OML 751 Testing of Materials Department of Civil & Mechanical Engineering 2022-23

OML751 -TESTING OF MATERIALS

UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS TESTING 9

Overview of materials, Classification of material testing, Purpose of testing, Selection of material,
Development of testing, Testing organizations and its committee, Testing standards, Result Analysis,
Advantages of testing.
1.1 OVERVIEW OF MATERIALS

1.1.1 DEFINITION - ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Engineering materials refers to the group of materials that are used in the construction of manmade
structures and components. The primary function of an engineering material is to withstand applied loading
without breaking and without exhibiting excessive deflection.

1.1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Basically Engineering Materials can be classified into three categories-

1. Metals
2. Non-Metals ( Polymers & Ceramics)
3. Composites

 Metals
o Ferrous Alloys
 Carbon Steel
 Low-Alloy Steel
 Tool Steel
 Stainless Steel
 Cast Iron
o Aluminium Alloys
o Nickel Alloys
o Copper Alloys
o Titanium Alloys
 Polymers
o Thermoplastic Polymers
o Thermosetting Polymers
o Elastomers

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 Ceramics
o Glass
o Cements
o Clay Products
o Refractories
o Abrasives
 Composites
o Particulate Composites
o Fibrous Composites
o Laminated Composites

Alloys
Alloys are metallic compounds made up of one metal and one or more metal or non-metal elements.
Examples of common alloys:

 Steel: A combination of iron (metal) and carbon (non-metal)

 Bronze: A combination of copper (metal) and tin (metal)
 Brass: A mixture of copper (metal) and zinc (metal)
Metals
Metals are the most commonly used class of engineering material. Metal alloys are especially common,
and they are formed by combining a metal with one or more other metallic and/or non-metallic materials.
The combination usually occurs through a process of melting, mixing, and cooling. The goal of alloying is
to improve the properties of the base material in some desirable way. Metal alloy compositions are
described in terms of the percentages of the various elements in the alloy, where the percentages are
measured by weight. All metals are having high thermal and electrical conductivity. All metals are having
positive temperature coefficient of resistance. Means resistance of metals increases with increase in
temperature.

Examples of metals – Silver, Copper, Gold, Aluminium, Iron, Zinc, Lead, Tin etc. Metals can be further
divided into two groups-

1. Ferrous Metals – All ferrous metals are having iron as common element. All ferrous materials
are having very high permeability which makes these materials suitable for construction of core
of electrical machines.
Examples: Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, Steel, Silicon Steel, High Speed Steel, Spring Steel etc.

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2. Non-Ferrous Metals - Non-ferrous alloys generally have iron compositions of less than one
percent as measured by weight. All non-ferrous metals are having very low permeability,
malleability, lighter weight, and corrosion resistivity.
Example: Silver, Copper, Gold, Aluminium etc.

Ferrous Alloys
Ferrous alloys have iron as the base element. These alloys and include steels and cast irons. Ferrous alloys
are the most common metal alloys in use due to the abundance of iron, ease of production, and high
versatility of the material. The biggest disadvantage of many ferrous alloys is low corrosion resistance.
Carbon is an important alloying element in all ferrous alloys. In general, higher levels of carbon increase
strength and hardness, and decrease ductility and weld ability.

Carbon Steel
Carbon steels are basically just mixtures of iron and carbon. They may contain small amounts of other
elements, but carbon is the primary alloying ingredient. The effect of adding carbon is an increase in
strength and hardness. Most carbon steels are plain carbon steels, of which there are several types.
1.Low-Carbon Steel
Low-carbon steel has less than about 0.30% carbon. It is characterized by low strength but high ductility.
Some strengthening can be achieved through cold working, but it does not respond well to heat treatment.
Low-carbon steel is very weldable and is inexpensive to produce. Common uses for low-carbon steel
include wire, structural shapes, machine parts, and sheet metal.
2.Medium-Carbon Steel
Medium-carbon steel contains between about 0.30% to 0.70% carbon. It can be heat treated to increase
strength, especially with the higher carbon contents. Medium-carbon steel is frequently used for axles,
gears, shafts, and machine parts.
3.High-Carbon Steel
High-carbon steel contains between about 0.70% to 1.40% carbon. It has high strength but low ductility.
Common uses include drills, cutting tools, knives, and springs.
Low-Alloy Steel
Low-alloy steels, also commonly called alloy steels, contain less than about 8% total alloying ingredients.
Low-alloy steels are typically stronger than carbon steels and have better corrosion resistance.

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Some low-alloy steels are designated as high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels. What sets HSLA steels
apart from other low-alloy steels is that they are designed to achieve specific mechanical properties rather
than to meet a specific chemical composition.
Tool Steel
Tool steels are primarily used to make tooling for use in manufacturing, for example cutting tools, drill
bits, punches, dies, and chisels. Alloying elements are typically chosen to optimize hardness, wear
resistance, and toughness.
Stainless Steel
Stainless steels have good corrosion resistance, mostly due to the addition of chromium as an alloying
ingredient. Stainless steels have a chromium composition of at least 11%. Passivation occurs with
chromium content at or above 12%, in which case a protective inert film of chromic oxide forms over the
material and prevents oxidation. The corrosion resistance of stainless steel is a result of this passivation.
 Austenitic Stainless Steel
 Ferritic Stainless Steel
 Martensitic Stainless Steel
 Duplex Stainless Steel & .Precipitation-Harden able Stainless Steel
Cast Iron
Cast iron is a ferrous alloy containing high levels of carbon, generally greater than 2%. The carbon present
in the cast iron can take the form of graphite or carbide. Cast irons have a low melting temperature which
makes them well suited to casting.
 Gray Cast Iron
 Ductile Cast Iron (Nodular Cast Iron)
 White Cast Iron
 Malleable Cast Iron
Aluminium Alloys
Pure aluminium is soft and weak, but it can be alloyed to increase strength. Pure aluminium has good
corrosion resistance due to an oxide coating that forms over the material and prevents oxidation. Alloying
the aluminium tends to reduce its corrosion resistance.
Aluminium is a widely used material, particularly in the aerospace industry, due to its light weight and
corrosion resistance. Despite the fact that aluminium alloys are generally not as strong as steels, they
nevertheless have a good strength-to-weight ratio.
Nickel Alloys

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Nickel alloys have high temperature and corrosion resistance. Common alloying ingredients include
copper, chromium, and iron. Common nickel alloys include Monel, K-Monel, Inconel, and Hastelloy.

Copper Alloys
Copper alloys are generally characterized as being electrically conductive, having good corrosion
resistance, and being relatively easy to form and cast. While they are a useful engineering material, copper
alloys are also very attractive and are commonly used in decorative applications.
Copper alloys primarily consist of brasses and bronzes. Zinc is the major alloying ingredient in brass. Tin
is a major alloying element in most bronzes. Bronzes may also contain aluminium, nickel, zinc, silicon, and
other elements. The bronzes are typically stronger than the brasses while still maintaining good corrosion
resistance.
Titanium Alloys
Titanium alloys are light, strong, and have high corrosion resistance. Their density is much lower than
steel, and their strength-to-weight ratio is excellent. For this reason, titanium alloys are used fairly
commonly, especially in the aerospace industry. One primary downside of titanium alloys is the high cost.
There are three categories of titanium alloys: alpha alloys, beta alloys, and alpha-beta alloys. Alpha alloys
do not respond to heat treatment and are instead strengthened through solid-solution strengthening
processes. The beta and alpha-beta alloys can be strengthened by heat treatment, primarily through
precipitation hardening.
Titanium alloys are identified using the percentages of alloying elements, for example Ti-6Al-4V.
Non-Metals
Non-Metal materials are non-crystalline in nature. These exists in amorphic or mesomorphic forms. These
are available in both solid and gaseous forms at normal temperature. Normally all non-metals are bad
conductor of heat and electricity. Examples: Plastics, Rubber, Leathers, Asbestos etc. As these non-metals
are having very high resistivity which makes them suitable for insulation purpose in electrical machines.
Polymers
Polymers are materials that consist of molecules formed by long chains of repeating units. They may be
natural or synthetic. Many useful engineering materials are polymers, such as plastics, rubbers, fibers,
adhesives, and coatings. Polymers are classified as thermoplastic polymers, thermosetting polymers
(thermosets), and elastomers.
1. Thermoplastic Polymers
The classification of thermoplastics and thermosets is based on their response to heat. If heat is applied to a
thermoplastic, it will soften and melt. Once it is cooled, it will return to solid form. Thermoplastics do not

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experience any chemical change through repeated heating and cooling (unless the temperature is high
enough to break the molecular bonds). They are therefore very well suited to injection moulding.

2. Thermosetting Polymers
Thermosets are typically heated during initial processing, after which they become permanently hard.
Thermosets will not melt upon reheating. If the applied heat becomes extreme however, the thermoset will
degrade due to breaking of the molecular bonds. Thermosets typically have greater hardness and strength
than thermoplastics. They also typically have better dimensional stability than thermoplastics, meaning that
they are better at maintaining their original dimensions when subjected to temperature and moisture
changes.
3. Elastomers
Elastomers are highly elastic polymers with mechanical properties similar to rubber. Elastomers are
commonly used for seals, adhesives, hoses, belts, and other flexible parts. The strength and stiffness of
rubber can be increased through a process called vulcanization, which involves adding sulfur and
subjecting the material to high temperature and pressure. This process causes cross-links to form between
the polymer chains.
Ceramics
Ceramics are solid compounds that may consist of metallic or non-metallic elements. The primary
classifications of ceramics include glasses, cements, clay products, refractories, and abrasives.
Ceramics generally have excellent corrosion and wear resistance, high melting temperature, high stiffness,
and low electrical and thermal conductivity. Ceramics are also very brittle materials.
Glass
Glasses are common materials and are seen in applications including windows, lenses, and containers.
Glasses are amorphous, whereas the other ceramics are mainly crystalline. Primary advantages of glasses
include transparency and ease of fabrication. The base element of most glasses is silica, and other
components can be added to modify its properties. Common processes used to form glass include:
 heating until melting, then pouring into moulds to cast into useful shapes
 heating until soft, then rolling
 heating until soft, then blowing into desired shapes
Cements
Cements are materials that, after mixing with water, form a paste that then hardens. Because of this
characteristic, cements can be formed into useful shapes while in paste form before they harden into rigid

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structures. Plaster of Paris is one common cement. The most common cement is called Portland cement,
which is made by mixing clay and limestone and then firing at high temperature. Portland cement is used to
form concrete, which is made by mixing it with sand, gravel, and water. It can also be mixed with sand and
water to form mortar. Like other ceramics, cements are weak in tension but strong in compression. Cement
in expensive to produce, and it used widely in the construction of buildings, bridges, and other large
structures.
Clay Products
Clay is a very common ceramic material. It can be mixed with water, shaped, and then hardened through
firing at high temperature. The two primary classifications of clay products include structural clay products
and white wares. Structural clay products see applications including bricks, tiles, and piping. White wares
see applications including pottery and plumbing fixtures.
Refractories
Refractory ceramics can withstand high temperatures and extreme environments. They can also provide
thermal insulation. Brick is the most common refractory ceramic.
Abrasives
Abrasive ceramics are hard materials that are used to cut, grind, and wear away other softer materials.
Typical properties of abrasives include high hardness, wear resistance, and temperature resistance.
Abrasives can either be bonded to a surface (e.g. grinding wheels and sand paper), or can be used as loose
grains (e.g. sand blasting). Common abrasives include cemented carbide, silicon carbide, tungsten carbide,
aluminium oxide, and silica sand. Diamond is also an excellent abrasive, but it is expensive.
Composites
A composite material is a material in which one or more mutually insoluble materials are mixed or bonded
together. The primary classes of composites are particulate composites, fibrous composites, and laminated
composites.
1. Particulate Composites
Particulate composites are created by adding particles of one material to a matrix (the filler material). The
particles will typically account for less than 15% of the total material volume. The particles are added to
improve upon some shortcoming of the matrix material.
2. Fibrous Composites
A fibrous composite is a material in which fibers of one material are embedded within a matrix. The fibers
carry most of the stress, and the matrix serves to hold the fibers in place and to transmit stress between the
fibers. The fibers can be short and randomly oriented, or they can be long and continuous.
3. Laminated Composites

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Laminated composites are created by combining layers of composite materials. The layers will typically
differ in the orientation of the fibers, or they will differ in the material itself. Sandwich materials are
common, in which a lightweight material (such as foam or a honeycomb) will be placed in between layers
of a strong, stiff material.

1.1.3 PROPERTY OF THE ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Property of a material is a factor that influences qualitatively or quantitatively the response of a given
material to impose stimuli and constrains. Eg. Forces, temperature etc. The material property is
independent of the dimensions or shape of the material.

Materials have different properties depending on what they are used for. Some materials are hard, others
are soft. These are types of materials most commonly used in everyday life are given below.

1. Physical Properties of Materials

2. Chemical Properties of Materials
3. Thermal Properties of Materials
4. Electrical Properties of Materials
5. Magnetic Properties of Materials
6. Optical Properties of Materials
7. Mechanical Properties of Materials
1. Physical Properties of Materials
Physical properties of material are those which can be observed without change of identity of material.
Physical properties of metals are density, colour, size and shape, specific gravity of material, porosity etc.
Some of these are defined as below. We should have knowledge of physical properties of materials.
Density of Materials
Density is one of most fundamental physical properties of any material. Density of material is defined as
mass per unit volume. It is defined as ratio of mass volume of material. It is denoted by “p”. Its unit in SI
system is KG/m3. Density is an important in many calculations because most designs are limited by either
size or weight.

Shape and Size

Dimension of any metal reflect shape and size of material, length, width, height, depth etc. Also, it
determines specific rectangular, circular, spherical, or any other section. You can also read Engineering
Materials – Atomic Structure Introduction.
Specific Gravity of Materials

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It is defined as ratio of density of material with respect to density of reference material or substance. It does
not have any unite. Sometimes it is also called as relative density. For gravity calculation water is
considered as reference substance.

Porosity of Materials
When material is in melting condition, it contains some dissolved gases with in material. When material is
solidifies these gases get evaporate and leave behind voids. Porosity of materials represents quantity of
voids in solid materials.

2. Chemical Properties of materials

Chemical properties related to changes in chemical composition of material because it interacts with other
substances. Chemical properties of engineering materials are needed because most of materials, when they
come in contact with other substances can react to form new materials. It is deterioration of material by
chemical reaction with its environment.
It cannot be observed without changing chemical composition of substance. This chemical property
includes pH, production of salt when an acid reacts with metal or unique colour change in chemical
reaction.

3. Thermal Properties of materials

Engineering materials are important in everyday life because of their versatile structural properties.
Thermal properties of engineering materials are diverse and so their uses in different applications. Thermal
properties are those properties of material which is related to its conductivity of heat.
In other words, these are properties which are display by material when heat is passed through it. Thermal
properties of material refer to characteristic behaviours of material under thermal load. Other than these
properties, they do play an important role because of their physical properties. There are different thermal
properties are thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, specific heat, melting point, thermal diffusivity.
Heat capacity of a material can be defined as the amount of heat required to change the temperature of the
material by one degree. The amount of heat is generally expressed in joules or calories and the temperature
in Celsius or Kelvin.

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Thermal Expansion: When heat is passed through a material, its shape changes. Generally, a material
expands when heated. This property of a material is called thermal expansion. There can be a change in the
area, volume and shape of the material.
Thermal conductivity: It is the property of a material to conduct heat through itself. Materials with high
thermal conductivity will conduct more heat than the ones with low conductivity.
Thermal stress : The stress experienced by a body due to either thermal expansion or contraction is called
thermal stress. It can be potentially destructive in nature as it can make the material explode.
Thermal diffusivity is the thermal conductivity divided by density and specific heat capacity at constant
pressure. It measures the rate of transfer of heat of a material from the hot end to the cold end.
Melting point: Melting point is temperature at which material goes from solid to liquid state at one
atmosphere. Melting point states as transition point between solid and liquid phases. Melting point is
temperature at which pure metal or compound changes its state from solid to liquid.
Melting temperature depends on inter-atomic and intermolecular bonds nature. Therefore higher meting
temperature is show by those materials possessing stronger bonds. Covalent, ionic, metallic and molecular
are types of solids and they decrease order of bonding strength and melting point.

4. Electrical Properties of engineering materials

Electrical properties are their ability to conduct electrical current. Various electrical properties are
resistivity, Electrical conductivity, temperature coefficient of resistance, dielectric strength and
thermoelectricity.
Some of electrical properties of engineering materials are below
Electrical Resistivity
It is property of material which resists flow of electric current through material. It is give-and-take of
conductivity. Resistivity values are reported in micro ohm centimetres units. As mentioned above
resistivity values are simple give and take of conductivity.
Electrical Conductivity
It is property of material with allow flow of electric current through material. It is parameter which
indicates that how easily electric current can flow through material. Conductivity of material is give and
take of resistivity. Electrical conductivity measure of how well material accommodates movement of an
electric charge. It is ration of current density to electric field strength.
Electrical conductivity is very useful property since values are affected by such things. Therefore, electrical
conductivity information can be used for measuring purity of water, checking for proper heat treatment of
metals and inspecting for heat damage in some materials.

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Dielectric Strength
It is property of material which indicates ability of material to withstand at high voltages. Usually, it is
specified for insulating material to represent their operating voltage. Which material having high dielectric
strength can withstand at high voltages.
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance
Temperature coefficient of resistance of material indicates change in resistance of material with change in
temperature. Resistance of conductor changes with change of temperature. As noted above, electrical
conductivity values are reported at 20 degree centigrade. This is done because conductivity and resistivity
of material is depending on temperature. Thus conductivity of materials decreases as temperature increases.

Thermoelectricity
If link formed by joining to two metals is heated, a small voltage of millivolt is produced. This effect is
called thermoelectricity or thermoelectric effect. This effect forms basis of operation of thermocouples and
some temperature based transducers. This can be used to generate electricity, to measure temperature and
to measure change is temperature of objects.

5. Magnetic Properties of Material

Origin of magnetism lies in orbital and spin motions of electrons and how electrons interact with one
another. Magnetic properties of material are those which determine ability of material for particular
magnetic application.
Permeability
It is property of magnetic material which indicates that how easily magnetic flux is build up in material. It
is determined by ratio of magnetic flux density to magnetizing force producing this magnetic flux density.
Hysteresis
Magnetic Hysteresis is an important material by which is firstly becomes magnetized and then de-
magnetization process. Lack of retrace ability of magnetization curve is called hysteresis and is related to
existence of magnetic domains in material. Magnetic hysteresis is rising temperature at which given
material ceases to be ferromagnetic, or falling temperature at which it becomes magnetic.
Coercive Force
This force defined as magnetizing force which is essential to neutralize completely magnetism in an
electromagnet after value of magnetizing force become zero.

6. Optical Properties of Material

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Optical properties that define material response to incident radiation can be described as transmission,
reflection and absorption. Every solid material emits thermal radiation. The optical properties of a
material define how it interacts with light. The optical properties of matter are studied in optical physics, a
subfield of optics. The optical properties of matter include:

 Refraction and the material's refraction index

 Polarization
 Reflection and the material's albedo or reflectance
 Absorption
 Photoluminescence (fluorescence)
 Transmittance
 Diffraction
 Dispersion
 Dichroism
 Scattering
 Birefringence
 Colour

7. Mechanical Properties of Material

Mechanical properties of material help us to measure how materials behave under load. In order to achieve
optimal system performance, mechanical properties include density, hardness and elasticity. Mechanical
properties of material reflect relationship between its response to and deformation from an applied load or
force. Properties of materials that find out its behaviour under applied forces are called mechanical
properties.
Some of the typical mechanical properties of a material include:
 Strength
 Toughness
 Hardness
 Hardenability
 Brittleness
 Malleability
 Ductility
 Creep and Slip
 Resilience

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 Fatigue

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIAL TESTING

The intensity of the load can either be temporally constant or vary permanently. A constant stress intensity
is also referred to as static load. If, on the other hand, the level of stress varies in its intensity and/or in its
direction, one speaks of a dynamic load.

A particular type of load always has a certain temporal course. In general, several types of loads occur in
combination. This is the case, for example, with a shaft driven on one side, which is simultaneously
subjected to torsion, bending and shearing. Depending on whether the shaft is driven with constant torque
or whether the torque changes permanently, it is a static or dynamic load. Thus, there are countless
possibilities how components can be stressed.

When dimensioning components, the engineer must be able to refer to specific values that characterize the
different stress limits of the materials used with respect to their temporal course. The stress limit can be
based on either an unacceptable deformation or a fracture. For this reason, various materials testing
methods were developed to determine the corresponding failure limits depending on the type of load and its
time course.
In principle, material testing methods can be divided into three categories:
 Destructive tests,
 Non-destructive tests and
 Process Inspection Tests.
1.2.1 Destructive tests
With destructive testing, the material is damaged and the component can usually no longer be used. In
general, specially prepared and standardized samples are used for this type of testing. The destructive
testing procedures provide important parameters in order to determine not only the proper material but also
geometry of the component depending on the applied load. The determination of the component
dimensions is also referred to as dimensioning.

Destructive testing is used to determine specific material constants or component constants. Destructive
testing is undertaken in order to understand a specimen’s performance or material behaviour, these
procedures are carried out to the test specimen’s failure. Destructive testing procedures can either follow
specific standards or can be tailored to reproduce set service conditions.

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Destructive testing methods are commonly used for materials characterisation, fabrication validation,
failure investigation, and can form a key part of engineering critical assessments, which also involves non-
destructive testing (NDT) techniques such as digital radiography.

The following test methods are considered destructive testing tensile test
 Compression Test
 Hardness Test
 Flexural Test
 Charpy Impact Test
 Fatigue Test
 Creep Rupture Test
 relaxation test
 cupping test
Due to the complexity and the interaction between the different loads, not all cases can be recorded in
material properties. This is always a problem when human lives are at risk due to component failure. For
this reason, safety-relevant components must be checked at regular intervals, as is the case with turbine
blades of aircraft engines. It is not economically viable to carry out a destructive material test at this point
in order to subsequently state that everything was in order.
1.2.2 Non-destructive testing
A component does not break in non-destructive testing end even after being tested so, it can be used for
the purpose for which it was made. Examples of non-destructive tests are radiography, ultrasonic, laser
and liquid penetrant test. The following test methods are considered non-destructive testing.
 Ultrasonic testing (UT)
 Dye penetrant inspection (DPI)
 Magnetic particle testing (MPI)
 Eddy current testing (ECT)
In general no specific material constant can be derived from non-destructive testings as in destructive
testing. The result is only a statement whether the component can still be used or must be repaired or even
replaced. Non-destructive testing is used to check the usability of finished components (inspection) – no
material parameters are determined.

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1.2.3 Process Inspection Test

The name of process inspection or process tests may come from the type of manufacturing where it is
performed, such as foundry, welding assembly etc. There is first piece inspection or final piece inspection
of sampling or check inspections. The location often affects the name of the inspection as in receiving or
inspection, conveyor or hopper inspection, stores or stock inspection.
1.3 PURPOSE OF TESTING
1.3.1 Materials testing
It’s measurement of the characteristics and behaviour of such substances as metals, ceramics, or plastics
under various conditions. The data thus obtained can be used in specifying the suitability of materials for
various applications—e.g., building or aircraft construction, machinery, or packaging. A full- or small-
scale model of a proposed machine or structure may be tested. Alternatively, investigators may construct
mathematical models that utilize known material characteristics and behaviour to predict capabilities of the
structure.

1.3.2 Need for Materials Testing

Materials are tested to assess numerically the fundamental mechanical properties of ductility, malleability,
toughness, etc. To determine data, i.e force-determination values to draw up sets of specifications upon
which the engineer can base the design. To determine the surface to sub-surface defects in the raw
materials or processed parts. To check chemical composition and to determine suitability of a material for a
particular application.
1.3.3 Purpose of Testing

Material testing has become an integral phase in almost all types of industries for ensuring its quality and
safety. It is predominantly essential especially in the construction and car manufacturing sectors since if
done anything erroneously, it can harm people. Hence, the need for proper material testing becomes
indispensable to protect the people who will be using the manufactured product. In most of the productions,
testing is taken place at the end of the manufacturing process. But, instead of testing the product as a
whole, it is a good practice to test the individual parts that is making the product.

 To determine the properties of the raw material,

 To check quality at intermediate stages in production processes,
 To check finished products, and to aid research.
 Mechanical, physical, and chemical methods are used to study the properties of materials.
 Destructive methods damage or completely destroy the object of the tests;

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 Non-destructive ones permit further use of the object.

1.4 SELECTION OF MATERIAL

1.4.1 Introduction
Material selection lies at the crux of the engineering design process. Engineers irrespective of their domain,
need to identify and choose an appropriate material for a given engineering situation. It involves the proper
utility, ways of using them for greater effectiveness. The need to elevate (both structural and non-
structural) attributes of a material, has lead to the evolution of engineering materials.

Design engineers carry out a series of tests and material analysis both, physical and virtual using 3D solid
modelling and simulation in CAD, to identify best material alternative. A virtual test by simulation of 3D
prototype of the actual design will evaluate the material suitability and design features for the intended
operational conditions on the component.

1.4.2 Factors that should be considered before selecting a material for engineering include:
 Fabricational ease,
 Service conditions,
 Operational needs,
 Durability,
 Dimensional ability,
 Resistance to corrosion,
 Impact resistance,
 Surface wear resistance,
 Elasticity,
 Chemical resistance ,
 Flame resistance
 Cost of the material
 Its ability to manufacture
 Environmental considerations
 Chemical properties
 Physical properties
 Mechanical attributes
1.4.3 Selection of a material for an engineering design depends on:

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 The Functional Requirements of the Design: e.g : the design should have a certain load carrying

capacity, ability to transfer heat etc.

 The Main Objective of the Design: e.g : Improve durability, reduce overall weight of the

product/component
 The Constrains of a Design: e.g : Fixed dimensions, material should not buckle under pressure, should

be able to retain shape and strength at high temperatures etc.

Design engineers employ different approaches for material selection like, carrying out a class based
selection for design requirements and then narrowing down the search to one variation that best suits the
design. Another approach to material selection is finalizing the manufacturing process first and then
choosing a material that can comply with the selected process and also justify the design requirements.
Material selection is of utmost importance in designing a product; engineers face this challenge while
designing a new product. Besides, if a design under performs, then in this case, design engineers might
look for material alternatives to improve the performance of the product.

Importance of Material Selection in Engineering Design Process

1.4.4 Importance of material selection

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If a systematic material selection procedure is not in place, it impacts the design of the product/component
making it highly susceptible to failure. Considering the Mechanical Material attributes based on the
function, objective and constrains your design, ensures that the design is technically fit to deliver the
desired performance.
 Analysis of a design and subjecting it to real working conditions using FEA Analysis and CFD

Analysis techniques helps identify the shortcomings and hence identify material properties that
need to be altered and improved. This process thus helps choose the best material that augments
your designs durability, performance and output.
 Ideal material selection is crucial to ensure that the product does not succumb to extreme conditions

and performs well in unpredictable conditions.

 Ideal material choice for your design gives you a competitive edge by affecting and invariably

improving the factors such as function, mechanical properties, quality, manufacturability,

endurance and performance, environmental impact and the cost of your mechanical
product/component design.

1.5 DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL TESTING

Material testing at various strain rates, temperatures and loading conditions provides data that is used for
the development and calibration of constitutive equations (material models) that are utilized in numerical
simulations of sheet metal forming. In general, the testing can be divided into characterization tests and
validation tests. In characterization tests basic material properties (e.g. yield stress, ultimate stress, failure
strain) are determined from a test in which a material coupon is loaded under a well-defined condition
(stress, strain rate, temperature, etc.). The data is used for determining the values of parameters in plasticity
and failure models. In validation tests a material specimen or a small component is loaded with a more
complicated, but well defined, loadings. The test is numerically simulated and the calculated quantities
(forces, deformation, failure, temperature, etc.) are compared with measurements. The recent development
of the Digital Image Correlation (DIC) technique for full-field measurement of deformation has extended
the useful data that can be extracted from traditional characterization tests and provide means for
developing new experiments that can be used for obtaining more accurate material models.

1.6 TESTING ORGANIZATIONS AND ITS COMMITTEE

The following are some global organizations which are involved in setting up of "testing standards" and
active research for material analysis and reliability testing. American Association of Textile Chemists and
Colorists (AATCC),American National Standards Institute (ANSI),American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), ASTM International, Cooper Research

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Technology, Electrostatic Discharge Association, European Reference Materials, Instron, International

Committee for Non Destructive Testing, International Organization for Standardization (ISO), ISTFA:
Useful resources on Material, Device and Failure Analysis, MTS Systems Corporation, Nadcap National
Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)
1.7 TESTING STANDARDS
1.7.1 Material Testing Standards
Material Testing Standards provide a unified reference for test methods, equipment, and industry-specific
usage scenarios and specifications for a wide array of materials and test environments. Material
standards are specifications that specify material properties like Physical properties. Mechanical properties.
Quality standards or requirements, like surface finish or specific performance criteria. Materials testing,
measurement of the characteristics and behavior of such substances as metals, ceramics, or plastics under
various conditions. The data thus obtained can be used in specifying the suitability of materials for various
applications—e.g., building or aircraft construction, machinery, or packaging.

1.7.2 Difference between Code and Standard

A code is a model, a set of rules that knowledgeable people recommend for others to follow. It is not a law,
but can be adopted into law. Codes also refer out to standards or specifications for the specific details on
additional requirements that are not specified in the Code.
When governmental bodies adopt the standard and become legally enforceable, or when it has been
incorporated into a business contract, the standard will become a code. Code will serve as generally
accepted guidelines for design, fabrication, construction, and installation. However, all most all process
facility follows various American code and Standard in addition to their national standard. Examples of the
codes are ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, BS, DIN, etc.

Standard can define as a set of technical definitions and guidelines – or simply a “how-to” instructions for
designers and manufacturers. It gives all the necessary requirements for the product, service, and operation.

A designer will use the standard to design the product, and a manufacturer will use the standard for the
manufacturing of the product. Standard serves as a common language for defining quality and establishing
safety criteria for the product. ASTM, API, ISO are some examples of the standard. ASTM has more than
12000 standards they cover all most everything.

1.7.3 Usage of standards in Design

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Trade standards are primarily concerned with specifying overall dimensions, so that products of different
manufacturers may be used interchangeably; with performance, so that customers know what they are
buying; and with certain design features, such as major materials, in order to assure proper function.

let’s take the example of a mobile phone charger. If you are in the USA and traveling to India, you need an
adapter to use your charger. This is because both the country follows the different standards for power
sockets. But your USB cables will work anywhere in the world because it is manufactured as per the
globally accepted standard.

In the case of the process industry, piping components are sourced from around the world; we want all
these materials, irrespective of their country of origin should fit perfectly with each other at the site.
Standard help to achieve these;

 By establishing common engineering or technical requirements for products, practices, methods, or

operations that the manufacturer has to follow while manufacturing piping components.
 Standard Built confidence about product quality in the users and

 With standardization cost of production will reduce as you can produce in bulk for global markets

1.7.4 Commonly Cited Standards

1.AASHTO (American Association of State Highway & Transportation Officials)

The American Association of State Highway & Transportation Officials (AASHTO) is a nonprofit,
nonpartisan association representing highway and transportation departments in the 50 states, the District
of Columbia and Puerto Rico. It is the only national public sector association that represents all five
transportation modes: air, highways, public transportation, rail and water. Its primary goal is to foster the
development, operation and maintenance of an integrated national transportation system.
Some of the major AASHTO publications which include standards are:

 Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing
(Engineering Standards TE200 .A428 and online (UW Restricted));
 Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges (Engineering Reference TG310 .A6 and online
(UW Restricted)), and;
 Guide Specifications for Highway Construction, 1998 (Engineering Reference TE180 .G85 1998)
and (online, 9th edition, 2008) (UW Restricted)).

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2.ACI
The American Concrete Institute (ACI) serves the various components of the concrete industry. It has
about one hundred technical committees, and the documents produced by these committees are arranged
into five groups in the six-part Manual of Concrete Practice (MCP) (Engineering Library Reference,
TA681.A64) which includes almost all of the Institute's codes, standards, and committee reports including
318-08: Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary. They include research and
administration, materials and properties of concrete, design and construction practices, structural analysis,
and special products and processes.
3.AHRI
The Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute (AHRI) is a voluntary, non-profit organization
comprised of the manufacturers of air conditioning, refrigeration, and heating products. The more than 60
standards now published are mainly performance-rating standards, although some are application or
terminology standards. Many AHRI standards are accepted as American National Standards.
4.ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers)
ASHRAE, the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers is an
international organization of 50,000 persons with chapters throughout the world. The Society is involved
with research, standards writing, continuing education and publications.
5.ANSI (American National Standards Institute) is the national coordinator of voluntary standards
activities in the U.S. ANSI approves and publishes standards after they are developed by various
engineering, industry and professional groups. ANSI is the U.S. representative to the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). ANSI
does not produce standards.
6.ASTM was originally known as the American Society for Testing and Materials. ASTM International is
one of the largest voluntary standards development organizations in the world. ASTM develops technical
standards for materials, products, systems, and services. ASTM Standards have an important role in the
information infrastructure that guides design, manufacturing and trade in the global economy.
ASTM was originally known as the American Society of the International Association for Testing and
Materials when it was created in 1898 by Pennsylvania Railroad engineers and scientists. Its purpose was
to address and prevent the frequent rail breaks that were plaguing the industry by developing standards that
would ensure higher quality rail products. It consists of over 30,000 members that include product users,
producers, consumers, academics, and consultants. ASTM is still headquartered in Pennsylvania, but it also
has offices throughout the world that are located in Belgium, Canada, China, and Mexico, as well as one
other domestic office in Washington DC.

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ASTM has come a long way from creating standards for steel in the railroad industry. Today, ASTM
develops and publishes technical standards for many different industries with the goal of enhancing
performance and safety over a wide range of products, materials, systems, and services. Thousands of
ASTM standards are upheld all over the world, each with their own unique number. Each standard falls
into a variety of categories which include:
 Standard Specification
 Standard Test Method
 Standard Practice Guide
 Standard Classification & Terminology Standard
List of ASTM standards
Standard designations usually consist of a letter prefix and a sequentially assigned number. This may
optionally be followed by a dash and the last two digits of the year in which the standard was adopted.
Prefix letters correspond to the following subjects: A = Iron and Steel Materials, B = Nonferrous Metal
Materials,C = Ceramic, Concrete, and Masonry Materials, D = Miscellaneous Materials, E = Miscellaneous
Subjects, F = Materials for Specific Applications, G = Corrosion, Deterioration, and Degradation of
Materials. Ex: G99 – Wear Testing

7.ISO Online
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a non-governmental organization established in
1947.The ISO 9000 family of standards for quality management is a well known ISO product. The UW
Libraries does not collect very many ISO standards.

The mission of ISO is to promote the development of standardization and related activities in the world
with a view to facilitating the international exchange of goods and services, and to developing cooperation
in the spheres of intellectual, scientific, technological and economic activity. ISO maintains a searchable
online catalogue of international standards.
1.8 RESULT ANALYSIS OR FAILURE ANALYSIS
1.8.1 Failure and Failure Analysis
Failure is a shortcoming which is encountered when a machine or a structure has not been made according
to the desired specifications. It is a result of deterioration in quality especially strength. Failure leads to
defects in a test material, loss of service life and loss of functioning.
Failure Analysis of engineering material is a systematic way to diagnose the cause of failure of a
component and preventing the risk of future failures. After the complete investigation, a report is prepared
which includes all the data obtained and its results with the preventive measures to be taken.

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1.8.2 Causes of failure in the material

Manufacturing defects, Errors in designing and assembling, inadequate environmental protection,
inadequate quality assurance, improper selection of material
1.8.3 Various tests performed under failure Analysis
Material assessment, Fire damage investigation, Surface contamination and its analysis, Surface roughness
determination, Weld evaluation, Coating contamination determination, Paint identification, Microstructure
evaluation, Macro etching, adhesive testing, Physical tests, Corrosion analysis, Fractography, Chemical
analysis, Scanning Electron Microscopy and EDS and Design review
1.8.4 Steps Under Failure analysis
Gaining a complete background information of the material, Carrying out visual inspection and making a
record of the evidences, Conducting tests like Non-Destructive testing, Macroscopic examination,
Mechanical testing, Metallographic examination and several others to diagnose the failure causes, Data
analysis to get a conclusion and Provide suggestions for avoiding the material failure.

1.8.5 Scope of failure mode analysis

Failure Analysis is broadly practiced in various industries including polymers, electrical and electronics,
metals and alloys, building material, etc. There are various useful methods to prevent failure such as Fault
Tree Analysis (FTA) and Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA).
1.8.6 Advantage of Failure analysis
Through Failure Analysis, one can identify the defects and flaws in a sample material and can prevent the
failure to avoid accidents related to its use or installation. It also enhances the design to improve its
durability and reliability.
1.9 ADVANTAGES OF TESTING
Materials Testing is performed for a variety of reasons and can provide a wealth of information about the
tested materials, prototypes or product samples. The data collected during testing and the final test results
can be very useful to engineers, designers, production managers and others. Materials testing helps us to
understand and quantify whether a specific material or treatment is suitable for a particular application.
With the wide variety of materials and treatments available in the marketplace, testing can help narrow
down the choices to the most appropriate selection for the intended use.
Here are some of the reasons material testing is important:
 Meeting requirements of regulatory agencies
 Selecting appropriate materials and treatments for an application
 Evaluating product design or improvement specifications

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 Verifying a production process

The first and most important benefit of testing is ensuring that a quality product is delivered to customers.
Many industrial and manufacturing companies are delivering materials on to other, more specialized
manufacturers that will produce the goods the public will eventually use. A prominent example is
automobiles. Fabricators preparing metal for use in cars must be sure that metal meets the stringent
standards necessary to be safe for building those frames. Any weakness in the material could have life
threatening consequences for the future owners of that vehicle.

Another benefit of tensile testing is the opportunity to identify new alloys and what kind of applications
they might have. Manufacturers are always on the lookout for improved materials. If a house can be built
with steel that’s stronger, but still able to be formed into the desired shape, that will naturally have great
potential for the construction industry. Tensile testing is necessary to know which qualities these metals
have.

1.10 MATERIALS PROCESSING

Materials processing, the series of operations that transforms industrial materials from a raw-material
state into finished parts or products. Industrial materials are defined as those used in the manufacture of
“hard” goods, such as more or less durable machines and equipment produced for industry and consumers,
as contrasted with disposable “soft” goods, such as chemicals, foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals, and apparel.
Below are three major methods of processing with the typical materials that use the methods:
 Casting (liquid metals and semisolids polymers)
 Powder Processing (metals and ceramics in powder form)
 Bulk Deformation Processing (metals in bulk or sheet form)
 Forming and shaping processes may be classified into two broad types—those performed on the

material in a liquid state and those performed on the material in a solid or plastic condition. The
processing of materials in liquid form is commonly known as casting when it involves metals, glass,
and ceramics; it is called moulding when applied to plastics and some other non-metallic materials.
Most casting and moulding processes involve four major steps: (1) making an accurate pattern of the
part, (2) making a mould from the pattern, (3) introducing the liquid into the mould, and (4)
removing the hardened part from the mould. A finishing operation is sometimes needed.

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 Materials in their solid state are formed into desired shapes by the application of a force or

pressure. The material to be processed can be in a relatively hard and stable condition and in such
forms as bar, sheet, pellet, or powder, or it can be in a soft, plastic, or puttylike form. Solid materials
can be shaped either hot or cold. Processing of metals in the solid state can be divided into two major
stages: first, the raw material in the form of large ingots or billets is hot-worked, usually by rolling,
forging, or extrusion, into smaller shapes and sizes; second, these shapes are processed into final
parts and products by one or more smaller scale hot or cold forming processes.
 After the material is formed, it is usually further altered. In materials processing, a “removal”

process is one that eliminates portions of a piece or body of material to achieve a desired shape.
Although removal processes are applied to most types of materials, they are most widely used on
metallic materials. Material can be removed from a work piece by either mechanical or non-
mechanical means.
 There are a number of metal-cutting processes. In almost all of them, machining involves the

forcing of a cutting tool against the material to be shaped. The tool, which is harder than the material
to be cut, removes the unwanted material in the form of chips. Thus, the elements of machining are a
cutting device, a means for holding and positioning the work piece, and usually a lubricant (or cutting
oil). There are four basic noncutting removal processes: (1) in chemical milling the metal is removed
by the etching reaction of chemical solutions on the metal; although usually applied to metals, it can
also be used on plastics and glass, (2) electrochemical machining uses the principle of metal plating
in reverse, as the work piece, instead of being built up by the plating process, is eaten away in a
controlled manner by the action of the electrical current, (3) electro discharge machining and
grinding erodes or cuts the metal by high-energy sparks or electrical discharges, (4) laser machining
cuts metallic or refractory materials with an intense beam of light from a laser.
 Another further alteration may be “joining,” the process of permanently, sometimes only

temporarily, bonding or attaching materials to each other. The term as used here includes welding,
brazing, soldering, and adhesive and chemical bonding. In most joining processes, a bond between
two pieces of material is produced by application of one or a combination of three kinds of energy:
thermal, chemical, or mechanical. A bonding or filler material, the same as or different from the
materials being joined, may or may not be used.
 The properties of materials can be further altered by hot or cold treatments, by mechanical

operations, and by exposure to some forms of radiation. The property modification is usually brought
about by a change in the microscopic structure of the material. Both heat-treating, involving
temperatures above room temperature, and cold-treating, involving temperatures below room
temperature, are included in this category. Thermal treatment is a process in which the temperature of

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the material is raised or lowered to alter the properties of the original material. Most thermal-treating
processes are based on time-temperature cycles that include three steps: heating, holding at
temperature, and cooling. Although some thermal treatments are applicable to most families of
materials, they are most widely used on metals.
 Finally, “finishing” processes may be employed to modify the surfaces of materials in order to

protect the material against deterioration by corrosion, oxidation, mechanical wear, or deformation;
to provide special surface characteristics such as reflectivity, electrical conductivity or insulation, or
bearing properties; or to give the material special decorative effects. There are two broad groups of
finishing processes, those in which a coating, usually of a different material, is applied to the surface
and those in which the surface of the material is changed by chemical action, heat, or mechanical
force. The first group includes metallic coating, such as electroplating; organic finishing, such as
painting; and porcelain enameling.

Defect detection is becoming an increasingly important task during the manufacturing process. The early
detection of faults or defects and the removal of the elements that may produce them are essential to
improve product quality and reduce the economic impact caused by discarding defective products. This
point is especially important in the case of products that are very expensive to produce. A method to detect
a specific type of defect that may occur during the production of web materials: periodical defects. This
type of defect is very harmful, as it can generate many surface defects, greatly reducing the quality of the
end product and, on occasions, making it unsuitable for sale. To run the proposed method, two different
functions must be executed a large number of times. Since the time available to perform the detection of
these defects may be limited, it is very important to consume the least amount of time possible. In order to
reduce the overall time required for detection, an analysis of how the method accesses the input data is
performed. Thus, the most efficient data structure to store the information is determined. At the end of the
paper, several experiments are performed to verify that both the proposed method and the data structure used to
store the information are the most suitable to solve the aforementioned problem.

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