Logic and Critical Thinking

Course code: PHIL1011

 What is the course of Logic and Critical
Thinking?

• Dear students, this course aimed at making

students to critically question the idea of
people, gather information, and evaluate the
argument of others and themselves.
 Course Content
• Chapter one: Logic and Philosophy
• Chapter Two: Basic concepts of logic
• Chapter Three: Logic and Language
• Chapter Four: Basic concepts of Critical
Thinking
• Chapter Five: Logical Reasoning and Fallacies
• Chapter Six: Categorical Proposition
Chapter One: Logic and Philosophy
• Logic:
– As a field of study: branch of philosophy that deals
with the study of arguments
– As an instrument: a means to construct rational
arguments and evaluate the argument of others.
• Philosophy: is the study of general and
fundamental problems concerning matters such
as existence, knowledge, truth, beauty, law,
justice, validity, mind, and language.
Objectives of the chapter:
Understand the meaning, nature and features
of philosophy;
Recognize the major fields of philosophy; and
Understand why it is so important to learn
logic and philosophy.
 1.1. Meaning and Nature of Philosophy
• No specific subject matter , so it is difficult to define
it.
• It is the development of critical habits, the continuous
search for truth, and the questioning of the apparent.
• Philosophy deals primarily with issues than subject
matters.
• Philosophy begins from wonder!
– “Wonder is the feeling of a philosopher, and philosophy
begins in wonder” (Socrates)
• Etymologically: from two Greek words:
‘philo’ and ‘sophia’ which means Love and
wisdom respectively!
• Hence, it means love of wisdom!
• Philosophical questions:
– Does God exist?
– What is reality?
– What is knowledge?
– What does it mean to know?
• N.B. Philosophy is wisdom but not all wisdom
are philosophy!
• Philosophy deals with questioning the apparent; to go
beyond the common understanding, and to speculate
about things that other people accept with no doubt.
• The philosophical enterprise: is “an active
imaginative process of formulating proper questions
and resolving them by rigorous, persistent analysis”.
(Vincent Barry).
• Therefore, philosophy is a rational and critical
enterprise that tries to formulate and answer
fundamental questions through an intensive application
of reason.
• Critical thinking is changeable; because:
– Philosophers have different views and assumptions,
– The universe is dynamic/changeable,
– Human experience is incomplete.
3. Philosophy is a rational attempt to look at the world as a
whole.
4. Philosophy is the logical analysis of language and the
clarification of the meaning of words and concepts.
5. Philosophy is a group of perennial problems that interest
people and for which philosophers always have sought
answers.
 what is right and wrong?
 What is life and Why I’m here?
 How things operate in the universe? Chance or order?
 Free will or pre-determinism?
• Dear students, philosophy is an activity:
– Master it can’t make you a philosopher; rather
when you critically think and do it.
 1.3. Fields of Philosophy

• Metaphysics:
• Epistemology:
• Axiology:
• Logic:
1.3.1. Metaphysics:
• studies the ultimate nature of reality or
existence.
– Does God exist, and if so, can we prove it?
– Are human actions free, or predetermined by a
supernatural force?
• It is evident that the question of reality is not as
simplistic as it appears.
• Example: What is exactly the nature of the
floor upon which you stand?
– It is obviously flat, solid, and smooth; it has a
particular color; it is composed of an identifiable
material, such as wood or concrete
• For a physics: floor is made of molecules; that
molecules consist of atoms, electrons, protons,
and neutrons;
• For a chemist: floor is a hotbed of
hydrocarbons associated in a particular way
and subject to certain kinds of environmental
influences, such as heat, cold, wetness,
dryness, and oxidation.
• Metaphysics questions can be divided in to
four aspects:
• Cosmological: study of theories about the
origin, nature, and development of the universe
as an orderly system.
– E.g. how the world comes? By design or accident
• Theological: religious theory that deals with
God.
– E.g. If God is both all good and all powerful, why
does evil exist?
• Anthropological: deals with the study of
human beings.
– What is relationship between mind and body?
– Is mind more fundamental than body?
– Are people born good, evil, or morally neutral?
– Do we have free will or predetermined?
• Ontological: the study of the nature of
existence,
1.3.2. Epistemology: Study about knowledge
 What is true?” and “How do we know?”
 Skepticism and agnosticism???
 Sources of Knowledge:
 Empiricism: knowledge obtained through the
senses/experience.
 Rationalism: claims that humans are capable of
arriving at irrefutable knowledge independently of
sensory experience. Knowledge is based on reason.
 Intuition: immediate cognition; knowledge which is
immediately evident without experience.
 Revelation: religious knowledge as a source of
knowledge.
 Authority:
1.3.3. Axiology
 From two Greek words: Axios (worth, value) and logy
(study)
 Axiology is the philosophical study of value, which
originally meant the worth of something.
 It includes the studies of moral values, aesthetic
values, as well as political and social values.
 Deals with: aesthetics, ethics, and social/political
philosophy.
 Aesthetics: study of beauty!
 Ethics: study of morality/action of right of wrong.
o Meta-ethics: investigation of the meaning of good or bad.
o Normative ethics: studies moral principles of conducts.
• Can be consequential, deontological, virtue.
o Applied ethics: explain, justify, apply moral rules, principles
Social/political philosophy: studies about of the value
judgments operating in a civil society.
What form of government is best?
What economic system is best?
What is justice/injustice?
1.4. Importance of philosophy
 to examine one’s life in the world,
 to actualize our selves.
Intellectual and Behavioral Independence
Reflective self-awareness… knowing your self.
 Flexibility, Tolerance, and Open-Mindedness
Creative and Critical Thinking
To deal with uncertainty of living
 Chapter 2:Basic concepts of Logic
Tips of the Chapter
2.1. Basic Concepts of Logic: Arguments,
Premises and Conclusions
2.2. Techniques of Recognizing Arguments
2.3. Types of Arguments: deduction and
induction
2.4. Evaluating arguments
2.1. Basic concepts of Logic: Argument, premise and
conclusion
I. Meaning:
• Etymologically, the term” logic” is derived from the Greek
word “Logos” which means reason, thought, principle, law,
etc.
• It is the science that evaluates arguments
• Logic is the science of those principles, laws, rules and
methods which the mind of man in its thinking must follow
for accurate and secure treatment of truth.
• In other words, logic is the study of methods for evaluating
arguments.
 Cont.…
II. Purpose of Logic
• The primary task of logic is to setup criteria for
distinguishing good arguments from bad ones.
• The purpose or objective of logic is to test,
evaluate and analyze arguments of one’s own and
the arguments of others.
• To increase confidence of arguers.
 The meaning of Argument
 Argument
In logic, argument is a group of statements in which
one (premise) provides support to believe in another
(conclusion).
It doesn’t mean verbal fight!!!
Analyzing arguments is important to distinguish premises
from conclusion.
The reasoning process expressed by an argument is said
to be inference. Sometimes, it is used alternatively with
the term argument.
 Cont..
 Premise
• is the statement which provides reason (evidence) for
believing the truth of the conclusion
• It is the statement on the basis of which the conclusion is
affirmed.
 Conclusion
• is the statement that is claimed to follow from the premise
• It is the statement that is affirmed on the basis of the
premise.
 Cont..
 Statement (proposition)
 a sentence that is either true or false but not both
 a sentence used to assert or deny something and
evaluated as true or false
 This type of sentence is called declarative
sentence.
 Truth and falsity are called the two possible truth
values of statements.
 Cont..
Example:
• Hawassa is the capital city of Tigray Region. (F)
• Ethiopia is endowed with various heritages. (T)
• Note that all statements are sentences but not all sentences
are statements.
Example:
• How old are u? (Question)
• Stop cheating! (Command)
• Let us go Lake Langano today (proposal)
• We suggest welfare state to Ethiopia (suggestion)
• You are beautiful! (Exclamation)
 Recognizing Premise and Conclusion

 There are two ways of identifying conclusion

and premises
1. Using indictors:
– Conclusion follows from the conclusion indicator and
premises follow from premise indicators.
– Mere occurrence of indicators is not guarantee for the
existence of an argument.
• E.g. since 1991, Ethiopia has adopted ethnic
federalism.
Premise Indicators Conclusion indicators
Since Therefore

as indicated by wherefore

because accordingly

for hence

in that we may conclude

may be inferred from entail that

as consequently

given that it follows that

seeing Implies

for the reason that for this reason

owing to in consequence

indicated by proves that

may be deduced from I conclude that

 Cont..
Example:
• All students of this class are cleaver. Yoseph is a
student of this class. Therefore, Yoseph is cleaver.
• He scored “F” grade since he didn’t study hard.
 conclusion comes next to conclusion indicator and
before premise indicator
Premise comes next to premise indicator and before
conclusion indicator.
 Cont..
II. using inferential claim
• It implies by studying the nature of statements
(statements that serve as evidence or a statement
stated as the final assertion).
• If a sentence is given as the main point of the
argument or as a closing statement, it is a
conclusion.
• On the other hand, if the sentence is taken as
information, reason or evidence, it is premise.
 Cont..
Example:
1. Women of the rural society are not
empowered. The majority of them lack
education opportunity and equal access to
resources.
2. These days quality of Education has reduced
in our country. Students scope has reducing
yearly.
3. The sky is dark. There will be rain today.
 2.2. Recognizing Arguments
• There are two criteria for a passage to be
argument:
– Factual Claim (At least one of the statements must
claim to present evidence or reasons). A claim that
something is true.
– Inferential claim (there must be a claim that
something follows from the alleged evidence).
• Inferential claim cab be explicit (indicated by
indicators) or implicit (identified by inferential
relationship).
 Cont..
The following are non-argument forms:
 Passage lacking an inferential claim
– Piece of advice
– An illustration
– Loosely associated statements may
– A report
– An expository passage
– Statement of belief or opinion
– Warning
 Cont..
 Conditional Sentences
 Explanations
Conditional statements have two parts: antecedent
and consequent

• If---antecedent-----then---consequent
---------
• ------Consequent ------ if -----antecedent
------
• E.g. If you study hard, then you will score ‘A’.
• Summary on Conditional Sentences:
Single conditional statements are not arguments
E.g. If iron is dense than mercury, then it will float in
mercury.
 A conditional statement may serve as either the
premises or conclusion (or both) of an argument.
E.g. If FDRE does not change its platform, it will not attract new
supporters.
If FDRE doe not attract new supporters, it will lose the next
election.
Therefore, if FDRE does not change its platform; it will lose the
next election
The inferential content of a conditional
statement may be re -expressed to form an
argument.
• E.g. If both Saturn and Uranus have rings, then
the Saturn has rings. The inferential content of
this statement may be re-expressed to form
argument:
• Both Saturn and Uranus have rings.
• Therefore, Saturn has rings.
 Cont..
• Conditional statements are especially important in
logic because they express the relationship
between necessary and sufficient conditions.

• ‘A’ is a sufficient condition for ‘B’ = occurrence of

A is need for occurrence of ‘B’
• ‘A’ is a necessary condition for ‘B’ = B can’t occur
without the occurrence of A.
Example:
• If X is a dog, then X is an animal.
• If X is not an animal, then X is not a dog.
The first statement says that being a dog is a
sufficient condition for being an animal and the
second that being an animal is a necessary
condition for being a dog.
Here is another example:
• If oxygen is not present, then there can be no
fire.
It means that oxygen is a necessary condition for the
occurrence of fire; that is, in the absence of oxygen,
fire cannot exist.

• If there is rain, then streets are wet.

Rain makes streets wet, but it is not the only one.
Streets can be wet even without the presence of rain,
like for example by leakage of pipe water.
 2.3. Types of Arguments

 Arguments can broadly be classified as

deductive and inductive.
 Deductive and inductive arguments differ in the
strength of the inferential claim of the
argument.
 They differ with respect to the ways in which
the premise supports the conclusion.
 Cont..
 Deductive Arguments
– Conclusion is claimed to follow from its premises with
absolute necessity.
– Makes a claim that the conclusion follows from the reason,
evidences, or premises with the force of necessity.
– Involve necessary reasoning
Examples:
• All human beings are mortal. Taye is a human being. Therefore,
Taye is mortal.
• All sub- Saharan countries are least developed countries.
Ethiopia is found in sub- Saharan region. It follows that Ethiopia
is a least developed country.
 Cont..
We can identify deductive argument using 3 methods:
1. Using indicators: necessarily, certainly, absolutely,
definitely, etc.
2. Studying the Actual Strength of the Premise and
the Conclusion:
If the conclusion actual does follow with strict necessity
from the premises, the argument is clearly deductive.
Example
All dogs are mammals.
Boby is a dog.
Therefore, boby is mammal.
3. The Character or Form of Argumentation the
Arguer Uses
I. Argument based on mathematics
e.g. I have one red pen and two black pens. Hence, I have
three pens.
II. An argument from Definition
e.g. God is omniscient. Hence, he knows every thing.
Angel is honest; it is follows that Angel tells the truth.
III. Syllogism
– Categorical syllogism(two premises and one conclusion)
– Hypothetical syllogism (syllogism having a conditional
statement for one or both of its premises.)
– Disjunctive syllogism (syllogism having “either…… or”
statement)
Example 1:
• All Egyptians are Muslims.
• No Muslim is a Christian.
• Hence, no Egyptian is a Christian.
Example 2:
If there is democracy in one country, then there would be
rule of law. If there is rule of law, there would be
development. Hence, if there is democracy in one country,
then there would be development.
Example 3:
Robert is either an American or Ethiopia. Robert is not an
American. Hence, Robert is an Ethiopian.
2. Inductive Arguments:
• It is one whose conclusion is claimed to follow
from its premises only with probability.
• It is improbable for the conclusion to be false if
the premises is true.
• Involves probabilistic reasoning process
• We can identify deductive argument using 3
methods:
i. Using Indicator words (probably, improbably,
plausible, implausible, likely, unlikely, reasonable
to conclude, etc.)
ii. Studying the Actual Strength of the Premise
and the Conclusion
• Example:
The majority of Alkan University College
Students are cleaver.
Alemitu is Alkan University College student.
Therefore, Alemitu is cleaver student.
III. The Character or Form of Argumentation
the Arguer Uses
A. Agument based on prediction:
E.g. Yesterday and today, Bahir Dar is sunny.
Hence, Bahir Dar may be sunny by tomorrow.
B. Argument from analogy:
Aster’s Car is blue in color, travels 300 kms.hr. and made in Japan.
Hana’s Car is also blue in color, and travels 300kms/hr. Hence, Hana’s car
may be made in Japan.

Computer A and Computer B both are manufactured by 2012.

Computer A is fast processing.
Hence, Computer B is fast processing.

C. Inductive generalization:
E.g. I have got 10 out of 10 in the first quiz of logic. Hence, I probably
will score A.
D. Argument from authority:
E.g. According to Dr. Abiy, Ethiopia is growing fast.
Hence, the country is on the right truck of development.
E. Argument based on signs:
E.g. Across the road, I am looking a flag. Hence, there
may be a school around.

F. Argument based on causation:

E.g. The cloud is becoming dark and the thunder
is roaming. So, let us go home quickly, the rain is
inevitable
Summary:
• Mostly, inductive argument proceed from particular to general
and deductive from general to particular.
• However, sometimes deductive arguments may proceed from
particular to general, general to general, and particular to
particular. The same fashion works for inductive arguments.
Example 1: (Deductive from particular to general)
Three is a prime number.
Five is a prime number.
Seven is a prime number.
Therefore, all odd numbers between two and eight are prime
numbers.
Example 2 (inductive from general to particular)
All GC previous awards of BDU were taken by Economics dep’t.
Therefore, the next award will be for economics dep’t.
 2.4. Evaluation of Arguments
Argument type Evaluation Criteria
Deductive  Valid
 Invalid
 Sound (Valid Argument + all
true Premises). It is the most
perfect DA
 Unsound
Inductive • Strong
• Weak
• Cogent (Strong argument + all
true premises). It is the most
perfect IA.
• Uncogent
 Cont..
Valid: is an argument in w/c it is impossible for the
conclusion to be false and the premise is true.
Deductive argument
Case Argument Evaluatio
n
Premis Concl Vali Inva
es usion d lid
1 T(True) T  
2 T F __ 
3 F T  
4 F F  
 Cont..
Case 1: True P + True C (Valid)
E.g. 1:
• All television networks are media companies.
• ASRAT is a television network.
• Therefore, ASRAT is a media company
• This argument is an example of sound argument.
Sound Argument = Valid Argument + All Premises True

E.g2. True Ps + True C (Invalid)

• All cows are animals.
• All mammals are animals.
• Therefore, all cows are mammals
 Cont..
Case 2: True premises and False conclusion (Always
invalid)
E.g. 1:
All Ethiopians are mortal (T)
President Trump is mortal (T)
Hence, Pr. Trump is an Ethiopian (F)
E.g. 2:
• All birds are animals (T)
• All dogs are animals (T)
• Therefore, all birds are dogs (F).
Case 3: False Premises and True Conclusion
I. Valid:
All birds are Mammals. (Fp1)
All Women are birds (Fp2)
So, all women are mammals. (Tc)
II. Invalid:
All birds are mammals.
All Ostriches are mammals
All ostriches are birds.
• Case 4: False premises and False Conclusion
Valid:
All Americans are Ethiopians
All Egyptians are Americans.
So, All Egyptians are Ethiopians.
Invalid:
All Birds are Mammals
All ants are Mammals
So, All ants are Birds.
Summary
 Chapter Thee: Meaning and Definition
3.1. Function of Language
I. Expressive/emotive function of language
 Used to express our feelings and emotions.
 Can’t be evaluated as true or false.
Example: I dislike logic.
I hate him.
She is smart
II. Directive Function
– To give order and command
– Can’t be evaluated as true / false.
EXAMPLE:
Leave me alone
What is your name?
Do not close that door.
Give me your pen
1. Purpose of language (Emotive, directive,
informative)
2. Meanings of terms (intention + extension)
3. Types of definition
– Stipulative, Lexical, precise, theoretical, persuasive
4. Definitional Techniques
1. Intentional Tech: (Synonymous, Etymological,
operational, Genus and difference )
2. Extensional Tech: (Demonstrative, Enumerative,
sub-class)
 Cont..
III. Cognitive (Informative) Function
– Conveys information about something.
– Refers to the content of something.
– Communicates the meaning of something
concepts (terms).
– Can be evaluated as true/false.
Example:
1. Ethiopia is a developed country.
2. Hawassa city is a capital of SNNPRS
 Cont...
3.2. The Intentional and extension of terms
Term is a subject of statement that contains
proper names, common names and descriptive
Proper Name Common Name Descriptive Phrases
phrases. House The late president of
Ethiopia Person Ethiopia
John Animal
Third world countries
Kidist
Ras Dashen Those who work hard
 Cont..
• Note that verbs, adverbs, prepositions,
adjectives and conjunctions are not terms.
• There are two types of terms: intentional and
extensions
• Intentional meaning: consist of qualities and
attributes that the term connotes.
• Extensional meaning: consists of the members
of the term denotes.
 Cont..
 The intentional meaning of a term is called
intention or connotation, and the
extensional meaning of is called extension or
denotation.
Example
1. Ship is ‘vehicle for conveyance on water’
(Intention)
2. Ship is like things as cargo ships, passenger
ships, battle ships, and sailing ships (extension)
 Cont..
3. “ Inventor” means a person who is, clever, intuitive,
creative and imaginative.
4. “ Inventor” means such as Thomas Edison, Alexander
Graham Bell, and Samuel F.B. Morse. (N.B :
Connotation of a term remains more or less the
same from person to person and from time to
time.
The denotation of a term also remains the same
from person to person, but it may change with the
passage of time.
 Cont..
• So, terms can have empty extension.
– No class member for the term
– E. g. Dinosaur, Current king of Ethiopia, Satan
 If terms have extension, they have intention
 But, if terms have intention, they might not have
extension.
 So intension determines extension.
 Cont..
• Terms may be put in the order of increasing
intention, increasing extension, decreasing
intention, decreasing extension.
• Increasing intention: when each term in the
series has more attributes than the one which
comes before it.
• The order of decreasing intension is the reverse
of that of increasing intension.
 Cont..

Increasing extension (decreasing intension)

Africa, East Africa, Ethiopia, Addis Ababa

Increasing intension (decreasing extension)

 Cont..
Exceptions:
• There are certain cases where there is empty extension
but increasing intension.
• Example: Unicorn, unicorn with blue eyes, unicorn
with blue eyes and green horn.

• This example illustrates:

• Existence of empty extension.
• Increasing intention
• Constant extension.
 Cont..
 There are also cases where there no empty
extension, but increasing intention.
• Example: Living human being; living human being with
a genetic code; living human being with a genetic code
and a brain; living human being with a genetic code, a
brain, and a height of less than 100 feet
• This example illustrates increasing intension but
constant extension.
 Definitions and Their Purpose
• Definition is a group of words that assigns a
meaning to some word or group of words.
Accordingly, every definition consists of two
parts: the definiendum and the definiens.
• The definiendum is the word or group of words
that is supposed to be defined, and
• the definiens is the word or group of words that
does the defining.
 Cont..
• EXAMPLE: ‘‘Tiger” means a large, striped,
ferocious feline indigenous to the jungles of India
and Asia’’
 Tiger = definiendum
 Difiniens: everything after the word ‘‘means’’
 3.3.Types of Definition
1. Stipulative Definition
• Assigns a meaning to a word for the first time.
• Creating a new word or give a new meaning to an
old word.
• A recommendation or proposal to use a term in a
certain manner.
• It becomes lexical definition when it becomes part
of established language.
• Can’t be evaluated as true or false.
 Cont..
• Example:
• ‘‘Tigon’’ refers to ‘‘offspring of male tiger and female lion’’
• ‘‘Liger’’ mans ‘‘offspring of male lion and female tiger’’
• ‘‘Operation Barbarosa’’ was the name the Germans gave
to the invasion of Russia; and
• ‘‘Operation Overlord’’ was the name the allied forces gave
to the planned invasion of Normandy
• “ Operation sunset” was the name that Ethiopian
forces gave to invade Eritrea.
 Cont..
2. Lexical Definition
 Used to report the meaning that a word already has in a
language.
 Dictionary definitions are all instances of lexical definitions.
 Can be evaluated as true/false.
 Has purpose of eliminating ambiguity of a word. A word is
said to be ambiguous when it can be interpreted as having two or
more clearly distinct meanings in a given context.
 Cont..

Example: Bank, iLght, Mad

Financial institution

Bank Edge of the river

Weight
Light Radical energy
 Cont..
3. Precise Definition
• Has purpose of reducing vagueness.
• An expression is vague if there are borderline cases in
which it is impossible to tell if the word applies or does
not apply.
• Words such as ‘‘fresh,’’ ‘‘rich,’’ and ‘‘poor’’, “love” are
vague.
• So, there is a need for a law to be applied.
• Example: ‘Poor’ means having an a daily income of less than
$1.2
 Cont..
• The terms ‘‘force,’’ ‘‘energy,’’ ‘‘acid,’’
‘‘element’’, ‘‘number’’ ‘‘equality,’’ ‘‘contract,’’
and ‘‘agent”, “rich”, “poor”, etc… requires
precise definition.

• N.B: precise definition differs from stipulative

definition in that assignment of meaning in later
case is arbitrary but not in case of precise
definition.
 Cont..
4. Theoretical Definition
• Assigns a meaning to a word by suggesting a theory that
gives a certain characterization to the entities that the
term denotes.
• Can’t be evaluated as true/false.
• Not all theoretical definitions are associated with science.
• Example:
• ‘‘Light’’ is a form of electromagnetic radiation.
• ‘‘ F = MA.’’
• “Right” means approved by the gods.
• “Materialism” is a philosophical doctrine asserting nothing exists
but matter.
 Cont..
5. Persuasive Definition
• To persuade/convince listeners/readers.
• To change the attitude of audiences.
• To win the acceptance of audiences.
•
• Example:
• “Federalism” is a political intrigue that provides legitimate ground for the
emergence of new regional warlords.
• “Abortion” means the ruthless murdering of innocent human beings.
• “Taxation” means the procedure by means of which our common wealth
is preserved and sustained.
 Cont..
• Exercise 2: determine the type of definition
• Let us use the word “grellow” to mean the color of things
that are either green or yellow.
• “Miracle” means an event that (a) is an exception to a law
of nature and (b) is brought about by the decision of divine
being.
• “Tall man” male human over 6 feet in height.
• “Tome” large book.
• “A deductively sound argument” is one that (a) has only
true premises and (b) is valid.
 3.4.Techniques of intentional and extensional
definitions
A. Techniques of Intentional Definition
1. Synonymous Definition
• Using a Word Having Identical Meaning.
– Example:
• “Trouble” means difficulty.
• “Student” means pupil.
• ‘‘Physician’’ means doctor.
• ‘‘Intentional’’ means willful.
• ‘‘Voracious’’ means ravenous.
• ‘‘Observe’’ means see.
 Cont..
2. Etymological definition
• Using root/ancestor words.
• Example
• “Ethics” is from Greek word Ethos, meaning
habit and tradition.
• “LOGIC” is from Greek word logos, means
science of reasoning.
• ‘Morality’ is from Latin, moralis, which means
custom and tradition.
 Cont..
3. Operational definition
• Specifies set of procedures
• Indicates actions and procedures
• Assigns experimental procedures.
– Example:
• “Insane” means when a person lost control of his/her
consciousness and perform unusual things.
• “Acid” means a substance that turns the color of blue
litmus paper red, when brought contact with it.
 Cont..
4. Definition by Genus
• Avoids ambiguity/vagueness of terms.
– Genus = relatively larger class.
– Species = relatively smaller sub-class
– Difference = attributes that distinguishes species within
genus.
• Species Difference
Genus
• “Mother” means female parent
• “Ice” means frozen water
• “Kitten” means young cat.
 Cont..
B. Techniques of Extension
1. Demonstrative (Ostensive)
• Assigning meaning by point out an object.
• Example:
» ‘‘Chair’’ means this and this and this—as you point to a number
of chairs, one after the other.

• “Flower” means this one (using a picture that

demonstrates flowers.)
 Cont..
2. Enumerative:
• By listing partial/complete members of the class
• Example:
• ‘‘ Actor’’ means a person such as Nick Nolte, Al Pacino,
or Richard Gere.
• “Continent” means such as Africa, Asia, Latin America
and Europe
• “Athlete” means such as Kenenissa Bekele, Tirunesh
Dibaba, and Meseret Defar.
 Cont..
3. Definition by Sub-class
• By listing sub groups/sub-class.
• Example:
• “Plant” means such as grasses, fruits and
vegetable.
• “Vertebrate” means such as reptiles, birds, or
mammals.
 Techniques of Dentition and their relationships
with types of definition
• Techniques of Intentional definition
• Synonymous = can serve as a method of constructing lexical definition
• Etymological = can serve as a method of constructing lexical definition.
• Operational = for stipulative, theoretical, lexical (not always), precise and
persuasive
• Genus and difference = most effective to construct all definitions.
• Techniques of Extensional Definition
• To construct lexical and stipulative definition, and sometimes
theoretical and persuasive definition, but not precise definition.
Chapter Three: Informal Fallacies
Summary:
Formal
Fallacy
Informal

Relevance weak Induction presumption language

Appeal to farce Appeal to unqualified authority
beggingz questions Ambiguity:
Appeal to Pity appeal to ignorance complex question Equivocation
Appeal to people Hasty generalization false dichotomy Amphiboly
Against the people false cause suppressed evidenceGrammatical
Analogy:
Accident Slippery slope Division
Straw man Weak induction composition
Missing z point
Red herring
 Chapter Three: Informal Fallacies
 Fallacy refers to error in reasoning
 It is from Latin word, fallacia means delude, illusion,
cheat.
 Fallacies always seem good arguments; but in reality
they are bad arguments.
 Can be committed intentionally or unintentionally.
Committed when the speaker/writer fails to provide
sufficient evidence or reason for his/her claim.
Can be formal and informal.
 Cont…
A. Formal Fallacies
 Found in incorrect deductive arguments.
 Fallacies due to invalidity of arguments.
 Have standard form/structure.
 Example:
 All elephants are animals. (T)
 All mammals are animals. (T)
 Therefore, all elephants are mammals. (T)
 Cont.
B. Informal Fallacies
 Are those that can be detected only through
analysis of the content of the argument.
Consider the following example:
• All factories are plants.
• All plants are things that contain chlorophyll.
• Therefore, all factories are things that contain
chlorophyll.
 Form:
Cont. All A are B.
All B are C.
All A are C.
Valid form, but invalid cont
premised and false conclusion

• Some fallacies work by ge

various emotions, such as
attaching a certain conclus
 Cont..
3.2. Types of Informal Fallacies
• We can categorize informal fallacies in to four:
• Fallacies of relevance
• Fallacies of weak induction
• Fallacies of presumption
• Fallacies of language
 Cont..
1. Fallacies of Relevance
• Occur when premises are logically irrelevant to
the conclusion.
• Yet the premises are relevant psychologically.
• The connection between premises and
conclusion is emotional.
 Cont..
• Include :
 Appeal to force (Argumentum ad Baculum: Appeal to the
“Stick
 Appeal to Pity (Argumentum ad Misericordiam)
 Appeal to the People (Argumentum ad Populum)
 Argument Against the Person (Argumentum ad Hominem)
 Accident
 Straw Man
 Missing the Point (Ignoratio Elenchi)
 Red Herring
 Cont.…
1. Appeal to Force
 Arguer 1: poses harm to the second arguer to
get acceptance of the conclusion.
 This harm can be: physical or psychological
 The danger is on the second arguer.
 Cont..
• Examples:
1. Ethiopia is the best country that has its own precious
cultures. If you don’t accept this, I will blow your head
by this pestle. (Physical threat)

2. “I’m the best man for the job. Anyone who says
otherwise is in for a world of hurt.” (Physical
Threat)

3. You should accept what I say, unless you know that I

am brother of your wife; you will miss her one day.
(Physiological threat)
 2. Appeal to pity
• Occurs when an arguer attempts to support a
conclusion by merely evoking pity from the
reader or listener.
• The danger of rejecting the conclusion is on the
first arguer him/herself.
• It is opposite of appeal to force
 Cont..
Example:
• Taxpayer to judge: Your Honor, I admit that I declared thirteen
children as dependents on my tax return, even though I have only two.
But if you find me guilty of tax evasion, my reputation will be ruined.
I’ll probably lose my job, my poor wife will not be able to have the
operation that she desperately needs, and my kids will starve. Surely I
am not guilty.

• Student to Professor: “But, I really NEED to pass this class. I need

this class in order to graduate this semester, and I can’t afford to pay
for more classes in the future. I already work 60 hours a week and
supporting four children all by myself, and I’m barely scraping by as it
is. You should give me a passing grade.”
 Cont.…
3. Appeal to People:
• Has two approaches: direct and indirect.
1. Direct Approach of appeal to people:
• The direct approach: arguer addresses large group
of people.
• Has the objective of rising a kind of mob
mentality. This is the strategy used by nearly
every propagandist and demagogue.
 Cont…
2. Indirect Approach of Appeal to People
Fallacy
• the arguer aims appealing to individuals
separately.
• Three types:
–Bandwagon argument, The majority choice is
seen as correct
– the appeal to vanity, (pdts. Are associted with
recognized people)
– the appeal to snobbery (things are given a
class).
 Cont..
A. Appeal to Bandwagon
• Majority choice is the correct one.
• Chewing chat can’t be all wrong because 70% of
Hawassa university students see nothing wrong
with it.
B. Appeal to Vanity
 Associates the product with someone who is
admired, pursued, or imitated, the idea being that
you, too, will be admired and pursued if you use it.
 Cont..
E.g. “Who is going to wear this new fashion T-shirt
worn by the famous artist Gosaye for the new
Ethiopian Millennium?”
C. Appeal to Snobbery
• It is an appeal to the desire to be regarded as
superior to others.
• This Jacket is not for ordinary people. If you want
to be from among the selected few dignitaries buy
the shoe.
 Cont…
4. Argument Against the Person (Argumentum ad
Hominem)
• This fallacy always contains two arguers.
• The second arguer attacks the second arguer him/herself
not his/her idea.
• Has three forms: abusive, circumstantial and you too
(tu quoque).
I. Ad hominem abusive
• The second person responds to the first person’s
argument by verbally abusing the first person.
 Cont…
E.g. 1How a stingy person can tell us about charity.
Hence, let’s stop discussing about these issue raised
by Tamirat.
E.g. 2. Before he died, poet Allen Ginsberg argued
in favor of legalizing pornography. But Ginsberg’s
arguments are nothing but trash. Ginsberg was a
marijuana-smoking homosexual and thoroughgoing
advocate of the drug culture.
 Cont..
II. Ad hominem circumstantial
• The respondent attempts to discredit the opponent’s argument by
mentioning to certain circumstances that affect the opponent.

Example:
• Dr. Tewodros advocates a policy of increasing financial spending for
higher education. But that is not innocent advocacy, for the reason
that he is a college professor and would benefit financially from such a
policy.

• “Of COURSE my opponent is arguing against taxation of the rich.

Just look at him! He’s the richest person in town. There’s no way
someone like that could argue anything else.”
 Cont..
III. Tu quoque (‘‘you too’’):
• The second arguer says, ‘‘How dare you argue that I should stop
doing X ; why, you do (or have done) X yourself.
Example:
• Child to parent: Your argument that I should stop stealing
candy from the corner store is no good. You told me yourself just a
week ago that you, too, stole candy when you were a kid.
• Selam: “You shouldn’t eat fast food. I hear it’s really bad for you
and could lead to health complications.”
• Hana: “Whatever! You eat fast food all the time!”
 Cont..
• Doctor: “ I see abnormalities on your breathing
and heartbeat. You should stop smoking
cigarettes.
• Patient: “What do you mean doctor? I have
seen you by my necked eyes that the other day
that you too were smoking. So, your advice is
not correct.
 Cont..
5. Accident
• Committed when a general rule is applied to a specific case it was
not intended to cover.
• Example:
 Freedom of speech is a constitutionally guaranteed right. Therefore,
Abebe should not be arrested for his speech that inspired the
riot last week.
 You Kidist that all good students obey the order of their teachers.
Hence, you should not refuse when your teacher invites you for
bed.
 POLICE OFFICER: “Are you lost? Where’s your Mom and
Dad? Talk to me.”
 CHILD: “I can’t talk to strangers.”
 Cont..
6. Straw man Fallacy
The arguer distorts the argument and reached another
distorted conclusion.
Example:
• The student status committee has presented us with an argument
favoring alcohol privileges on campus. What do the students
want? Is it their intention to stay boozed up from the day they
enter as freshmen till the day they graduate? Do they expect us
to open a bar for them? Or may be a chain of bars all over
campus? Such a proposal is ridiculous!
 Cont..
 Gutema: “I’m just saying that nuclear energy would provide a lot
of energy in a clean way, so we should at least consider it as an
option.”
 Bekele: “Oh, so you’re in favor of nuclear war? Is that what you
want? For all of the countries to be nuking each other until we’re
all dead? How ridiculous!”

 Dr. Belay has argued against prayer in the public schools.

Obviously Dr. Belay advocates atheism. But atheism is what they
used to have in Russia. Atheism leads to the suppression of all
religions and the replacement of God by an omnipotent state. Is
that what we want for this country? I hardly think so. Clearly Dr.
Belay’s argument is nonsense.
 Cont..
7. Missing the Point (Ignoratio Elenchi)
• This fallacy occurs when the premises of an argument
support one particular conclusion, but then a different
conclusion, often vaguely related to the correct
conclusion, is drawn.
• The conclusion drawn is not correct based on the given
premises.
• Example:
• “Our daughter got all D’s this semester at CU. Every
single professor there should be fired!”
 Cont..
• Crimes of theft and robbery have been increasing at an
alarming rate lately. The conclusion is obvious: we must
reinstate the death penalty immediately.

• Abuse of the welfare system is rampant nowadays. Our only

alternative is to abolish the system altogether.

• Hawassa University has a lot of problems. Student serves

and facilities are inadequate. Many of the instructors are
inexperienced. It follows that; the university should be
entirely closed.
 Cont..
8. Red Herring (Off the Truck Fallacy)
• the arguer diverts the attention of the reader or listener
by changing the subject to a different but sometimes
subtly related one.
• Example:
• Habtamu: Do you know, Abdurrahman that Tesfa has
got “A” in Introduction to Logic.

• Bewketu: It is not surprising. Tesfa always wear

miniskirts and she attracts teachers with her half- naked
body. That is, it is not hers own effort.
 Cont..
 Beti: “The scientific community is in unanimous
agreement. We are altering the climate, and if we
continue on our present course, the results will be
disastrous. Climate change is a real problem in this
world.”
 Sosi: “You know what’s a problem in this world?
People just believing everything they hear. People
will believe just about anything, as long as it’s said
on television.
 2. Weak induction Fallacies
• When the connection between premises and conclusion
is not strong enough to support the conclusion.
• Include:
– Appeal to Unqualified Authority (Argumentum ad
Verecundiam)
– Appeal to Ignorance (Argumentum ad Ignorantiam)
– Hasty Generalization (Converse Accident)
– False Cause
– Slippery Slope
– Weak Analogy
 Cont..
1. Appeal to Unqualified authority:
 When an authority or witness is not
trustworthy? How/why? Due to:
 Lack of expertise
 Motive to lie
 Bias
E.g. Dr. Abebe who is a famous Engineer in Ethiopia
told me that all development policies of Ethiopia are
wrong. It implies that, Ethiopia is following wrong
direction of development policy.
 Cont..
E.g.2: According to Dawit who is a paster in Mekane
Eyesus Church, Catholic is simply a collection of people
waiting for irrelevant mercy of God. I should stop
attending churches of catholic.
E.g. 3: Acordning to Mr. John who is the manager of
Tobacco company, testified that Tobacco is not adictive
substance and that smoking cigarettes does not
produce any addiction. Therefore, we should believe
him and conclude that smoking does not in fact lead to
any addiction.
 Cont..
2. Appeal to Ignorance:
• Something is true because not it is not proven false,
and the reverse.
1. After centuries of trying, no one has been able to
prove that reincarnation occurs. So, at this point, i
think we can safely conclude that reincarnation
doesn’t exist.
2. People have been trying for centuries to provide
conclusive evidence for the claims of astrology, and
no one has ever succeeded. Therefore, we must
conclude that astrology is a lot of nonsense.
 Cont..
Exceptions:
• Courtroom procedures
• E.g. a person is presumed innocent until proven
guilty.
• Some issues don’t require special qualification
• E.g. No one has ever seen Mr. Andrews drink a
glass of wine, beer, or any other alcoholic
beverage. Probably Mr. Andrews is a nondrinker.
 Cont..
3. Hasty Generalization (Converse Accident)
• Reaching at conclusion based on little evidence/non
representative sample.
• Example:
» I have asked 3 female students for marriage. 3
of them are financial oriented. This implies
that all female students are finance oriented.
» Six Arab fundamentalists were convicted of
bombing the World Trade Center in New York
City. The message is clear: Arabs are nothing
but a pack of religious fanatics prone to
violence.
 Cont..
• Note that large sample may not always necessary.
• Example:
On separate occasions, i drank a bottle of wine and
found tasty. Probably, i would find every bottle of wine
tasty.
 Ten milligrams of substance Z was fed to four mice and
within two minutes all four went into shock and died.
Probably substance Z, in this amount, is fatal to the
average mouse.
These two arguments are not fallacious.
 Cont..
4. False Cause:
 Post hoc
– Conclude that one event cause another simply
because occurred before the proposed effect.
 A black cat crossed my path and later I tripped and
sprained my ankle. It must be that black cats really are
bad luck.
 Non-causa pro causa
 Oversimplified cause Fallacy
 Cont..
Non-causa pro causa:
• Not the cause for the cause
– E.g.
• There are more laws on the books today than ever
before, and more crimes are being committed than ever
before. Therefore, to reduce crime we must eliminate the
laws.
• Successful Instructors paid salaries more than 6000 ETB.
Therefore, the best way to ensure that Tewodros will
become a successful Instructor is to raise his salary to at
least 6000 ETB.
 Cont..
Oversimplified Cause:
• The quality of education in Hawassa University
has been declining for years. Clearly, our
teachers just aren’t doing their job these days.
• Today, all of us can look forward to a longer life
span than our parents and grandparents.
Obviously, we owe our thanks to the millions of
dedicated doctors who expend every effort to
ensure our health.
 Cont..
5. Fallacy of Slippery Slope
 It occurs when the conclusion of an argument
rests upon an alleged chain reaction and there is
not sufficient reason to think that the chain
reaction will actually take place.

Innocent Disa
1st step ster

Chain Reaction (not likely to occur)

 Cont..
E.g.1 . The government should enact a law that
female students should not be dismissed from
the campus at first year. Kidist was First Year
student of Hawassa University. She has
dismissed during first yeay of study. As a result,
she has joined Bars in Hawassa. This in turn
made Kidist carrier of HIV which led her to
death.
 Cont..
6. Weak Analogy:
• Object “A” has attributes of a, b, c and z. object “B” has
attributes of a, b & c. therefore, object “B” probably has
attribute z.
• EXAMPLE;
1. Tadesse’s new car is bright blue, has leather upholstery, and
gets excellent gas mileage.
Tewabe’s new car is also bright blue and has leather upholstery.
Therefore, it probably gets excellent gas mileage, too.
2. The flow of electricity through a wire is similar to the flow of
water through a pipe. When water runs downhill through a pipe,
the pressure at the bottom of the hill is greater than it is at the
top. Thus, when electricity flows downhill through a wire, the
voltage should be greater at the bottom of the hill than at the
top.
 3. Presumption Fallacy
• The premises presume what they purport to
prove.
• Includes:
– Begging the question
– Complex question
– False dichotomy
– Suppressed evidence
 Cont.…
1. Begging the question:
• The assumption of the truth of the conclusion need to be
proved
• The premise is not obliviously correct; concealed by
tricky expressions.
 It has the form of circular reasoning.
E.g. 1. God exists, because I don’t want to sent to hell.
2. I believe the president is telling the truth because he says
he is telling the truth.
 Cont..
Form 2: Chain of intervening statements
E.g. I can assure you that in the near future
human race will began living permanently upon
other planets. This is the great concern of many
scientist nowadays. Many of these scientists are in
NASA. NASA holds lots of amazing secrets about
the other world. So, our future settlement will be
certainly on other planets.
 Cont..
Form 3: Ignoring questionable premise
 Federalism is contrary to Unitaianism. So,
divide and rule is contrary to unitaruianism.
 Missed premise: Federalism is a form of divide and
rule.
2. Complex Question/ Loaded Question:
E.g.
1. Have you continued drinking in pubs all the night?
2. Are you still proud of yourself being a person
having many girlfriends in campus?
 Cont..
3. False Dichotomy
• Black-and white thinking
• Limited alternative
• Either---or---fallacy
e.g.
1. If you are not for me, you are against me.
2. Either you have to accept my love request or I
will commit suicide.
 Cont..
4. Suppressed Evidence
• The correct evidence is ignored and replaced by
irrelevant ones.
• 1. Hawassa University is one of the prominent
universities in Africa, because the color of buildings
are impressive, the flowers and other plans gets
enough water and it has ample gets around the
compound.
2. This tablet is very small, beautifully shaped an it
smells good. So, it is good I give it to my child.
 4. Linguistic Fallacies
A. Ambiguity
I. Equivocation
II. Amphiboly
B. Grammatical analogy
I. Composition
II. Division
3. Equivocation: Due to ambiguous word.
e.g.
All factories are plants.
All plants have chlorophyll
Therefore, all factories are things that can contain
chlorophyll.
 Cont..
2. I heard a sweet music yesterday. I have made a
sweet talk there with a person that I could not
remember him now. Hence, I could not
remember the music I heard yesterday./ (taste of
music) vs. Conversation.
3. Odd things arouse human suspicion. Fifteen is
an odd number. Therefore, fifteen arouses human
suspicion.
 Cont...
Amphiboly:
Due to ambiguous statement.
1. TV advertisement “ Come to our Architecture
school and learn how to build a house in six
weeks’ (period of instruction? Construction?)
2. Tewodros told me that he always quarrels
with his father when he is drunk. (Son?
Father??)
 Cont..
Division:
1. USA is the richest country in the world. Hence, my
uncle who lives in USA is rich.
2. Ethiopia is a leading country exporting quality
coffee. Gonder, which is one of the regions in
Ethiopia, must be the exporter of quality coffee.
3. Salt is non-poisonous. It must be true that its
components of sodium and chloride are non-
poisonous.
 Cont..
Composition:
• Opposite to division
• Wrong transfer of attributes from parts to whole.
E.G.
1. Particles of chalk are not visible. Hence, chalk is
visible
2. Sodium and chloride are poisonous. Hence, salt,
which is made up of sodium and chloride is
poisonous.