the most hardworking, the most beautiful, etc

The' is never used before proper nouns but can be used before common nouns.

Exercise
Direction: Spot the grammatical errors in the given sentence. Mark the part with error as

your answer. If there is no error, mark "No error" as the answer. (Ignore punctuation
error)

1. At a time which most firms (a)/ were finding it difficult (b)/ to raise money, we

succeeded (c)/ in raising the necessary funds. (d)/ No error (e)

a. At a time which most firms

b. were finding it difficult

 146

c. to raise money, we succeeded

d. in raising the necessary funds

e. No error

2. Everyone is keen in knowing (a)/ the forecast for the monsoon (b)/ this year as it
has been the (c)/ major cause of inflation in Asia. (d)/ No error (e)

a. Everyone is keen in knowing

b. the forecast for the monsoon

c. this year as it has been the

d. major cause of inflation in asia

e. No error

3. Building biogas plants will help to reduce (a)/ greenhouse gas emissions by

reducing (b)/ the consuming of conventional fuels (c)/ such as firewood and
kerosene. (d)/ No error (e)

a. Building biogas plants will help to reduce

b. greenhouse gas emissions by reducing

c. the consuming of conventional fuels

d. such as firewood and kerosene

e. No error

4. Since some banks may take longer (a) / to achieve these targets, RBI (b)/ has

considered to revise these guidelines (c) / on a case to case basis, (d) / No error
(e)

a. Since some banks may take longer

b. to achieve these targets, RBI

c. has considered to revise these guidelines

d. on a case to case basis

e. No error

5. After joining the Hong Kong based (a)/ bank in 1990, he has (b)/ head various
departments (c)/ including corporate and investment banking (d)/ No error (e)
 147

a. After joining the hong kong based

b. bank in 1990, he has

c. head various departments

d. including corporate and investment banking

e. No error

6. Plagued by huge losses, (a)/ full service airlines are struggling (b)/ to cope with
the competition (c)/ from low cost airlines. (d)/ No error (e)

a. Plagued by huge losses

b. full service airlines are struggling

c. to cope with the competition

d. from low cost airlines

e. No error

7. Volunteers of an -NGO (a)/ interacted with school students (b)/ to spread

awareness about (c)/ environment related issues. (d)/ No error (e)

a. Volunteers of an -NGO

b. interacted with school students

c. to spread awareness about

d. environment related issues

e. No error

8. The Union Health Minister said that (a)/ there was an acute shortage of (b)/
health personnel in rural areas (c)/ who needed to be addressed urgently. (d)/ No

error (e)

a. The union health minister said that

b. there was an acute shortage of

c. health personnel in rural areas

d. who needed to be addressed urgently

e. No error

9. Even though most of India's youth (a)/lives in villages, many people considers
 148

(b)/ the ones roaming in dazzling multiplexes (c)/ as their true reflection. (d)/ No

error (e)

a. Even though most of india's youth

b. lives in villages, many people considers

c. the ones roaming in dazzling multiplexes

d. as their true reflection

e. No error

10. The RBI has proposed to introduce (a)/ polymer notes after taking into
considering (b)/ the cost and longevity (c)/ associated with their manufacturing.

(d)/ No error (e)

a. The RBI has proposed to introduce

b. polymer notes after taking into considering

c. the cost and longevity

d. associated with their manufacturing

e. No error
 149

4.2 Conditional Clauses

A conditional clause is a grammatical structure in a sentence that expresses a

condition or a hypothetical situation. It typically consists of an "if" clause, which presents

the condition, followed by a main clause that states the result or consequence if the

condition is met.

Here are a few examples:

General truth: If I eat breakfast, I feel good all day.

Future event: If I have a test tomorrow, I will study tonight.

Hypothetical situation: If I had a million dollars, I would buy a boat!

Hypothetical outcome: If I had prepared for the interview, I would have gotten the job.

Four Types of Conditionals

There are 4 basic types of conditionals: Zero, First, Second, and Third.

1. The Zero Conditional

The zero conditional expresses something that is considered to be a universal truth or

when one action always follows another.

if (or when) + present tense | present tense

if (or when) + past tense | past tense

When I did my homework, my teacher was happy.*

If the temperature reaches zero degrees Celsius, water freezes.

My mom comforted me when I got scared.*

If you mix red and yellow, you get orange.

 150

It is observed that the order of clauses is not fixed in the conditional. However, if “if” or

“when” is moved to the middle of the sentence, the comma should be removed. This rule
is applicable to all 4 types.

Note: The zero conditional is the only type of conditional in which “when” can replace

“if.”

2. The First Conditional

The first conditional expresses a future scenario that might occur. Assuming that the

condition is fulfilled, the outcome is likely to happen.

if + present tense | will (may/might/can/could/should) + infinitive

If I get paid today, I will go shopping.

(“Will” implies near certainty about the shopping trip in case the condition is fulfilled)

We could go to Paris if we save enough money.

(“Could” indicates that the result is possible.)

If she knows the truth, she might not be happy.

(“Might” implies a degree of uncertainty about her happiness in case the condition is
fulfilled.)

They can do it if they try.

(“Can” indicates that the result is possible.)

If I see the man, I may say something to him.

(“May” implies a degree of uncertainty about saying something to him in case the
condition is fulfilled.)

He should get a dog if he is lonely.

(“Should” indicates that the speaker is giving their opinion.)

 151

This type refers to general truths, while the first conditional refers to specific situations.

Though “will” is most commonly used in the first conditional, “may,” “might,” “can,”
“could,” or “should can also be used.” However, as outlined above, each of these modal

verbs can change the meaning of the sentence.

3. The Second Conditional (Imaginary)

The second conditional can either refer to future hypotheticals that are unlikely to be true

or present situations that are untrue or impossible.

if + past subjunctive | would/might/could + infinitive (simple or continuous)

*if + simple past | would/might/could + infinitive (simple or continuous)

If I were rich, I would travel the world.

If she were to try harder, she might get better grades.

They might be able to see it if they were more observant.

If I met the President, I would be too nervous to speak.

If he played sports, he might be in better shape.

He could get the promotion if he knew the right people.

Though the second resembles the first conditional in meaning, their structures are
distinct. Moreover, the first conditional usually refers to future events that are likely to

happen, while the second refers to events that are unlikely to happen (or current
impossibilities).

4. The Third Conditional (Impossible)

The third conditional expresses an unreal situation in the past, with reference to the
hypothetical outcome that would result also in the past.

if + past perfect subjunctive | would (could/might) + perfect infinitive

*if + past perfect | would (could/might) + perfect infinitive

 152

If I had known how you were going to react, I would have kept my mouth shut.

If you had seen the movie, we could have talked about the ending.

We might have crossed paths if I had left the house on time.

Both the second and third conditionals can refer to impossible events. However, the
second refers to impossibilities in the present (“If I were you…”), while the third refers to

impossibilities in the past. The situations expressed in the third conditional are impossible
because they already transpired and therefore cannot be changed.

Exercise

Use the verbs in brackets into their correct forms.

1. I would have read the letter if I ________________________ (know) it was from you.

2. If Tony doesn’t help in the garden I ___________________________ (not finish) my work

in time.

3. If you _______________________________ (not tell ) me about Maxwell’s birthday I

would forget it.

4. We _________________________ (catch) the train earlier if Mary had found her purse.

5. If Susan ____________________ (learn) the poem she would have known the answer.

6. If it ____________________ (be) too hot we will stop and get a cold drink.

7. If it ______________________ (not rain) today I would stay at home.

8. If the Professor spoke clearly we ______________________________ (understand)

him better.

9. If you go on talking like that we _______________________________ (throw) you out.

10. If Sasha _____________________________ (go) home now he would meet his own
brother.
 153

11. If it rained, the streets _______________________________ (be) wet.

12. If I ____________________ (not tell) Jim the address he wouldn’t have found you.

13. The bird ____________________________ (die) if you had caught it.

14. What ________________________ (you, do) if you won the lottery ?

15. If the weather ___________________________________ (not change) we will reach the top
of the mountain.

16. Dinner _____________________________(be) fine if the meat weren’t cold.

17. I’m sure Benny _____________________________ (come) if you wait a bit longer.

18. If you ring the bell, somebody ___________________________ (answer) it.

19. If Betsy _____________________________ (see) you, he would have talked to you.

20. You ________________________________ (find ) your ticket if you had looked into your
pockets.
 154

4.3 Relative Clause

A relative clause is one kind of dependent clause. It has a subject and verb,
but can’t stand alone as a sentence. It is sometimes called an “adjective clause”
because it functions like an adjective—it gives more information about a noun. A
relative clause always begins with a “relative pronoun,” which substitutes for a
noun, a noun phrase, or a pronoun when sentences are combined.
The relative pronouns are:

Pronoun Stands For Uses

who people substitutes for subject nouns/pronouns (he,

she, we, they)

whom people substitutes for object nouns/pronouns (him,

her, us, them)

whose people or things substitutes for possessive nouns/pronouns (his,

hers, ours, theirs)

that people or things can be used for either subject or object

can only be used in restrictive relative clauses
(see below)

which things can be used for either subject or object

can be used in non-restrictive relative clauses
can also be used in restrictive relative clauses,
though some people don’t like this use

Relative pronoun as subject (in Bold):

I like the person. The person was nice to me.

I like the person who was nice to me.

I hate the dog. The dog bit me.

I hate the dog that bit me.

I am moving to Louisville, KY. It is home to the Muhammad Ali Museum.

I am moving to Louisville, KY, which is home to the Muhammad Ali Museum.
 155

Relative pronoun as object (in Bold):

I like the bike. My father gave me the bike.

I like the bike that my father gave me.

Restrictive Relative Clauses

Restrictive relative clauses give information that defines the noun—information

that’s necessary for complete identification of the noun. Use “that” or “which” for non-
human nouns; use “that” or “who” for human nouns. Do not use commas.

I like the paintings. (Which paintings? We can’t clearly identify them without the relative

clause.)
So we add the clause:

The paintings hang in the SASB North lobby.

I like the paintings that hang in the SASB North lobby.

OR
I like the paintings which hang in the SASB North lobby. (Again, this is

acceptable, but some people object to using “which” in a restrictive relative

clause. “That” is preferred.)

Students who study hard will do well in my class. (Only this group of students
will do well.)

Students whose grades are low can drop one test score. (Only this group can
drop a test score.)
When the noun is the object of the preposition, both the noun and the preposition
move together to the front of the relative clause. In less formal English, it’s common to

move only the pronoun to the front of the clause.

I spent hours talking with a person last night. I hope to hear from her.

I hope I hear from the person with whom I spent hours talking last night. (more

formal)
OR
 156

I hope to hear from the person whom I spent hours talking with last night. (less

formal)

Non-restrictive relative clauses

This type of relative clause merely provides extra information. The information may be
quite interesting and important to the larger conversation, but it is not essential for

precise identification of the noun. “That” cannot be used as a relative pronoun in a non-
restrictive relative clause. Commas are always used at the beginning and end of this

type of relative clause.

A non-restrictive relative clause can modify a single noun, a noun phrase, or an entire

proposition.
My mother is thinking of opening a restaurant. My mother is an excellent cook.

“My mother” is already a clearly defined noun, so the second sentence becomes a non-
restrictive relative clause set off by commas on both sides.

My mother, who is an excellent cook, is thinking of opening a restaurant.

I’m planning to grow roses. I find roses quite beautiful.

I’m planning to grow roses, which I find quite beautiful.

(not okay) I’m planning to grow roses, that I find quite beautiful.

I’m driving across the country with three small children.

Driving across the country with three small children is going to be stressful.

I’m driving across the country with three small children, which is going to be
stressful.

Subject-verb agreement in relative clauses

The relative pronoun is substituting for a noun, which could be singular or plural before
the substitution. The verb in the relative clause must agree with the original noun.

People are lucky. People win the lottery.

People who win the lottery are lucky. (plural verb)

A person is lucky. She wins the lottery every year.

 157

A person who wins the lottery every year is lucky. (singular verb)

Agreement can be tricky in “one of the…” constructions. The key is to find which noun
the relative pronoun is referring to.

Homelessness is a problem. The problem needs to be addressed.

Homelessness is a problem that needs to be addressed. (singular problem)

Many problems need to be addressed. Homelessness is one of the problems.

Homelessness is one of the problems that need to be addressed. (plural

problems)

The following sentences contain examples of relative pronouns. The relative pronoun in
each example is italicized.

1. The cyclist who won the race trained hard.

2. The pants that I bought yesterday are already stained.
3. The four team leaders, whoever the committee selects, will be at tomorrow’s
meeting.
4. Spaghetti, which we eat at least twice a week, is one of my family’s favorite meals.
5. Where did you buy the dress that you wore last week?

List of Relative Pronouns

Who
Whom
That
Which
Whoever
Whomever
Whichever

Exercise
Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.

1. The festival, ______________ lasted all day, ended with a banquet.

 158

A. That
B. Who
C. Which
D. What
2. I am looking for someone __________ can watch my dog while I go on vacation.
A. Which
B. Who
C. Whom
D. Whoever
3. The police needed details _____________ could help identify the robber.
A. Who
B. Whatever
C. That
D. What
4. I’d like to take you to a café _______________ serves excellent coffee.
A. What
B. Whatever
C. Which
D. Whichever
5. The clubhouse, in __________ the dance was held, housed about 200 people.
A. Which
B. Where
C. That
D. Whom
6. You can choose one person, __________ you like, to share the cruise with you.
A. Whomever
B. That
C. Which
D. Whom
7. I saw the shoes __________ you bought last week on sale for less this week.
A. When
B. That
 159

C. Who
D. Whom
8. The winners, __________ known, will receive money and other prizes.
A. Whoever
B. Who
C. When
D. That
9. This is the place __________ we met.
A. When
B. Where
C. Who
D. That
10. The baby, ________ nap had been interrupted, wailed loudly.
A. Whose
B. Whomever
C. Whom
D. Who
 160

4.4 Modifiers

A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that modifies—that is, gives information about—
another word in the same sentence. For example, in the following sentence, the word
"burger" is modified by the word "vegetarian":
Example: I'm going to the Saturn Café for a vegetarian burger.

• The modifier "vegetarian" gives extra information about what kind of burger it is.

A modifier can be an adjective (a word that modifies a noun, like "burger"), but it can also
be an adverb (a word that modifies a verb):
Example: The student carefully proofread her draft.

• The adverb "carefully" is the modifier in this example—it modifies the verb
"proofread," giving important details about how the proofreading was conducted.

A modifier can even be a phrase or clause, as in the following example:

Example: She studied in the library.

• Here, the phrase "in the library" gives us extra information about the verb,
"studied."

Modifiers can also be used for sentence variety. See this page on varying sentence
structure for more information.

Misplaced Modifiers

When a modifier is ambiguously or illogically modifying a word, we consider it

a misplaced modifier. See APA 7, Section 4.23 for more explanation and examples.
Example: Dolger discovered an ancient Mayan civilization using astronavigation.

• The modifier, "using astronavigation," is unclear in this sentence. Does it modify

"Dolger" or "civilization"? A reader will wonder, "Was Dolger using
astronavigation? Or was the civilization he discovered using astronavigation?"

Revision 1: Using astronavigation, Dolger discovered an ancient Mayan civilization.

• This modifier placement makes it clear that "Dolger" is the one using
astronavigation.

Revision 2: Dolger discovered an ancient Mayan civilization that used astronavigation.

• This modifier placement makes it clear that the "civilization" used

astronavigation.
 161

Dangling Modifiers

When a modifier is not modifying a specific word, we call it a dangling modifier.

Example: After consulting a selection of current publications, research in this area
has been sparse.

• In this example, it is not clear who is consulting the selection of current

publications. In other words, there is no referent in the sentence.

Revision 1: After consulting a selection of current publications, I determined that

the research in this area has been sparse.

• Now the subject in the sentence “I” matches the modifier “after consulting a
selection of current publications.”

Revision 2: According to the selection of current publications, research in this area

has been sparse.

• Now the modifier “according to the selection of current publications” matches

the subject “research.”

Exercise

Correct any misplaced modifiers in the following sentences.

1. The vehicle was parked on the front lawn of the Starr residence with a “slightly

flat tire.”
The vehicle had a “slightly flat tire” and was parked on the front lawn of the Starr

residence.
2. Two police officers arrested Mr. James outside Three Rivers Stadium on the night

of the raid on charges of marijuana possession.

On the night of the raid, two police officers arrested Mr. James outside Three

Rivers Stadium. They charged him with marijuana possession.

3. The court upheld summary judgment in favour of the employer which found that

there was not enough evidence for a claim of false light invasion of privacy.
The court upheld summary judgment in favour of the employer because there

was not enough evidence for a claim of false light invasion of privacy.
 162

4. The no-duty rule should not apply to a patron struck by a ball batted by a player

during the seventh inning stretch while seated in an open concourse.

The no-duty rule should not apply to a patron struck by a ball batted by a player

during the seventh-inning stretch while the patron was seated in an open
concourse.

5. Knowing that Jones feared snakes, the television show script contained a scene
that would force Jones to interact with serpents.

Knowing that Jones feared snakes, the television show script writers included a
scene that would force Jones to interact with serpents.

6. Flying over the barrier and into the stands, the fan could not escape the foul ball.

7. Subjected to humiliation, the producers of the reality television show should have
anticipated the contestant might break the contract.

8. Enticed by the horses, the fence provided an inadequate barrier to prevent the
child from reaching the pasture.

9. The incident deeply upset Barnett, and he has been seeing a psychologist with
severe emotional distress.

10. Tom barely skidded 6 inches in the milk spill.

 163

11. Anna suggested often that the children should play outside.

12. A friend Barnett had lunch with occasionally suggested that Barnett compete on
a reality show.

13. Without knowing about the content planned for the television show segments, it
was impossible to give full consent to participate.

14. Bill fell asleep under a tree, tired from the long hike up the mountain.

15. The pedestrian was hit by a car, sitting on the curb.

 164

4.5 Cause and Effect Expressions

In certain structures, words are employed to underline causal relationships. Such

words not only link sentences but also express the cause and effect in the given

sentence. Various connections are used to link the cause-and-effect statements. They
are: Because, Therefore, consequently, since, as, as a result, because of, owing to the

fact, in view of the fact, on account of the fact.

1. Oil floats on water / because / it is less denser than water.

Effect Cause

Oil floats on water / since / it is less denser than water.

Oil floats on water / as / it is less denser than water.

2. New machinery was installed. / Consequently, / there is improvement in production.

Cause Effect
New machinery was installed. / Therefore, / there is improvement in production.

New machinery was installed. / As a result, / there is improvement in production.

3. When the connective ‘because of’ is used the cause clause is converted into a noun

or noun phrase.
Eg: The building collapsed because there were faults in the structure.

(Clause)
The building collapsed because of structural faults. (Noun Phrase)

Exercise
Rewrite the following sentences by using the appropriate expressions to show
their causal relations:

1. The machine was tested. It was installed.

2. The air filter gets clogged with dirt. It must be cleaned regularly.
3. The mechanic was hurt. He went to hospital.

4. This type of turbine is widely used. It has a much greater efficiency.

 165

5. A metal expands when it is heated. Expansion joints are fitted to steam pipes.

6. The cost of labor is high. A mechanical stoker was installed.

7. Sufficient atomic power is not available. We depend on hydro-electricity.

8. There are dust particles in the atmosphere. Accurate observation is difficult.

9. The working of the machine is complex. It requires a technician to operate it.

10. The temperature has reached a very high point. Some method of cooling must be

adopted.
11. His eyes were damaged when the acid splashed on his face. He was not wearing

goggles.
12. Power demand is increasing rapidly. The fossil fuels will soon be exhausted.

13. Black paint prevents heat from escaping. The steel tray of a hybrid solar cooker is

painted black.
14. Advertising is a powerful communication force and a vital marketing tool. It helps

to increase sales of a product.

15. Polished surfaces reflect heat well. An electric room heater has a polished reflector.
 166

5.1 Abbreviations and Acronyms

Abbreviations and acronyms are shorter versions of existing words and phrases.
They're designed to save time and take up less space. An acronym is a stand-in for a string

of words, usually an organization name, slogan, or something else equally wordy. Unlike
abbreviations, they aren't shorter spellings of words—they're made up of the words'

initials. For eg- NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) and ATM
(automated teller machine).

List of Abbreviations
ASSOCHAM The Associated Chambers of Commerce
andIndustry of India
ASTO Association of Sea Training Organizations
DAP Diammonium Phosphate (Urea)
CENVAT Central Value Added Tax
GDR Global Depositary Receipt
MRPL Mangalore Refineries & Petrochemicals
Limited
APM Administered Price Mechanism
AICPI(IW) All India Consumer Price Index
(IndustrialWorkers)
ACR Annual Confidential Report
BEL Bharat Electronics Limited
BHEL Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited
BSNL Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited
BIFR Board for Industrial and Financial
Restructuring
BRPSE Board for Reconstruction of Public
SectorEnterprises
BPE Bureau of Public Enterprises
BPO Business Process Outsourcing
CPS Cash Based Profit Sharing
CBDT Central Board for Direct Taxes
CDA Central Dearness Allowance
CPC Central Pay Commission
CPSE Central Public Sector Enterprises
CMD Chairman-cum-Managing Director
CEO Chief Executive Officer
CFO Chief Finance Officer
COO Chief Operating Officer
CCA City Compensatory Allowance
CAG Comptroller & Auditor General of India
CRS Compulsory Retirement Scheme
CII Confederation of Indian Industries
CTC Cost to the Company
DA Dearness Allowance
 167

DPS Deferred Profit Sharing

DPE Department of Public Enterprises
ESPP Employee Stock Purchase Plan
EPS Employees Pension Scheme
ESOP Employees Stock Option Plan
ERP Enterprises Resource Planning
FMCG Fast Moving Consumer Goods
FICCI Federation of Indian Chamber of Commerce
and
Industry
FRBM Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
FEMA Foreign Exchange Management Act
FERA Foreign Exchange Regulation Act
GAIL Gas Authority of India Ltd
GDP Gross Domestic Product
HoD Head of Department
HPPC High Power Pay Committee
HAL Hindustan Aeronautics Limited
HMT Hindustan Machine Tools
HRA House Rent Allowance
HRD Human Resource Development
IIM Indian Institute of Management
IIT Indian Institute of Technology
IOC Indian Oil Corporation
ISM Indian School of Mines
ITI Indian Telephones Industries
IDA Industrial Dearness Allowance
IT Information Technology
ITES Information Technology Enabled Services
IPE Institute of Public Enterprises
IS Industry Segment
ISO International Standards Organization
LTC Leave Travel Concession
LIC Life Insurance Corporation of India
LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas
MTNL Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Ltd
MOU Memorandum of Understanding
M&A Mergers & Acquisitions
MSTC Metals & Scrap Trading Corporation
MMTC Minerals & Metal Trading Corporation
MRTP Monopolies & Restrictive Trade Practices
MNC Multi National Company
NALCO National Aluminium Company
NCMP National Common Minimum Programme
NFC National Fire College
NIETE National Institute of Industrial Engineering.
NLC National Labour Commission
NRF National Renewal Fund
 168

NSS National Sample Survey

NTPC National Thermal Power Corporation
NEP New Economic Policy
NPA Non Practicing Allowance
NRI Non Resident Indians
NUS Non Unionised Supervisors
OM Office Memorandum
ONGC Oil & Natural Gas Corporation
PRC Pay Revision Committee
PMS Performance Management System
PRP Performance Related Payment
PF Provident Fund
PDS Public Distribution System
PESB Public Enterprises Selection Board
PSE Public Sector Enterprise
PSU Public Sector Undertaking
REC (NIT) Regional Engineering College
R&D Research and Development
SEBI Securities Exchange Board of India
SS Service Sector
SICA Sick Industrial Companies Act
SEZ Special Economic Zone
SCOPE Standing Conference of Public Enterprises
SAIL Steel Authority of India Ltd
SAR Stock Appreciation Right
VAT Value Added Tax
VP Variable Pay
VER Very Early Retirement
VSNL Videsh Sanchar Nigam Ltd
VRS Voluntary Retirement Scheme
WTO World Trade Organisation
List of Acronyms

Common acronyms
AM/PM Abbreviations for “ante meridiem” and “post meridiem”
ASAP As soon as possible
BOGO Buy one, get one
BOPUS Buy online, pick up in store
ICYMI An abbreviation meaning “in case you missed it”
FOMO Fear of missing out
FWIW An abbreviation meaning “for what it’s worth”
LASER Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
P.S. An abbreviation for “postscript”
PIN Personal identification number
RADAR Radio detecting and ranging
Rest in peace (this can also be an initialism, as some
RIP people say “r” “i” “p”)
 169

SCUBA Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus

Specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, time-bound
SMART (commonly used when setting goals)
SNAFU Situation normal, all fouled up
Acronym used in mathematics to remember the
SOHCAHTOA trigonometric functions sine, cosine, and tangent.
SONAR Sound navigation and ranging
Commonly assumed to stand for “save our ship”, but technically,
SOS the international distress signal doesn’t stand for anything
TASER Tom A. Swift Electric Rifle
VIN Vehicle identification number
WD-40 Water Displacement, 40th formula
YOLO You only live once
ZIP Zone improvement plan
Computer and Internet acronyms
AJAX Asynchronous JavaScript And XML
Completely Automated Public Turing Test to tell
CAPTCHA Computers and Humans Apart
CD-ROM Compact Disc Read-Only Memory
DVD Digital Versatile Disc
Fios Fiber Optic Service
GIF Graphics Interchange Format
JPEG Joint Photographic Experts Group
JSON JavaScript Object Notation
PNG Portable Network Graphics
RAM Random Access Memory
SIM Subscriber Identity Module (as in a SIM card)
An initialism that stands for “Uniform Resource
URL Locator”
An abbreviation commonly thought to stand for
“Wireless Fidelity”, but technically, it doesn’t stand for
WiFi anything
Military and government acronyms
AWOL Absent without leave
CONUS The Continental United States
FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency
FLOTUS First Lady of the United States
FOIA Freedom of Information Act
Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of
HIPAA 1996
HUD Department of Housing and Urban Development
ICE Immigration and Customs Enforcement
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
OCONUS Outside the Continental United States
 170

OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration

POTUS President of the United States
SCOTUS Supreme Court of the United States
SWAT Special Weapons And Tactics
Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women,
WIC Infants, and Children
Medical acronyms
AIDS Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
COVID-19 Coronavirus disease of 2019
CPAP Continuous positive airway pressure
ICU Intensive care unit
NICU Neonatal intensive care unit
Preop An abbreviation for “preoperative”
Postop An abbreviation for “postoperative”
ROM Range of motion
SARS Severe acute respiratory syndrome
An abbreviation for “statim,” which is Latin for
STAT “immediately”
UTI Urinary tract infection
Brand and organizational acronyms
The name of the famous Swedish pop group combines the
first initial of its members’ names—Agnetha, Björn, Benny,
ABBA and Anni-Frid.
Aflac American Family Life Assurance Company of Columbus
AT&T An initialism for “American Telephone and Telegraph”
BAFTA British Academy of Film and Television Arts
CARE Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere
CVS An initialism for “Consumer Value Store”
DARE Drug Abuse Resistance Education
Epcot Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow
FIFA Fédération Internationale de Football Association
GEICO Government Employees Insurance Company
H&M An initialism for “Hennes & Mauritz”
Ingvar Kamprad Elmtaryd Agunnary. The first two
words are the founder’s name, Invgvar Kamprad, and
the second two refer to Kamprad’s family farm
IKEA (Elmtaryd) and hometown (Agunnary, Sweden)
MADD Mothers Against Drunk Driving
National Association of Securities Dealers Automated
NASDAQ Quotations
Necco New England Confectionary Company
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
Yahoo! Yet Another Hierarchically Organized Oracle
171
 172

5.2 Collocations

Collocations are established within common parlance i.e. everyday spoken

and written English among native speakers – which means that the wrong

combination of words may be easily noticed. Grammatically, they do not involve

specific rules – it rely more on the fact that these word combinations have

become the norm due to consistent use.

Types of Collocations

Collocations involve combinations of different categories of words i.e. nouns,

verbs, adjectives, etc.

Types Accepted combinations Untypical combinations

adverb + adjective blissfully ignorant happily ignorant

adjective + noun troubling times harassing times

noun + noun cup of tea glass of tea

noun + verb cat purrs bird purrs

verb + noun commit a sin make a sin

verb + expression with jump to conclusions jump to assumptions

preposition

verb + adverb leave quietly leave silently

The ‘accepted combinations’ all form collocations – and are probably some that we may

have come across or even used in the past. On the other hand, the ‘untypical
combinations’ would not “sound right” to a native speaker.

Most common collocations

There are some collocation words that have a wide number of collocation combinations
– they may be ‘weak’, but they are extremely useful! Here are a few examples:
 173

Make Have Get

make trouble have a rest get married

make noise have sympathy get a job

make a mess have lunch get a life

make a point have a good time get divorced

make an appointment have a dream get the message

make sense have a chat get started

make a profit have an experience get lost

make progress have a feeling get home

make an excuse have fun get angry

make a phone call have a look at something get the phone

Catch Go Do

catch fire go bald do harm

catch a train go bad do good

catch a thief go crazy do nothing

catch a cold go abroad do damage

catch a bus go astray do your best

catch the flu go missing do your hair

catch a glimpse go on a trip do the dishes

catch one’s breath go bankrupt do an experiment

catch someone’s eye go for a drink do something right

catch someone’s attention go out of business do someone a favour
 174

5.3 Commonly Mis-Spelt Words/ Confusing Words

judgement is less proper than

absense (absence)
"judgment"
adress (address) (kernal) kernel
advise, the verb, is often switched
liesure (leisure)
with advice, the noun.
alot (a lot) liason (liaison)
aquit (acquit) libary (library)
arguement (argument) lisense (license)
artic (arctic) maintainance (maintenance)
begining (beginning) medevil or mideval (medieval)
beleive (believe) millenium (millennium)
broccolli (broccoli) miniture (miniature)
borough and bureau are confused miniscule (minuscule)
calender (calendar) mischievious (mischievous)
comraderie (camaraderie) mispell (misspell)
momento (memento--momento is
cieling (ceiling)
Spanish for "moment")
cemetary (cemetery) misterious (mysterious)
changable (changeable) neccessary (necessary)
collegue (colleague) nieghbor (neighbor)
consciencious (conscientious) noticable (noticeable)
concious (conscious) occassion (occasion)
daquiri (daiquiri) occurence (occurrence)
decieve (deceive) oddyssey (odyssey)
definately (definitely) peice (piece)
desparate (desperate) playwrite (playwright)
disasterous (disastrous) preceed (precede)
dumbell (dumbbell) presance (presence)
embarass (embarrass) privelege (privilege)
prophecy is a noun, while prophesy
enviroment (environment)
is a verb.
existance (existence) pumkin (pumpkin)
experiance (experience) rasberry (raspberry)
facinating (fascinating) recieve (receive)
 175

Febuary (February) rtyhm (rhythm)

firey (fiery) sacriligious (sacrilegious)
flourescent (fluorescent) sience (science)
foriegn (foreign) sissors (scissors)
goverment (government) seperate (separate)
gratefull or greatful (grateful) sinserely (sincerely)
guarantee supercede (supersede)
thorough and through are often
harrass (harass)
mixed up
hieght (height) truely (truly)
hipocrite (hypocrite) untill (until, or till)
humerous (humorous) Wensday (Wednesday)
innoculate (inoculate) wether (whether)
independant (independent) wich (which, or witch)
jewelry (jewelery) wierd (weird)
 176

5.4 Resume Writing

Résumés come in many formats, though they share typical categories of

information and features. The three most common formats, which we'll address here, are
the reverse chronological résumé, the functional résumé, and the combination résumé.

Reverse Chronological Résumé: This is the traditional format, in which work experience is
highlighted and is listed chronologically with the most recent positions listed first. This is

a good style for job seekers who already have professional experience in a specific field
and who are looking for a new job within the same field.

Functional Résumé: This is a skills-based format, in which specific job skills are
highlighted. This is a good style for job seekers without much professional experience, or

for those who are looking to move into a new field.

Combination Résumé: This style highlights the job seeker's skills and also provides a

chronological listing of experience. An excellent style for foregrounding skills but also
providing a work history.

Eight useful tips

Before you start getting ready to list your qualifications and work experience, here are
eight useful tips to think about.

1. Keep it short … but not too short!

Your CV should be one to two sides of A4 paper. If you find you've got too much

information, summarise and select the most relevant points. If it's shorter than a page,
consider including more information about your skills and the responsibilities you had

in your previous roles.

2. Use active verbs.

When you describe what you have achieved in previous jobs, use active verbs for a
strong positive effect on the reader. For example, to make a change from was

responsible for, use verbs like led or managed (a team / a project); created or developed
 177

(a product / a positive atmosphere); delivered (results/training); and provided

(support/training).

3. Fill in the gaps.

Avoid leaving gaps in your employment history. If you were travelling the world, on

maternity leave, or looking after small children, include that in your CV.

4. Make sure it's up to date.

Always ensure your CV is up to date. Include your most recent experience at the top of

each section.

5. Don't exaggerate or lie.

Your potential employer can easily check information about where you have studied

and worked. Don't be tempted to lie or exaggerate about your expertise, because
sooner or later this will be discovered and may result in you losing the job.

6. Spend time on the layout.

Make sure your CV is clear and easy to read. Use bullet points and appropriate spacing,
keep your sentences short, line up your lists neatly and use a professional-looking font

(e.g. Arial font size 12).

7. Check for mistakes.

Mistakes on a CV create a bad impression. Use spell check, reread your CV and ask

someone else to check it for you too before you send it.

8. Include a cover letter.

When you send your CV to apply for a job, you should send it with a cover letter or
email to introduce your application. The cover letter should show your personal interest

in the role, highlight the skills and experience you bring and encourage the employer to
read the attached CV.
 178

Single page Resume – Sample