Module 3 Notes Earth Science

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Module 3 Notes Earth Science

Uploaded by

Anshika Chaurasiya

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MODULE 3

Numericals based on density of planets (see book).

Numericals on comets and asteroids (on formulas discussed in earlier modules)

Solar System debris:

Asteroid & Oort cloud:
An asteroid is a small rocky object that orbits the Sun. These objects are remnants from the
early formation of the solar system, and they are composed of minerals, metals, and other
elements. Most asteroids are found in the asteroid belt, a region between the orbits of Mars
and Jupiter, but they can also be present in other parts of the solar system. Asteroids vary in
size from small boulders to bodies that are hundreds of kilometers in diameter. While most
asteroids pose no threat to Earth, some have orbits that bring them close to our planet,
occasionally resulting in collisions. Such impacts can have significant consequences,
highlighting the importance of studying and monitoring these celestial bodies. Additionally,
asteroids are of interest for potential resource extraction and future space exploration
missions.
The Kirkwood gap refers to gaps in the distribution of asteroids in the asteroid belt, created
by gravitational influences from Jupiter that destabilize certain orbits.

Oort Cloud: The Oort Cloud is a hypothetical region in space that is thought to contain a vast
number of icy bodies, including comets, in a spherical shell surrounding the solar system. It is
believed to be located far beyond the orbit of Pluto, at distances of about 1,000 times the distance
from the Sun to Neptune.

Comet:
A comet is a small celestial body composed of ice, dust, and volatile gases that
orbits the Sun in an elongated, elliptical orbit.
Main components of a comet are:
Nucleus: The nucleus is the solid, central core of the comet, typically only a few
kilometers in diameter. It consists of water ice, frozen gases, and dust.
Coma: As a comet gets closer to the Sun, the heat causes the nucleus to release
volatile gases and dust, forming a bright, glowing coma around the nucleus. The
coma can be quite large, extending over tens of thousands of kilometers.
Tail: The most distinctive feature of a comet is its tail, which always points away
from the Sun. The tail is formed as solar wind and radiation pressure push the
released gas and dust away from the Sun.

Halley’s comet: Halley's Comet is named after the English astronomer Edmond Halley, who, in 1705,
predicted its return based on observations of its appearances in 1531, 1607, and 1682.
The comet has a periodic orbit of about 75-76 years. It last appeared in the inner solar system in 1986 and
is expected to return in 2061.
Halley's Comet is characterized by its distinctive tail, which is formed as the comet's icy nucleus heats up
and releases gas and dust as it approaches the Sun.
Studying Halley's Comet provides valuable insights into the composition and behavior of comets, offering
clues about the early solar system's formation and evolution. Scientists eagerly await its return for
opportunities to observe and analyze its characteristics, contributing to our understanding of celestial
phenomena.

Meteoroid, meteor, meteorite:

Meteoroid:
A meteoroid is a small rocky or metallic body in outer space. It is significantly smaller
than an asteroid, ranging in size from a grain of sand to about 10 meters in diameter.
Meteoroids are remnants from comets or asteroids and can travel through space, typically
in the vicinity of a planet or a star like our Sun.
Meteor:
When a meteoroid enters the Earth's atmosphere, it is referred to as a meteor. The friction
and pressure from Earth's atmosphere cause the meteoroid to heat up and produce a streak
of light in the sky. This bright trail of light is commonly known as a "shooting star" or
"falling star."
Meteors are visible from the Earth's surface, and they can vary in brightness. Most are
small and burn up completely in the atmosphere.
Meteorite:
If a meteoroid survives its journey through the Earth's atmosphere and lands on the Earth's
surface, it is then called a meteorite.

Meteor Impact Theory for extinction of Earth’s species:

The meteor theory, also known as the impact hypothesis, posits that a massive asteroid struck Earth
around 66 million years ago. This impact released an energy equivalent to billions of atomic bombs,
causing widespread fires and tsunamis. The enormous dust and debris thrown into the atmosphere
blocked sunlight, leading to a dramatic cooling effect known as "nuclear winter." This disruption severely
affected photosynthesis, crippling plant life and the herbivorous dinosaurs that depended on it.
Supporting evidence includes a layer of iridium-rich clay found in the geological record, known as the K-
Pg boundary, which is linked to asteroid impacts. The combination of immediate destruction and long-term
climatic changes contributed to the extinction of about 75% of Earth's species. This mass extinction event
eliminated all non-avian dinosaurs and many other organisms, marking a significant turning point in Earth's
biological history.

Sun’s photosphere, chromosphere and corona:

Photosphere: The photosphere is the outermost layer of the Sun that is visible to the naked
eye. It is the region where the Sun's energy is emitted as light and heat.
Chromosphere and Corona:
Above the photosphere, the Sun's atmosphere consists of the chromosphere and the corona.
The chromosphere is the second layer of the Sun's atmosphere, located just above the
photosphere (the Sun's visible surface). It is hotter than the photosphere and is an important
region for studying the Sun's outer atmosphere The solar corona is the outermost layer of
the Sun's atmosphere, extending far into space. It is visible during a solar eclipse as a pearly
white halo surrounding the darkened Sun.

Solar spots, solar wind, luminosity of sun, prominence:

Solar Spot: A solar spot, or sunspot, is a temporary phenomenon on the Sun's photosphere that
appears darker than the surrounding areas. It is caused by magnetic activity, specifically
concentrations of magnetic field lines inhibiting the flow of heat.
Solar Wind:
The solar wind is a stream of charged particles, mainly protons and electrons, that are ejected
from the outer layer of the Sun, called the corona. This continuous outflow of particles extends
throughout the solar system and influences the behavior of celestial bodies.
Luminosity of the Sun: The luminosity of the Sun refers to the total amount of energy it emits
per unit of time. It is a measure of the Sun's intrinsic brightness.
Prominence: A prominence is a large, bright, gaseous feature that extends outward from the
Sun's surface, often in the shape of a loop or arch.

Galaxies and types of galaxies:

Galaxies are vast systems of stars, stellar remnants, interstellar gas, dust, dark matter, and
other cosmic phenomena bound together by gravity.
Spiral Galaxies: Spiral galaxies are characterized by a central bulge surrounded by
spiral arms. The arms contain young, hot stars, gas, and dust, while the central bulge
typically consists of older stars.
Examples: The Milky Way.
Elliptical Galaxies: Elliptical galaxies have a smooth and ellipsoidal shape without
prominent spiral arms. They lack the distinct features of spiral galaxies and are often
composed of older stars. The stars in elliptical galaxies follow more random orbits.
Irregular Galaxies: Irregular galaxies lack a defined structure and do not fit into the
categories of spiral or elliptical galaxies. They often exhibit chaotic shapes and
irregularities in their structures. Irregular galaxies may contain both young and old
stars.

Diagram:
1. Milky way galaxy:
The Milky Way galaxy is a vast, spiral-shaped collection of stars, gas, dust, and
dark matter, of which the Earth and our solar system are a part. It is estimated to
contain anywhere from 100 to 400 billion stars, including our own Sun. The Milky
Way spans a diameter of about 100,000 light-years and is thought to have formed
around 13.6 billion years ago.

Within the Milky Way, stars are organized into spiral arms that wrap around a
central bulge. Our solar system resides in one of these spiral arms.. The galaxy also
contains a supermassive black hole at its center, which has a mass millions of times
greater than that of the Sun.

The Milky Way is just one of billions of galaxies in the observable universe, and
studying its structure, composition, and dynamics provides valuable insights into
the formation and evolution of galaxies as a whole.

2. Solar cycle:
The solar cycle is a natural phenomenon that describes the periodic variation in the Sun's activity
over an approximately 11-year cycle. It is characterized by changes in the number of sunspots,
solar flares, and other solar phenomena.

At the peak of the solar cycle, the Sun exhibits increased activity, with a higher number of
sunspots and solar flares. This phase is known as solar maximum. Conversely, during the solar
minimum phase, the Sun's activity decreases, and the number of sunspots and solar flares
diminishes.

The solar cycle is driven by the Sun's magnetic field, which undergoes a process of reversal
approximately every 11 years. This magnetic activity generates sunspots—dark regions on the
Sun's surface that are cooler than their surroundings but are still highly energetic.

Understanding the solar cycle is crucial for studying space weather and its potential impacts on
Earth's technological infrastructure, such as satellite communications, power grids, and
navigation systems. Additionally, the solar cycle influences Earth's climate and atmospheric
conditions.