COURSE

GUIDE

BIO206
STATISTICS FOR AGRICULTURE AND BIOLOGICAL
SCIENCES

Course Team: Dr Iliya S. Ndams (Course Writer)-

Ahmadu Bello University,
Zaria
Olatunji Arowolo (Course Editor)-
School Of Science And Tech
Lagos State Polytechnic
Mohammed Kabir (PhD) (Content
Reviewer)- IBB University Lapai
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

© 2023 by NOUN Press

National Open University of Nigeria
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URL: www.nou.edu.ng

Published by
National Open University of Nigeria
Printed 2009. Reprinted 2017
Reviewed: 2023

All Rights Reserved

ISBN: 978-978-058-945-5

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Course Guide:

Introduction

Statistics for Agriculture and Biological Sciences (Biostatistics) referred

to as BIO 206 is a second semester year two course. It is a compulsory
two-credit unit course hosted in the Department of Biological Sciences.
Statistics as the science of estimates and probabilities; as it is the
collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of numerical data. It
is also a body of methods for making wise decision in the face of
uncertainty. Thus, Biostatistics is the application of statistics with
biological (living) system. Therefore, Biostatistics have applications in
many fields such as Biology, Botany, Microbiology, Zoology,
Biochemistry, Nursing, Physiology, and Medicine amongst others.

The course shall be looking at use of statistical methods in Biology and

Agriculture; continuous and discrete variables; sampling procedures,
sampling size; presentation of statistical results. Frequency distribution,
law of probability, binomial, Poisson and normal frequency distributions.
Measure of central tendency and measure of variability/dispersion.
Estimations and tests of hypothesis. Design of simple Agricultural and
Biological experiments. Analysis of variance and co-variance, simple
regression and correlation, contingency tables, some non-parametric tests
and ecological statistics. The use of statistical packages in statistical
analysis.

Course Competencies

The course will provide general overview of the course synopsis; this
course material shall be divided into appropriate sections to help the
learners understand and assimilate the contents of the course. The course
guide will help students to understand how to go about Tutor- Marked-
Assignment which will form part of the overall assessment at the end
of the course.

Similarly, structured on-line facilitation classes in this course

shall increase the comprehension of the course thus students are
encouraged to activity participate. This course exposes s t u d e n t s t o
data collection, management and analysis, the knowledge will be
helpful during your project data collection and analysis, it is indeed very
interesting field of Biology.

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Course Objectives

This course is aimed at providing students the knowledge of biostatistics

and its application in the fields of life sciences especially Biological and
Agricultural sciences.
The course objectives are to;

 understand the importance and significance of statistics in life

sciences;
 differentiate and understand the different types of distributions in
biostatistics;
 determine the measure of central tendency and
variability/dispersion.
 differentiate methods of estimation and testing hypotheses;
 ascertain methods of determining relationships between variables;
 understand methods of sampling and experimental design;
 understand statistical tools for non-parametric and ecological tests;
 use computer approach to Biostatistics.

Working Through this Course

The successful completion of this course entails the studying of the course
guide and the reference textbooks/materials as well as other materials
provided by the National Open University of Nigeria. The course guide is
divided into sections, each section has self-assessment exercise. The
practice of the assessment will positively influence your academic
performance in the course. The course is expected to cover a minimal
period of 8 weeks to complete.

Study Units

The Modules of this course shall be in accordance with the course objectives
thus;

Module 1: Basics of Biostatistics.

Unit 1: Concept of Biostatistics
Unit 2: Frequency Distribution
Unit 3: Probability Distribution
Unit 4: Methods of Estimation & Sampling
Unit 5: Concept of Hypotheses Formulation & Experimental
Design

Module 2: Biostatistics Application I

Unit 1: Measures of Central Tendency
Unit 2: Measures of Dispersion
Unit 3: Student’s t-distribution

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Unit 4: Contingency Table

Unit 5: Analysis of Variance & Co-variance

Module 3: Biostatistics Application II

Unit 1: Simple Linear Regression
Unit 2: Simple Linear Correlation
Unit 3: Non-Parametric Tests
Unit 4: Ecological Statistics
Unit 5: Computer Approach to Biostatistics

References and Further Readings

In every section or Module, Reference materials shall be provided for

further reading.

Presentation Schedule

Assignment Marks
TMA 1-4 Four T M A s , best three marks of the
four count at 10% each - 30% of course marks.
End of course 70% of overall course marks
examination
Total 100% of course materials

Assessment

In every section or Module, self-assessment questions shall be provided

for further practice.

How to get the Most from the Course

The course guide is designed in a simplified form to assist self

comprehension. In addition, further references with web links are
provided in each sectio/module or unit. Similarly, the course has
facilitation session that will provide information on any grey areas.

Online Facilitation

Eight weeks is scheduled for online facilitation. This facilitation is

divided into two session (synchronous and asynchronmous). The
synchronous session is a live session that is provided by a facilitator
through University approved source (Zoom) for 1 hour. While the
asynchronous session is an alternative interaction session that may not be
live. In the facilitator dashboard, students have access to the course
materials, recorded online facilitation, weblinks, virtual library and host
of others that would improve the course comprehension.
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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Course Information

Course Code: BIO 206

Course Title: Biostatistics
Credit Unit: 2
Course Status:Core
Course Blub:This course exposes s t u d e n t s t o data collection,
management and analysis, the knowledge will be helpful
them during their projects’ data collection and analysis.
Semester:Second
Course Duration:2 hours per week (16 hours per semester)
Required Hours for Study: 3 x 2hours x 8 week (48hrs)

Ice Breaker

Dr. Kabir Mohammed Adamu, is an Associate Professor of

Hydrobiology, Fish Nutrition and Physiology, Department of Biological
Sciences, Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida University, Lapai, (IBBUL)
Niger State, Nigeria. He is an external Facilitator with the Department of
Biological Sciences, National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN),
where he facilitates the BIO 206 (Biostatistics) amongst other courses. He
has been teaching/lecturing Biostatistics for the past fifteen (15) years in
various level (undergraduate and postgraduate) of students in different
tertiary institutions (IBBUL, NOUN, Nasarawa State University, Keffi,
Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja). Dr. Kabir’s research interest is in
circular economy by understanding the interaction of freshwater fisheries
with the environment, using both phenotypic and genotypic techniques in
characterization of fisheries resources and their roles in healthy aquatic
ecosystem. Understanding the protein requirement of fish and seeking for
protein (especially insect protein) resource fish growth, nutrition and
physiology.

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Module 1: Basics of Biostatistics

Unit 1: Concept of Biostatistics

CONTENTS
1.1: Introduction
1.2: Intended Learning Outcomes
1.3: Concept of Biostatistics
1.3.1: Types of Statistics
1.3.2: Usefulness of statistics
1.3.3: Terminologies
1.3.4: Processing of Statistics Data
1.3.5: Presentation of Data
1.3.6: Accuracy of Measurement
1.3.7: Rounding of Figure
1.3.8: Limitations of Statistics
1.4: Summary
1.5: References/Further Readings/Web Sources
1.6: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

1.1 Introduction

Biostatistics is playing an increasing important role in nearly all phases

of living organisms. This section has been designed for insights into the
study of biostatistics. There are different definitions for statistics such as:
Boddington defines statistics as the science of estimates and probabilities.
Croxton and Cowden defines statistics as the collection, presentation,
analysis and interpretation of numerical data while Wallis and Robert
define it as a body of methods for making wise decision in the face of
uncertainty. It is therefore, used to referred to as any numerical
characteristics of a set of data based on a sample rather than the
population. Thus, in summary Statistics is concerned with the
scientific methods for collecting, organizing, summarizing,
presenting and analyzing data, as well as drawing valid conclusions
and making reasonable decisions on the bases of such analysis.
Therefore, the term biostatistics or biometry is simply statistics applied
to biological problems.

1.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this unit, students should be able to:

 Understand the background and essence of biostatistics.
 Be acquitted with the common terminologies in biostatistics.

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

 Understand the requirements for data processing and presentations

and,
 Know the limitations of biostatistics

1.3: Concept of Biostatistics

1.3.1: Types of Statistics

There are four types of statistics thus;

i. Descriptive: it describes the properties of the observed frequency
distribution concisely and accurately after having gathered the data
or facts from a sample population. It involves the summary and
orderly presentation of such collected data in tabular or graphical
forms. Descriptive information of these data is achieved with the
use of measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion.
ii. Inferential: the drawing of inference or making some generalized
conclusions from the summarized data about the characteristics of
a whole population from the characteristics of its part, in this case
the sample. This type of statistics is considered to be more
probabilistic than deterministic due to its subjectivity.
iii. Enumeration: it deals with discrete numbers and attributes data.
The answer here is qualitative ‘yes’ or ‘no’ situation e.g., spore
forming bacteria versus non-spore bacteria, or smokers versus non-
smokers.
iv. Measurement: it deals with continuous data. E.g., height of 5cm,
5.8cm, 8.4cm etc. or weights of 110.5kg, 128.5kg, etc.

1.3.2: Usefulness of Statistics

a. It permits the presentation of facts/data in a vivid/concise and

definite form. It is a substitute for the ‘rule of thumb’ by concise
and unambiguous representation of quantitative and qualitative
data and facts.
b. It permits for the reduction/condensation of facts/data to a more
manageable size so that they could convey much clearer and
distinct meanings. It specializes in the contraction and
simplification of quantitative data.
c. Statistics is used to verify formulated tests and hypotheses. Tests
of hypotheses are specific assumptions made about the overall
population, and they are crucial in virtually all statistical
investigation.
d. It is used in the developing of alternative design for biological
experiment. A good research plan must have good statistical
analysis thus in experimental procedure the statistics required is a
main factor to the success of the research.
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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

1.3.3: Terminologies
i. Population/Universe is defined as the entire collection of
measurements about which the statistician wishes to draw
conclusion. If one for example wishes to draw conclusions about
the heights of students of a National Open University of Nigeria,
then the population under consideration comprises the heights of
all students in the University.
ii. Samples is a subset of all the measurements in the population of
interest. Since the populations of interest are generally so large,
making it unfeasible to obtain all the measurements desired, the
statistician normally resorts to obtaining a subset of all the
measurements in the population. A sample is a subgroup of the
population selected for study. When a sample is chosen at
random from a population, it is said to be an unbiased sample.
That is, the sample for the most part, is representative of the
population. But if a sample is selected incorrectly, it may be
a biased sample when some type of systematic error has been
made in the selection of the subjects. However, the sample
must be random in order to make valid inferences about the
population. The importance of samples are;

a) It saves the researcher time and money.

b) It enables the researcher to get information that he or she might
not be able to obtain otherwise.
c) It enables the researcher to get more detailed information about
a particular subject.
iii. Variable is an observable quantity/attribute that varies from one
biological entity (member of the population being studied) to
another. Sometimes, the term variate is used, though its usage is
less frequent. There are two types of variables;
a) Qualitative variables are variables that can be placed into
distinct categories, according to some characteristic or attribute.
For example, if subjects are classified according to gender (i.e.
male or female), then the variable gender is qualitative.
b) Quantitative variables are numerical and can be ordered or
ranked. For example, the variable age is numerical, and people
can be ranked according to the value of their ages. Quantitative
variables can be grouped into two:
a. Discrete variables these are variables that can be assigned values
such as 0,1,2,3 (integers) and are said to be variables that
assume values that can be counted. Examples include number
of children in a family, number of birds in a pen, number of trees
in a garden, number of animals per litter etc.
b. Continuous variables these are variables that can assume all values
between any specific values. They are obtained by measuring.
This applies to variables such as length, weight, height, yield,
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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

temperature and time,that can be thought of as capable of

assuming any value in some interval of values.
iv. Parameters is a descriptive property that describes/characterize a
population such as descriptive property is referred to as a
parameter (e.g., means). Parameters are constant for a population,
but statistics may vary from sample to sample taken from the same
population. A statistic is an estimator of the population parameter
from the sample.
v. Data/Facts: these are numerical facts obtained from observations.
Once it is decided what type of study is to be made, it becomes
necessary to collect information about the concerned study, mostly
in the form of data. For this, information has to be collected from
certain individuals directly or indirectly such a technique is known
as survey method. Another way of collecting data is by
experimentation i.e., an actual experiment is conducted on certain
individuals/units about which the inference is to be drawn.

1.3.4: Processing of Statistics Data

The processing of data involves the following:

a. Completeness: this ensures that the data are complete and no

missing information.
b. Consistency: this avoids contradictory information/data.
c. Accuracy: collection of accurate data and its computation
d. Editing: to maintain homogeneity, the information sheets are
checked to see whether the unit of information/measurement is the
same in all the schedules.

1.3.5: Presentation of Data

Data can be represented in any of the four measurement scales:

a. Nominal scale: a nominal measurement scale is a set of mutually

exclusive categories that varies qualitatively but not quantitatively.
The variables under consideration are classified by some quality
rather than by numerical measurement.
b. Ordinal scale: this is also a set of mutually exclusive categories
that varies qualitatively but not quantitatively, however, the
variables are arranged in a rank order/hierarchy.
c. Interval scale: this is similar to the aforementioned but varies in
having size interval with an arbitrary zero point.
d. Ratio scale: this is measurement scale having both constant size
interval and true zero point. For instance, the total lengths of a
group of earthworms are one variable on the other hand the number
of segments per earthworm is another variable. Regardless of

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

method of measurement and of counting, there are two

fundamentally important characteristics of this scale of
measurement, thus;
a) There is a constant size interval between successive units
on the measurement scale.
b) There is a true zero point on the measurement scale and
there is a physical significance to this scale.

1.3.6: Accuracy of Measurement

Accuracy is the nearness of any measurement to the actual value of the

variable being measured. This depends on the precision required, the tools
available for the measurement and the skill of the person undertaking the
task.

1.3.7: Rounding of Figure

Sometimes the figures (values) are rounded by reducing one or more

decimal places to the unit place/nearest to the ten or hundredth of a
number. The universal rules of rounding are;

a. if the decimal place value to be rounded is less than 5, it should be

deleted straight away
3.2346 ======== 3.23
b. if it is greater than 5, the preceding number is increased by 1.
3.2366 =============3.24
c. in case the decimal place value to be rounded off is 5, the rule is to
delete it if the preceding number is even and increase the preceding
number by 1 if it is odd. The rule is applicable in general for any
numerical value.
3.2354 ================== 3.23
3.2353 ==================== 3.24

1.3.8: Limitations of Statistics

The limitations of statistics are;

a. the methods are applicable to qualitative characters like ‘yes’ or

‘no’ as they cannot be coded.
b. It does not deal with a single character/value or observation.
c. The conclusion of analyses is not application for all samples but
for most the sample/population.
d. It does not take care of the changes occurring to the individuals but
it does reveal the changes occurring in a mass or group of
individuals.

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

The collections of quantitative information/data are called?

The variable that can be placed into distinct categories, according to some
characteristics is called?

Self-Assessment Exercises
1. Variables that are assigned integers are called?
2. The measurements and observations that variables can assume is called?

1.4: Summary

An introduction to the unit cum Biostatistics was provided, thereafter the

usefulness of Biostatistics to life sciences were enumerated. The different
terminologies used in Biostatistics were listed and explained. Data
presentation and its requirements were also discussed in the Unit.
Similarly, the rules of rounding figures were stated and the limitations of
biostatistics were also discussed.

1.5: References/Further Reading/Web Sources

 Ogbeibu, A.E. (2005). Biostatistics: A practical Approach to

Research and Data Handling; First Edition, Mindex Publishing
Company Limited, 263pp.
 Agarwal, B.L (2006). Basic Statistics, Revised Fourth Edition,
Newage International Publishers, 763pp
 Omalu, ICJ and Arimoro, FO (2010). Research Methods and
Analyses, Logicgate Publishers Ilorin, Minna, Kaduna, Nigeria,
276pp
 Murray, R.S. (1972). Theory and Problems of Statistics, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, 340pp

Basic Concepts for Biostatistics:

https://sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/otlt/MPH-
Modules/BS/BS704_BiostatisticsBasics/

Introduction to Biostatistics Some Basic Concepts:

http://fac.ksu.edu.sa/sites/default/files/introduction_to_biostatistic
s-106_1.pdf

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Biostatistics Concept & Definition – SlideShare:

https://www.slideshare.net/bijayabnanda/ls-bs-1concept-
definition

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a23NhTCyxUY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_e4mwlqCQrc

1.6: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

1- Discrete variables
2- Data

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Unit 2.: Frequency Distribution

Unit Structure

2.1: Introduction
2.2: Intended Learning Outcomes
2.3: Frequency Preparation
2.3.1: Raw data & Arrays
2.3.2: Graphical Presentation
2.3.3: Frequency table
2.4: Summary
2.5: References/Further Readings.Wed Sources
2.6: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

2.1: Introduction

Very often, large amount of data are encountered in research. The best
way to present these data is by the use of frequency tables, which assists
to summarize the data, making them more meaningful. This involves the
listing of all observed values of the variables under consideration and
stating how many times each value is observed (i.e., the frequency).
Measurements or counting gives rise to raw data. Raw data itself is
difficult to comprehend because it lacks organization, summarization,
which renders it meaningless. Thus, the raw data has to be put in some
order through classification and tabulation so as to reduce its volume
and heterogeneity. To describe situations, draw conclusions or make
inferences about events, the researcher must organize the data in some
meaningful way. The most convenient method of organizing data is to
construct a frequency distribution.

2.2: Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, students should be able to:

 Understand ways of data collections and how to arrange data.
 Describe how to prepare frequency distribution data.
 Know how to present data on graphs.

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

2.3: Frequency Distribution

2.3.1: Raw data & Array

The collected data that have not been organized numerically is called
RAW DATA. OR they are data recorded in the original way they were
sampled. An example is the set of masses of 100 male students obtained
from an alphabetical listing of University record. While the arrangement
of raw data in either ascending or descending order of magnitude is called
an ARRAY.

2.3.2: Graphical Presentation

Graph has the ability to show at a glance the main characteristics/quality

of a set of presented data. There are two major types of graphical
presentation of quantitative data thus;

Pie Charts
A pie chart is more commonly used to display percentages, although it
can be used to display frequencies or relative frequencies. The whole pie
(or circle) represents the total sample or population. It is defined as a circle
divided into portions that represent the relative frequencies or percentages
of a population or a sample belonging to different categories.

Bar Graphs
A graph made of bars whose heights represent the frequencies of
respective categories is called a bar graph. The bar graphs for relative
frequency and percentage distributions can be drawn simply by marking
the relative frequencies or percentages, instead of the frequencies, on the
vertical axis. Sometimes a bar graph is constructed by marking the
categories on the vertical axis and the frequencies on the horizontal axis.

2.3.3: Frequency preparation

When summarizing large masses of raw data, it is often useful to

distribute the data into classes or categories and to determine the number
of individuals belonging to each class, called the class frequency. A
tabular arrangement of data by classes together with the corresponding
class frequencies is called a frequency distribution or frequency table.
Data organized and summarized in frequency table are often referred to
as grouped data. A frequency distribution for qualitative data lists all
categories and the number of elements that belong to each of the
categories.

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

a. Categorical Frequency This is used for data that can be placed in

specific categories, such as nominal or ordinal-level data. It is
useful to know the proportion of values that fall within a group,
category or observation rather than the number of values or
frequencies. To get the relative frequency, the frequency of
occurrence of each number is divided by the total number of
values and multiplied by hundred. This can be expressed as
𝐹
follows: x100 Where f = Frequency of the category class and n =
𝑋
total number of values.
b. Ungrouped Frequency Distribution
This is a list of the figures in array form, occurring in the raw data,
together with the frequency of each figure, i.e., a frequency is
constructed for a data based on a single data value for each class.
c. Grouped Frequency Distribution
The heights in inches of commonly grown herbs are shown below.
Organize the data into a frequency distribution with six classes, and
make useful suggestions.

The reasons for constructing a frequency distribution are:

a. To organize the data in a meaningful, intelligible way.
b. To enable the reader to determine the nature and shape of the
distribution.
c. To facilitate computational procedures for measures of average and
spread.
d. To enable the researcher to draw charts and graphs for the
presentation of data.
e. To enable the reader to make comparisons among different data
sets.

General rules for forming frequency distributions

a. Determine the largest and smallest numbers in the raw data and
thus find the range.
b. Divide the range into a convenient number of class intervals
having the same size. If this is not feasible, use class intervals of
different sizes or open class intervals. Class intervals are chosen so
that the class marks or midpoints coincide with actually observed
data. This tends to lessen the so-called grouping error involved in
further analysis. However, class boundaries should not coincide
with actually observed data.
c. Determine the number of observations falling into each class
interval, i.e., find the class frequencies. This best done by using
tally or score sheet.

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Class interval and class limits:

Class interval is the symbol defining a class; while the end number is
called class limit. The lower number is the lower-class limit and the higher
number the upper-class limit. The term class and class interval are often
used interchangeably, although the class interval is actually a symbol for
the class.

The size or width of a class interval

The size or width of a class interval is the difference between the lower-
and upper-class boundaries and is also referred to as class width, class
size or class strength.

The class marks

This is the midpoint of the class interval and is obtained by adding the
lower- and upper-class limits and divide by two. The class mark is also
called class midpoint.

Graphing Grouped Data

Grouped (quantitative) data can be displayed in a histogram or a polygon.
A histogram can be drawn for a frequency distribution, a relative
frequency distribution, or a percentage distribution. A histogram is called
a frequency histogram, a relative frequency histogram, or a
percentage histogram depending on whether frequencies, relative
frequencies, or percentages are marked on the vertical axis. A histogram
is a graph in which classes are marked on the horizontal axis and the
frequencies, relative frequencies, or percentages are marked on the
vertical axis. The frequencies, relative frequencies, or percentages are
represented by the heights of the bars. In a histogram, the bars are drawn
adjacent to each other.

Histograms and frequency polygons:

1. A histogram or frequency histogram consist of a set of rectangles

having:
a. bases on a horizontal axis (the x-axis) with center at the class marks
and length equal to the class interval sizes.
b. areas proportional to class frequencies.
2. A frequency polygon is a line graph of class frequency plotted
against class mark. It can be obtained by connecting midpoints of
the tops to the rectangles in the histogram.

Polygons
A polygon is another device that can be used to present quantitative data
in graphic form. A polygon with relative frequencies marked on the
vertical axis is called a relative frequency polygon. Similarly, a polygon
with percentages marked on the vertical axis is called a percentage

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

polygon. A graph formed by joining the midpoints of the tops of

successive bars in a histogram with straight lines is called a polygon.

Relative frequency distributions

The relative frequency of a class is the frequency of the class divided by
the total frequency of all classes and is generally expressed as a
percentage. If frequencies are replaced by corresponding relative
frequency the resulting table is called a relative frequency distribution,
percentage distribution or relative frequency table.
Graphical representations of relative frequency distributions can be
obtained from the histogram or frequency polygon by simply changing
the vertical scale from frequency to relative frequency, keeping exactly
the same diagram. The resulting graphs are called relative frequency
histograms or percentage histograms and relative frequency polygons or
percentage polygon respectively.

Cumulative frequency distribution (ogives)

The total frequency of all values less than the upper-class boundary of a
given class interval is called the cumulative frequency up to and including
the class interval. A table presenting such cumulative frequencies is called
a cumulative frequency distribution, cumulative frequency table or briefly
a cumulative distribution. A graph showing the cumulative frequency less
than any upper-class boundary plotted against the upper-class boundary
is called cumulative frequency polygon or ogives.

Elative cumulative frequency distribution (percentage ogives)

The relative cumulative frequency or percentage cumulative frequency is
the cumulative frequency divided by the total frequency. If relative
cumulative frequencies are used in place of cumulative frequencies, the
results are called relative cumulative frequency distributions or
percentage cumulative distributions and relative cumulative frequency
polygon or percentage ogives respectively.

Frequency curve (Smooth ogives)

Frequency polygon or relative frequency polygon for a large population
have small broken line segments that are closely approximate curves,
which are called frequency curves or relative frequency curves
respectively. Thus, frequency curve is sometimes called smoothed
frequency polygon.

Arrange the numbers 17, 45, 38, 27, 6,58,48, 32, 19, 22, 34 in an array
and determine the range.

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

1. The number of occurrences of an element in a sample is called?

2. The frequency distribution used for data can be placed at a specific
group is called?
3. When classes do not have overlapping class limit is one of the rules
of?
4. To organize data in a meaningful, intelligible way is one of the
rationales of?
5. If there exist A, B, O and AB blood group amongst 40 students
determine the percentage of A with 12 frequencies.
6. If there exist A, B, O and AB blood group amongst 40 students
determine the percentage of B with 11 frequencies.
7. If there exist A, B, O and AB blood group amongst 40 students
determine the percentage of O with 10 frequencies.
8. If there exist A, B, O and AB blood group amongst 40 students
determine the percentage of AB with 7 frequencies.
9. The length of herbs grown in the garden were 18, 20, 16, 14, 31, 21,
16, 8, 10, 28, 34mm, determine the range of the distribution.
10. The length of herbs grown in the garden were 18, 20, 16, 14, 31, 21,
16, 8, 10, 28, 34mm, assuming the number of class to be used is 6,
determine the class width
11. The length of herbs grown in the garden were 18, 20, 16, 14, 31, 21,
16, 8, 10, 28, 34mm, determine the cumulative frequency of the
distribution
12. The length of herbs grown in the garden were 18, 20, 16, 14, 31, 21,
16, 8, 10, 28, 34mm, determine the percentage frequency of the
distribution
13. The length of herbs grown in the garden were 18, 20, 16, 14, 31, 21,
16, 8, 10, 28, 34mm, determine the mean of the distribution
14. The length of herbs grown in the garden were 18, 20, 16, 14, 31, 21,
16, 8, 10, 28, 34mm, determine the mode of the distribution
15. The length of herbs grown in the garden were 18, 20, 16, 14, 31, 21,
16, 8, 10, 28, 34mm, determine the median of the distribution.
16. The data below represents the blood groups of 40 students in a
Biostatistics class. Construct a frequency distribution for the data.
Self-Assessment
A Exercises
AB B O O A B AB A B
O O O A AB B B A O AB
A O O A AB B B A A B
AB A O B AB O A B A B
2.4: Summary
17. Given below, are the wing length measurements (to the nearest whole
millimeter)
In this Unit,ofthe
50 laughing doves. of large data were discussed and
way to present
76
instances73provided
75 appropriately.
73 74 This74 Unit72discuss
75 the 76
methods73
and
68
requirements
72 78
for preparation
74 75
of frequency
72 76
tables
76
and 77
graphs.70

78 72 70 74 76 75 75 79 75 74
75 70 73 75 70 74 76 74 75 74
78 74 75 74 73 74 71 72 71 79
Construct a frequency distribution table.

18
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

2.5: References/Further Readings/Web Sources

 Ogbeibu, A.E. (2005). Biostatistics: A practical Approach to

Research and Data Handling; First Edition, Mindex Publishing
Company Limited, 263pp.
 Agarwal, B.L (2006). Basic Statistics, Revised Fourth Edition,
Newage International Publishers, 763pp
 Omalu, ICJ and Arimoro, FO (2010). Research Methods and
Analyses, Logicgate Publishers Ilorin, Minna, Kaduna, Nigeria,
276pp
 Murray, R.S. (1972). Theory and Problems of Statistics, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, 340pp
 Bailey, N.T.J. (1994). Statistical Methods in Biology. Third
Edition. Cambridge University Press. United Kingdom.
 Bluman, A.G. (2004). Elementary Statistics. A Step by Step
Approach. Fifth Edition. McGraw-Hill Companies Incorporated.
London.
 Daniel, W.W. (1995). Biostatistics: a foundation for Analysis in
Health sciences. Sixth Edition. John Wiley and sons Incorporated.
USA.
 Harper, W.M. (1991). Statistics. Sixth Edition. Pitman Publishing,
Longman Group, United Kingdom.
 Helmut F. van Emden.(2008). Statistics for Terrified Biologists.
Blackwell Publishing Limited. USA.

Frequency Distribution - Definition, Types, Examples:

https://www.cuemath.com/data/frequency-distribution/

Frequency Distribution - Quick Introduction - SPSS tutorials:

https://www.spss-tutorials.com/frequency-distribution-what-
is-it/

https://www.toppr.com/guides/maths/statistics/frequency-distribution/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=amLYLq73RvE

https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/statistics-
definitions/cumulative-frequency-distribution/

19
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

2.6: Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

1. Frequency
2. Categorical frequency
3. Construction of frequency
4. constructing a frequency distribution
5. 30
6. 27.5
7. 25
8. 17.5
9. 26mm
10. 5
11. 216mm
12. 100
13. 19.63mm
14. 16mm
15. 18mm

20
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Unit 3: Probability Distribution

Unit Structure
3.1: Introduction
3.2: Intended Learning Outcomes
3.3: Probability distribution
3.3.1: Normal distribution
3.3.2: Poisson distribution
3.3.3: Binomial distribution
3.4: Summary
3.5: References/Further Readings/Web Sources
3.6: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

3.1: Introduction

This section explains the occurrence of event by chance, thus, the

different types of probability distribution. Probability can be defined as
the chance of an event occurring. It is the basis of inferential statistics.
Probability is a branch of mathematics which as a general concept can
be defined as the chance of an event occurring. It is the basis of
inferential statistics. A distribution is a scatter of related values, such as
the assortment of weights in a group of cattle. A Probability distribution
shows how probable given random variable values in a range of such
values are. Therefore, a probability distribution is simply a complete
listing of all possible outcomes of an experiment, together with their
probabilities.

3.2: Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, students should be able to:

 understand probability distribution
 distinguish the different types of probability distribution.
 understand the circumstances of using the different forms of
probability distribution

3.3: Probability distribution

3.3.1: Normal distribution

This is the most important distribution in statistics. It is also known as the

Gaussian distribution named after Gauss, a German astronomer who

21
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

showed its use in statistics. The normal distribution is defined by just two
statistics, the mean and the standard deviation. Normal distribution is
concerned with results obtained by taking measurements on continuous
random variable (i.e., the quantified value of a random event) like weight,
yield etc. The normal distribution is a particular pattern of variation of
numbers around the mean. It is symmetrical (hence we express the
standard deviation as ±) and the frequency of individual numbers falls off
equally away from the mean in both directions. It so happens that the
curve given by this probability’s distribution approximates very closely
to a Mathematical curve. This curve is called the Normal curve.
In checking for normality, it is important to know whether an
experimental data is an approximate fit to a normal distribution. This
is easily checked with large samples. There should be roughly equal
numbers of observations on either side of the mean. Things are more
difficult when we have only a few samples. In experiments, it is not
uncommon to have no more than three data per treatment. However, even
here we can get clues. If the distribution is normal, there should be no
relationship between the magnitude of the mean and its standard deviation.

Properties of a Normal Curve

i. It is a Unimodal symmetrical curve.
ii. The mean, mode & median all coincide, thereby dividing the curve
into two equal parts.
iii. Most items on the curve are clustered around the mean
iv. No kurtosis or skewness in the curve
v. The area beneath the curve is proportional to the observation
associate with the part.

-2σ -1σ µ +1σ +2σ X- a

Normal distribution (y) =

22
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

The important aspect of the curve is the area in relationship with

probability, if perpendiculars are erected at a distance of 1σ from the
mean and in both directions, the area covered by these perpendiculars
and the curve will be about 68.26% of the total area. (It means that
68.26% of all the frequencies are formed within one standard deviation
of the mean). The total probability encompassed by the area under the
curve is 1 (100%).
The measures of central tendency (μ = Population mean) and dispersion
(σ = Population standard deviation) are the parameters of the distribution
and once they have been estimated for a particular population, the shape
of its distribution curve can be worked out using the normal curve
formula. Usually, we do not know the values of μ and σ and have to
estimate them from a sample as x and s. If the number of observations in
the sample exceeds about 30, then x and s are considered to be reliable
estimates of the parameters.

Standardizing the Normal Curve

Any value of an observation X on the baseline of a normal curve can be
standardized as a number of standard deviation units, the observation is
away from the population mean, μ. This is called a z-score. To transform
x into z the formula is given by:
z = ((x – μ) )/σ
If the population mean μ is larger than the sample mean x, the z is
negative. But if the sample size is more than about 30 observations, the
sample mean (x) and standard deviation (s) are considered to be good
estimates of μ and σ, and z is given by:
z = ((x – μ) )/s
If the calculated value of z is larger than 1.96 (i.e., P< 0.05 or 95%
confidence coefficient) then this is regarded as unlikely or statistically
significant.

3.3.2: Poisson distribution

A Poisson distribution is a discrete probability distribution that is useful

when n is larger and p is small and when the independent variables occur
over a period of time. It can be used when a density of items is distributed
over a given area or volume, such as the number of plants growing per
acre. It can also be used to discover whether organisms are randomly
distributed. For example, in ecological studies, Poisson distribution is
used to describe the spread of organisms like insects, trees, and snails’
etc. by the following:

i. Divide the large area into small squares of equal size.

ii. Count the particular animal or plant species under study in each
square.

23
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

iii. You can also randomly select a number of squares, if the area is
two large.
iv. The probability of X occurrences in an interval of time, volume,
area etc. for a variable where λ (lambda) is the mean number of
occurrences per unit (time, volume, area etc) is given by:

3.3.3: Binomial distribution

A binomial distribution is a special probability distribution that describes

the distribution of probabilities when there are only two possible
outcomes for each trial of an experiment. A binomial experiment is a
probability experiment that satisfies the following four requirements:

i. Each trial can have only two outcomes or outcomes that can be
reduced to two outcomes. i.e., these outcomes can either be success
or failure. No two events can occur simultaneously.
ii. There must be a fixed number of trails.
iii. The outcomes of each trial must be independent of each other.
iv. The probability of a success must remain the same for each
trial.The binomial probability formula is given by

Where: p = Numerical probability of a success = P(s)

q = Numerical probability of a failure = P(F)
n = Number of trials
x = The number of successes in n trials
! = Mathematical symbol called ‘factorial’. So n! means multiple all the
numbers in a count down from the total number in the sample.
State the formula of normal distribution.
A survey on birds showed that one out of five fire finch was trapped using
mix net, in a given season, if 10 birds were selected at random, find the
probability that 3 of the birds were trapped in the previous season.

24
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Self-Assessment Exercises
1. The term used to describe how probably given random variable values in a
range of such values occur is?
2. The other name for normal distribution is?
3. A particular pattern of variation of number around the mean is?
4. Normal distribution is easily checked with…….sample.
5. Unimodal symmetrical curve is a property of?
6. State the formula for poison distribution.
7. The discrete probability distribution that is useful when n is large and p is
small is?
8. A survey on birds showed that one out of five fire finch was trapped using
mix net, in a given season, if 10 birds were selected at random, what type of
probability distribution is applicable here?
9. A survey on birds showed that one out of five fire finch was trapped using
mix net, in a given season, if 10 birds were selected at random, find the
numerical probability of success?
10. A survey on birds showed that one out of five fire finch was trapped using
mix net, in a given season, if 10 birds were selected at random, find the
numerical probability of failure?

3.4: Summary

This unit is able to discuss about the three different types of probability
distribution with worked examples. An introduction to probability
distribution was provided. The three types of probability distributions
were discussed with appropriate exercises.

3.5: References/Further Readings/Web Sources

 Ogbeibu, A.E. (2005). Biostatistics: A practical Approach to

Research and Data Handling; First Edition, Mindex Publishing
Company Limited, 263pp.
 Agarwal, B.L (2006). Basic Statistics, Revised Fourth Edition,
Newage International Publishers, 763pp
 Omalu, ICJ and Arimoro, FO (2010). Research Methods and
Analyses, Logicgate Publishers Ilorin, Minna, Kaduna, Nigeria,
276pp
 Murray, R.S. (1972). Theory and Problems of Statistics, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, 340pp
 Bailey, N.T.J. (1994). Statistical Methods in Biology. Third
Edition. Cambridge University Press. United Kingdom.
 Bluman, A.G. (2004). Elementary Statistics. A Step by Step
Approach. Fifth Edition. McGraw-Hill Companies Incorporated.

25
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

London.
 Daniel, W.W. (1995). Biostatistics: a foundation for Analysis in
Health sciences. Sixth Edition. John Wiley and sons Incorporated.
USA.

What is Probability Distribution? https://byjus.com/maths/probability-

distribution/

Probability Distribution | Formula, Types, & Examples

https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/probability-distributions/
Probability Distribution | Types of Distributions
https://www.analyticsvidhya.com/blog/2017/09/6-probability-
distributions-data-science/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UnzbuqgU2LE

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/precalculus/x9e81a4f98389efdf
:prob-comb/x9e81a4f98389efdf:probability-distributions-
introduction/v/discrete-probability-distribution

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CfZa1daLjwo

https://www.coursera.org/lecture/statistics-international-
business/probability-and-probability-distributions-an-
introduction-ASvPO

26
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

3.6: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

1. Probability distribution
2. Gaussian distribution
3. Normal distribution, Gaussian distribution
4. Large
5. Normal curve
ℓ−𝜆 𝜆𝑥
6. P(x, 𝜆) =
𝑋!
7. Poisson distribution
8. Binomial
9. 0.2
10. 0.8

27
 Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Unit 4: Methods of Estimation & Sampling

Unit Structure
4.1: Introduction
4.2: Intended Learning Outcomes
4.3: Methods of Estimation and Sampling
4.4: Summary
4.5: References/Further Readings/Web Sources
4.6: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

4.1: Introduction

The use of estimation has been discussed in this section as well as its
application in life sciences. In order to obtain unbiased samples, several
sampling methods have been developed. The most common methods
are random, systematic, stratified, and clustered sampling.

4.2: Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, students should be able to:

 understand the essences of estimation
 understand the methods of sampling

4.3: Methods of Estimation and Sampling

Estimation is the entire process of using an estimator to produce

an estimate of a parameter. Estimation and hypothesis testing are
interrelated. An estimate is any specific value of a statistic while an
estimator is any statistic used to estimate a parameter. For example,
the sample mean x is used to estimate the populations mean µ. A Point
estimate is obtained when a single number is used to estimate a
population parameter. For example s = 30. An Interval estimate is
obtained when a range of values is used to estimate a population
parameter. For example, a range of values between 20 and 30 allows
evaluation of the estimate unlike the point estimate of a single value.

In sampling, there are different methods of sampling such as;

i. Random Sampling: For a sample to be a random sample, every
member of the population must have an equal chance of being
selected. Therefore, a random sample is one that has the same
chance as any other of being selected. Randomness assists in

28
 Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

avoiding various forms of conscious and unconscious

bias and can be achieved by these two ways:
a. Number each element of the population and then place the
numbers on cards. Place the cards in a hat or bowl, mix
them, and then select the sample by drawing the cards. You
must ensure that the numbers are well mixed.
b. The second and most preferred way of selecting a random
sample is to use random numbers e.g. Table of random numbers
by Fisher and Yates. The table comprises of a series of digits
0, 1, 2…. up to 9 arranged as such that each number had the
same chance of appearing in any given position.
ii. Stratified Sampling: A stratified sample is a sample obtained
by dividing the population into subgroups, called strata,
according to various homogenous (alike) characteristics and
then selecting members from each stratum for the sample. For
example, you can group the items on basis of their age, size,
colour etc. The advantage of stratified sampling is that it
increases precision because all types of groups are represented
through stratification and a heterogeneous population is made
into a homogenous one.
iii. Cluster Sampling: A cluster sample is a sample obtained by
selecting a preexisting or natural group, called a Cluster and
using the members in the cluster for the sample. For example
a habitat, or a large area or field is divided into smaller
units and a number of such units are randomly selected and used
as a sample. There are three advantages to using a cluster sample
instead of other types of sample;
a. A cluster sample can reduce cost.
b. It can simplify field work.
c. It is convenient.
The major disadvantage of cluster sampling is that the elements
in a cluster may not have the same variations in
characteristics as elements selected individually from a
population.
iv. Systematic OR Skip Sampling: This method involves taking
an item as a sample from a larger population at regular intervals.
For example, when sampling from a poultry farm, every third
or fifth or tenth chick coming out of the cage is taken and
included in the sample. This is done after the first number is
selected at random for counting to start.
v. Proportionate Sampling: This type of sampling involves
selecting a sample in proportion to the different groups in the
population under study. In sequence sampling – successive
units taken from production lines are sampled to ensure that
products meet certain standards set by the manufacturing
company. This is used in quality control. In double sample, a

29
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

very large population is given a questionnaire to determine

those who meet the qualifications for a study. After the
questionnaires are reviewed, a second, smaller population is
defined. Then a sample is selected from this group. In multistage
sampling, the researcher uses a combination of sampling
methods.

What is obtained when a range of values is used to estimate a population

parameter?
Any specific value of a statistician is called _______

Self-Assessment Exercises 1
1. Any statistics used to estimate a parameter is called?
2. When a single number is used to estimate a population, parameters is called?
3. An unbiased sample is when a sample is?
4. The most common methods to obtain unbiased sample is?
5. A sample that has the same chance as any of other of being selected is?

4.4: Summary

The Unit discussed estimation in biostatistics. Estimation was discussed

and exercises were considered. The Unit examined the different methods
of sampling and their applications. The different methods of sampling and
their applications were dealt.

4.5: References/Further Readings/Web Sources

 Ogbeibu, A.E. (2005). Biostatistics: A practical Approach to

Research and Data Handling; First Edition, Mindex Publishing
Company Limited, 263pp.
 Agarwal, B.L (2006). Basic Statistics, Revised Fourth Edition,
Newage International Publishers, 763pp
 Omalu, ICJ and Arimoro, FO (2010). Research Methods and
Analyses, Logicgate Publishers Ilorin, Minna, Kaduna, Nigeria,
276pp
 Murray, R.S. (1972). Theory and Problems of Statistics, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, 340pp
 Bailey, N.T.J. (1994). Statistical Methods in Biology. Third
Edition. Cambridge University Press. United Kingdom.
 Bluman, A.G. (2004). Elementary Statistics. A Step by Step

30
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Approach. Fifth Edition. McGraw-Hill Companies Incorporated.

London.
 Daniel, W.W. (1995). Biostatistics: a foundation for Analysis in
Health sciences. Sixth Edition. John Wiley and sons Incorporated.
USA.
 Harper, W.M. (1991). Statistics. Sixth Edition. Pitman Publishing,
Longman Group, United Kingdom.
 Helmut F. van Emden.(2008). Statistics for Terrified Biologists.
Blackwell Publishing Limited. USA.

Sampling and estimation techniques - European Union

https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/ramon/nace-cpa-
webpage/manuals_nat_experiences/docs/estimation_NL_1.pdf

Estimation - Biostatistics - University of Florida

https://bolt.mph.ufl.edu/6050-6052/unit-4/module-11/

5 Sampling and Estimation - The National Academies Press

https://www.nap.edu/read/25098/chapter/7

Methods of Sampling and Estimation

https://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/shakai/2006/pdf/suikei.pdf

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pqEPtona94A

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5P57_sobsnk

https://www.coursera.org/lecture/statistical-inference-for-estimation-in-
data-science/estimators-and-sampling-distributions-2Zfz7

31
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

4.6: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

1. Estimator
2. Point estimate
3. Chosen at random from a population
4. Random, Systematic, Stratified, Clustered
5. Random

32
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Unit 5: Concept of Hypotheis formulation & Experimental Design

Unit Structure
5.1: Introduction
5.2: Intended Learning Outcomes
5.3: Hypotheses Formulation
5.3.1: Importance of Hypotheses
5.3.2: Sources of Hypotheses
5.3.3: Types of Hypotheses
5.3.4: Formulating Hypotheses
5.3.5: Characteristics of Good Hypotheses
5.3.6: Errors in Hypotheses
5.4: Experimental Design
5.5: Summary
5.6: References/Further Readings/Web Sources
5.7: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

5.1: Introduction

The use of hypotheses testing has been discussed in this section as well
as its application in life sciences. To understand the concept of hypothesis,
there is need to understand the steps in the scientific methods as it relates
to the conduct of a research. Conducting research in Biology and other
natural sciences involves the following steps:

a. Forming a research question

b. Performing background research or preliminary study
c. Creating a hypothesis for an experiment
d. Designing and conducting an experiment
e. Collecting data from the experiment
f. Analyzing the results with the appropriate methods from the
collected data
g. Making an inference or drawing conclusions from the analyzed
results
h. Presenting the results through proper communication.
Hypothesis can be defined as a tentative prediction about the
nature of the relationship between two or more variables. OR as a
tentative explanation of the research problem, a possible outcome
of the research, or an educated guess about the research outcome.
OR as declarative sentence form, and they relate, either generally
or specifically, variables to variables. OR as a statement or
explanation that is suggested by knowledge or observation but has
not, yet, been proved or disproved.
Experimental design is a field of investigation concerned with the
structure and planning of experiments. Experiment is nothing more
33
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

than a procedure governed by a set of rules to draw a sample from

a population. This set of rules is the experimental design,
pragmatically defined as the complete sequence of steps taken well
in advance to ensure that the appropriate data are collected in a
way that permits objective analysis leading to valid inferences
about the problem been investigated. The requirements of a good
experiment are;
A. Absence of bias (i.e., the association of a particular kind of error
with a particular treatment.
B. Internal estimate of experimental error in order to carry out the test
of significance.
C. Precision (i.e. repetition of measurements).
D. Scope (result should have a wide ranges of validity/possibilities).
E. Simplicity (designs should be consistent with the objective of an
experiment).

5.2: Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, students should be able to:

 understand the importance of hypotheses and experimental design.
 understand the sources of hypotheses and experimental design.
 distinguish the different types of hypotheses and experimental
design.

5.3: Hypotheses Formulation

5.3.1: Importance of Hypotheses

a. Hypotheses provide the researcher with rational statements,

consisting of elements expressed in a logical order of relationships
which seek to describe or to explain conditions or events, that have
not yet been confirmed by facts. The hypotheses enable the
researcher to relate logically known facts to intelligent guesses
about unknown conditions. It is a guide to the thinking process and
the process of discovery. It is the investigator’s eye – a sort of
guiding light in the work of darkness.
a. Hypotheses facilitate the extension of knowledge in an area. They
provide tentative explanations of facts and phenomena, and can be
tested and validated. It sensitizes the investigator to certain aspects
of situations which are relevant from the standpoint of the problem
in hand.
b. Hypotheses provide direction to the research. It defines what is
relevant and what is irrelevant. The hypotheses tell the researcher

34
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

specifically what he needs to do and find out in his study. Thus, it

prevents the review of irrelevant literature and the collection of
useless or excess data. Hypotheses provide a basis for selecting the
sample and the research procedures to be used in the study. The
statistical techniques needed in the analysis of data, and the
relationships between the variables to be tested, are also implied
by the hypotheses. Furthermore, the hypotheses help the researcher
to delimit his study in scope so that it does not become broad or
unwieldy.
c. Hypothesis has a very important place in research although it
occupies a very small pace in the body of a thesis. It is almost
impossible for a research worker not to have one or more
hypotheses before proceeding with his work.
d. Hypotheses provide the basis for reporting the conclusions of the
study. It serves as a framework for drawing conclusions. The
researcher will find it very convenient to test each hypothesis
separately and state the conclusions that are relevant to each. On
the basis of these conclusions, he can make the research report
interesting and meaningful to the reader. It provides the outline for
setting conclusions in a meaningful way.

5.3.2: Sources of Hypotheses

a. Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar

problems;
b. Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the
problem for possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;
c. Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its
origin and the objectives in seeking a solution.
d. Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field
interviews on a limited scale with interested parties and individuals
with a view to secure greater insight into the practical aspects of
the problem.
e. Intuition is often considered a reasonable source of research
hypotheses -- especially when it is the intuition of a well-known
researcher or theoretician who “knows what is known”
f. Rational Induction is often used to form “new hypotheses” by
logically combining the empirical findings from separate areas of
research
g. Prior empirical research findings are perhaps the most common
source of new research hypotheses, especially when carefully
combined using rational induction
Thus, hypotheses are formulated as a result of prior thinking about
the subject, examination of the available data and material
including related studies and the council of experts.

35
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

5.3.3: Types of Hypotheses

Hypothesis can be described simply as a statement made about a

population which may be true or false; and as a matter of fact, we may not
know which one is it. However, on the basis of sample data and decision
taking after experimentation, we either accept or reject the hypothesis.
The process of accepting or rejecting hypothesis is called ‘hypothesis
testing’ the aim of every hypothesis testing is to enable the researcher
conclude on a more and effective decision. Thus, hypothesis testing is
grouped into two categories:

Null Hypothesis
Designated by: H0 or HN. Pronounced as “H oh” or “H-null”. The null
hypothesis represents a theory that has been put forward, either because
it is believed to be true or because it is to be used as a basis for argument,
but has not been proved. It has serious outcome if incorrect decision is
made! It assumes that non-sampling errors such as bias is absent in the
measurement and that the differences is solely due to chance. Null
hypothesis is always about the current state of the affairs. Statistically
given as:
Ho : X1 =X2
Ho is the null hypothesis; X1 and X2 are the sample mean.
For example, a researcher may be interested in finding out the influence
of the feeding on the weights of children according to the parental type
(single versus dual parenting). The null hypothesis in this case will be
there is no significant influence of feeding on the weights of the children
from the single parents and the dual parents.

Alternative Hypothesis
Designated by: H1 or Ha. The alternative hypothesis is a statement of
what a hypothesis test is set up to establish. Opposite of Null Hypothesis.
Only reached if H0 is rejected. Frequently “alternative” is actual desired
conclusion of the researcher! The alternative hypothesis is sometimes
arbitrary. Statistically denoted as:
Ha: X1 < X2
Ha is the alternative hypothesis; X1 and X2 are the sample mean.
In the given example above, the alternative hypothesis will be stated as
there is significant influence of feeding on the weights of the children
from single and dual parents since surely, one category of the children
from one parent type will have a different weight to the other category. It
should be stated that the occurrence of a highly improbable difference
does not disprove the null hypothesis since such a difference owing to
chance will be highly unlikely. Thus, the null hypothesis will be rejected.

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Working Hypothesis
The working or trail hypothesis is provisionally adopted to explain the
relationship between some observed facts for guiding a researcher in the
investigation of a problem. A Statement constitutes a trail or working
hypothesis (which) is to be tested and conformed, modifies or even
abandoned as the investigation proceeds.

5.3.4: Formulating Hypotheses

There are no precise rules for formulating hypotheses and deducing

consequences from them that can be empirically verified. However, there
are certain necessary conditions that are conducive to their formulation.
Some of them are:
a. Richness of background knowledge. A researcher may deduce
hypotheses inductively after making observations of behaviour,
noticing trends or probable relationships. Background knowledge,
however, is essential for perceiving relationships among the
variables and to determine what findings other researchers have
reported on the problem under study. New knowledge, new
discoveries, and new inventions should always form continuity
with the already existing corpus of knowledge and, therefore, it
becomes all the more essential to be well versed with the already
existing knowledge. Hypotheses may be formulated correctly by
persons who have rich experiences and academic background, but
they can never be formulated by those who have poor background
knowledge.
b. Versatility of intellect: Hypotheses are also derived through
deductive reasoning from a theory. Such hypotheses are called
deductive hypotheses. A researcher may begin a study by selecting
one of the theories in his own area of interest. After selecting the
particular theory, the researcher proceeds to deduce a hypothesis
from this theory through symbolic logic or mathematics. This is
possible only when the researcher has a versatile intellect and can
make use of it for restructuring his experiences. Creative
imagination is the product of an adventure, sound attitude and agile
intellect. In the hypothesis’s formulation, the researcher works on
numerous paths. He has to take a consistent effort and develop
certain habits and attitudes. Moreover, the researcher has to
saturate himself with all possible information about the problem
and then think liberally at it and proceed further in the conduct of
the study.
c. Analogy and other practices. Analogies also lead the researcher to
clues that he might find useful in the formulation of hypotheses
and for finding solutions to problems. The researcher, however,
should use analogies with caution as they are not fool proof tools

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

for finding solutions to problems. At times, conversations and

consultations with colleagues and expert from different fields are
also helpful in formulating important and useful hypotheses.

5.3.5: Characteristics of Good Hypotheses

a. Hypothesis should be clear and precise. If the hypothesis is not

clear and precise, the inferences drawn on its basis cannot be taken
as reliable.
b. Hypothesis should be capable of being tested. Some prior study
may be done by researcher in order to make hypothesis a testable
one. A hypothesis “is testable if other deductions can be made from
it which, in turn, can be confirmed or disproved by observation.”
c. Hypothesis should state relationship between variables, if it
happens to be a relational hypothesis.
d. Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific. A
researcher must remember that narrower hypotheses are generally
more testable and he should develop such hypotheses.
e. Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms
so that the same is easily understandable by all concerned. But one
must remember that simplicity of hypothesis has nothing to do
with its significance.
f. Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts i.e. it must
be consistent with a substantial body of established facts. In other
words, it should be one which judges accept as being the most
likely.
g. The hypotheses selected should be amenable to testing within a
reasonable time. The researcher should not select a problem which
involves hypotheses that are not agreeable to testing within a
reasonable and specified time. He must know that there are
problems that cannot be solved for a long time to come. These are
problems of immense difficulty that cannot be profitably studied
because of the lack of essential techniques or measures.
h. Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for
explanation. This means that by using the hypothesis plus other
known and accepted generalizations, one should be able to deduce
the original problem condition. Thus, hypothesis must actually
explain what it claims to explain, it should have empirical
reference.

5.3.6: Errors in Hypotheses

When there exists the difference between the population

parameters and their estimates, the process is called ‘sampling
error’. In choosing between Ho and Ha the researcher can choose

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correctly or incorrectly leading to an error. Thus, the two types of

error in hypotheses are:
a. Type I: A type I error occurs when the null hypothesis (H0) is
wrongly rejected or to choose Ho when actually Ha should be
chosen. For example, A type I error would occur if we concluded
that the two drugs produced different effects when in fact there was
no difference between them. The probability of type 1 error is also
referred to as level of significance, the size of the test or the size of
the critical region.
b. Type II: A type II error occurs when the null hypothesis H0, is not
rejected when it is in fact false. It is the opposite of type 1 error.
For example: A type II error would occur if it were concluded that
the two drugs produced the same effect, that is, there is no
difference between the two drugs on average, when in fact they
produced different ones.

There are four possible decisions in hypothesis testing. They are

illustrated in the table below.
Ho Decision Ha
Truth Ho Correct decision Incorrect decision (Type I
error)
Ha Incorrect decision (Type II Correct decision
error)

The hypothesis that states that there is no difference between a parameter

and a specific value is?
The symbolic representation of null hypothesis is _____;

Self-Assessment Exercises - 1
1. The hypothesis that is often used in research study is?
2. The degree of difference between sample means and population mean is?
3. How many probabilities occurs when you reject null hypothesis?

5.4: Experimental Design Types

a. Preliminary experiment: this is the initial step of experimental

design.
b. Formal experiment: this can be divided into;
i. Simple experiment: this is concerned with one factor and its
variation.
ii. Factorial experiment: this is the investigation of the effect of more
than one factor simultaneously to reveal the effect of interaction.

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Components
a. Control group: a change in the dependent variable could result in
a change in the dependent variable, but a change in the dependent
variable could also be the result of a random variable which may
find its way into the experiment thus to ensure this does not
happen, a controlled experiment is run:
a. Control group is an additional experimental run or treatment.
b. It is a separate experiment, set up like the others with exactly the
same conditions.
c. The only difference is that test variable is changed.
d. In an experiment, a control is a treatment which is included to
provide a reference set of data which can be compared with data
obtained from the experimental treatments. For example, an
investigation into the effect of increased copper in the water in fish
growth would have as a control a group of fish cultured in copper
free growth medium. The effect of copper can be determined by
comparing the growth rates of fish in growth medium with various
levels of copper with the control. For this comparison to be valid,
it is critical there are no other variables apart from the independent
variable that differs between the control and experimental groups.
b. Variables: in designing an experiment it is important to consider
all the factors that can change in some way. These are called
variables. There are three types of variables in an experimental
design:
a) Independent variability: it can also be referred to as the
manipulated or the variable which is deliberately altered in some
way by the person carrying out the investigation.
b) Dependent variable: it can also be referred to as responding
variable or the variable which is measured/directly observed by the
experimenter.
c) Fixed/controlled variables: the major types of fixed/controlled
variables that needs to be controlled are:
 Factors affecting the organism: if organisms are used in the
experiments, then many of the variables relating to them will need
to be controlled. If the investigation uses small numbers in the
same size, then all due care needs to be taken to ensure that the
control group and experimental group are matched as closely as
possible with regards to things such as the number of organisms,
their age, size, sex and any other relevant characteristics. However,
if the sample size is large then these variables often average
themselves out.
 The environment factors: in all the experiments the environmental
factors will need to be controlled as much as possible. This is much
easier to achieve if the investigation is carried out in a laboratory
environment but not as easy in a field situation. For instance, in the

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laboratory situation factors such as temperature, light, dosage of a

chemical and the amount of food and water administered can be
controlled easily. In field situation these factors may have diurnal
or seasonal variation descending on the length of the experiment.
c. Replication: replication is having more than one treatment at the
same type. It is important in that:
a) Replication with a treatment shows how variable the response can
be
b) Resources may limit the total number of replicates. If this occurs
then a compromise between the number of treatments and the
number of replicates within a treatment has to be found.
c) Depending/the statistics used in analysis it is possible to work out
the number of replicated needed to show a significant difference
between pairs of means.
d) Statistics play a vital role in the analyzing of results obtained from
investigations. The experimental in scientific research is very
important for reliable result to be obtained.
d. Sample size: in most experiments it is rarely possible to take
measurements from every individual in the population either in a
laboratory situation or in the field. A sub set or sample is used to
estimate the values that might have been obtained had we
measured every individual in the population. A sample is made up
of a series of sampling units which depends on the type of variable
being measured.

Characteristics of a good sample

Good sampling design should take into account both of these and should
a. Relate to the objectives of the investigation
b. Be practical and achievable
c. Be cost effective in terms of equipment and labour
d. Provide estimates of population parameters that are truly
representative and unbiased
e. An ideal representative samples should be:
a) Taken at random so that every member of the population of data
has an equal chance of selection.
b) Large enough to give sufficient precision
c) Unbiased by the sampling procedures or equipment
It is very important in sampling procedures to take into account relevant
factors such as: location, habitat, time, age, sex, physiological condition
and disease status. These also need to be noted in the design as otherwise
a wrong interpretation may arise from the result.

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Errors in Experiments

There are many potential sources of error when designing and carrying
out experiments. Error can arise from:
a. The design of the experiment
b. The measurement and sampling of data
c. Measurement error can arise for a number of reasons:
a) Instrument error: calibration of the instrument has not been carried
out or is faulty consequently accuracy and precision are affected
b) Personal error: observer making in accurate observations. This
type of error can be overcome by taking an average measurement,
especially if data is collected by two or more independent
observers.
c) Sampling errors: these can also arise because of the size or nature
of the sample used. Sample size can either be too small or not
random enough. Replication of experiment also reduces errors.

The term precision is the closeness of repeated measurements to each

other, which accuracy is the closeness of a measured or derived
data value to its true value.

Types of Experimental Design

a. Complete randomize experimental design (single factor analysis of

variance). This is a design in which treatments are assigned completely at
random to the experimental units. The randomization gives every group
of units an opportunity of receiving the treatment. It is known as one way
classification because the data are classified according to one criterion viz
treatment only. For example, the Complete randomize design for three
replicates of six treatments is as follows.

A B A
A E B
D D E
C C C
F F E
F B D

Advantages of CRD
i. The design is very flexible and can be used for any number of
treatments.
ii. The statistical analysis is comparatively easy and straightforward.
iii. It is unaffected by missing observations for any treatment for some
purely random accidental reason.

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Disadvantage of CRD

i. The design is inherently less informative than other more sophisticated

layouts.

b. Randomize block design: this design compares treatments in the

plots with each treatment replicated. The plots are divided into groups or
block such that the blocks are as uniform as possible and the known
sources of variation among the plots being assigned to the blocks. Data
from it can be classified in a two-way table, the rows are blocks and the
columns are treatments vice versa hence called a two-way classification.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Randomize Block Design

1. With heterogeneous material the residual variance can be reduced

by choosing blocks of plots such that the plots within the blocks
are fairly similar. i.e., the design reduces the effect of
heterogeneous material.
2. There is no restriction on the number of blocks or treatments, but
in each block, there must be the same number of plots, one to each
treatment.
3. If some yields are accidentally lost, the analysis is again without
due complications, although special modifications are required.

c. Latin Square Design: the treatments are arranged in complete

groups of two durations, the two classifications being orthogonal to each
other and to the treatment. Latin square should be not less than 5 x 5 and
not more than 10 x 10 where it becomes clumsy and difficult to manage.
The design is a special case of a 3-way classification, with rows, column
and treatments. The randomization of a Latin square may be carried out
as follows;
a. Permute the rows at random
b. Permute the columns at random
c. Allot the treatments at random to the letter A, B, C etc.
The phenomena that deal with the methods of constructing and analysing
comparative experiment is called? The variation among varieties that
cannot be accounted for by the variation due to treatment is called?

Self-Assessment Exercises - 2
1. The phenomena used to describe the ability to estimate the effect of the
treatment so that valid conclusion can be drawn is called?
2. The type of experimental design that can be applied when same experimental
material is used on different experimental unit is called?
3. The experimental design in which the total area is divided into blocks and all
treatments are arranged within each block in a random order is?

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5.5: Summary

In this Unit the essence, of hypotheses were discussed with the various
types. The Unit also examined the different components, types of
experimental designs and their appropriate uses. This Unit looks at the
importance of hypotheses, sources, types characteristics and the methods
of formulating hypotheses. In the text, students will be able to learn how
to design experiment and take into account the different components in
the experiment as well as the possible statistical tools required.

5.6: References/Further Readings/Web Sources

 Ogbeibu, A.E. (2005). Biostatistics: A practical Approach to

Research and Data Handling; First Edition, Mindex Publishing
Company Limited, 263pp.
 Agarwal, B.L (2006). Basic Statistics, Revised Fourth Edition,
Newage International Publishers, 763pp
 Omalu, ICJ and Arimoro, FO (2010). Research Methods and
Analyses, Logicgate Publishers Ilorin, Minna, Kaduna, Nigeria,
276pp
 Murray, R.S. (1972). Theory and Problems of Statistics, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, 340pp
 Helmut F. van Emden.(2008). Statistics for Terrified Biologists.
Blackwell Publishing Limited. USA.
Link for Textbooks/Journals
Hypothesis Formulation in Research - Reading Craze
https://readingcraze.com/index.php/hypothesis-formulation-
research/

Formulating the Research Hypothesis and Null Hypothesis

https://study.com/academy/lesson/formulating-the-research-
hypothesis-and-null-hypothesis.html

Experimental Design - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-
sciences/experimental-
design#:~:text=Experimental%20design%20is%20the%20proces
s,has%20on%20a%20dependent%20variable.

A Quick Guide to Experimental Design | 5 Steps & Examples

https://www.scribbr.com › ... › Methodology

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/experimental-design/

https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/experimental-design/

https://study.com/academy/lesson/formulating-the-research-
hypothesis-and-null-hypothesis.html

5.7: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Self-Assessment Exercises - 1
1. Null hypothesis
2. Significance difference
3. Five

Self-Assessment Exercises - 2
1. Sensitivity
2. Completely randomized design
3. Randomized block design

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Glossary
 Alternate hypothesis: the opposite of the null hypothesis. It is the
conclusion when the null hypothesis is rejected.
 Bar chart or Bar graph: a chart or graph used with nominal
characteristics to display the numbers or percentages of
observations with the characteristics of interest.
 Bell-shaped distribution: a term used to describe the shape of the
normal (Gaussian) distribution
 Bias: A systematic error
 Biostatistics: the application of research study design and
statistical analysis to application in life sciences.
 Categorical variable: A variable having only certain possible
values for which there is no logical ordering of the values. Also
called a nominal, polytomous, discrete categorical variable or
factor.
 Class limits: the subdivisions of a numerical characteristics (or the
widths of the classes) when it is displayed in a frequency table or
graph
 Continuous variable: A variable that can take on any number of
possible values.
 distribution: he values of a characteristic or variable along with
the frequency of their occurrence. Distributions may be based on
empirical observations or may be theoretical probability
distributions (eg, normal, binomial, chi-square).
 Estimate: A statistical estimate of a parameter based on the data.
 Estimation: The process of using information from a sample to
draw conclusions about the values of parameters in a population.
 frequency polygon: A line graph connecting the midpoints of the
tops of the columns of a histogram. It is useful in comparing two
frequency distributions.
 frequency table: A table showing the number or percentage of
observations occurring at different values (or ranges of values) of
a characteristic or variable.
 Histogram: A graph of a frequency distribution of numerical
observations.
 hypothesis test: An approach to statistical inference resulting in a
decision to reject or not to reject the null hypothesis
 modal class: The interval (generally from a frequency table or
histogram) that contains the highest frequency of observations.
 null hypothesis: Customarily but not necessarily a hypothesis of no
effect.
 percentage polygon: A line graph connecting the midpoints of the
tops of the columns of a histogram based on percentages instead of
counts. It is useful in comparing two or more sets of observations
when the frequencies in each group are not equal.

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 probability: The probability that an event will occur, that an

invisible event has already occurred, or that an assertion is true, is
a number between 0 and 1 inclusive such that (1) of all possible
outcomes (including non-events) the probability of some possible
outcome occurring is 1, and (2) the probability of any of a set of
mutually exclusive events (i.e., union of events) occurring is the
sum of the individual event probabilities

End of the module Questions

1. The collection of quantitative information/data on living things is

called?
2. The important aspect of biostatistics that describe on how to
collect, organize and analyse data is called?
3. The type of variable exemplified by classifying students into
gender is?
4. The type of variable exemplified by the nature of children in a
family is called?
5. The variable dealing with all values are called?
6. The data below represents the blood groups of 40 students in a
Biostatistics class. Construct a frequency distribution for the data.
A AB B O O A B AB A B
O O O A AB B B A O AB
A O O A AB B B A A B
AB A O B AB O A B A B
7. Given below, are the wing length measurements (to the nearest
whole millimeter) of 50 laughing doves.
76 73 75 73 74 74 72 75 76 73
68 72 78 74 75 72 76 76 77 70
78 72 70 74 76 75 75 79 75 74
75 70 73 75 70 74 76 74 75 74
78 74 75 74 73 74 71 72 71 79
Construct a frequency distribution table.
8. A flower is drawn at random from garden containing 6 red flowers,
4 white flowers and 5 blue flowers, determine the probability that it is a
red flower?
9. A flower is drawn at random from garden containing 6 red flowers,
4 white flowers and 5 blue flowers, determine the probability that it is a
white flower?
10. A flower is drawn at random from garden containing 6 red flowers,
4 white flowers and 5 blue flowers, determine the probability that it is a
blue flower?
11. A flower is drawn at random from garden containing 6 red flowers,

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

4 white flowers and 5 blue flowers, determine the probability that it is not
red flower.
12. A flower is drawn at random from garden containing 6 red flowers,
4 white flowers and 5 blue flowers, determine the probability that it is a
red or white flower?
13. A special probability distribution that describes the distribution of
probabilities when there are only two possible outcomes for each trial
experiment is?
14. The sampling technique that increases precision is?
15. How many advantages exist between cluster sampling and others?
16. The sampling technique that is more current is?
17. The sampling technique that involves taking an item as a sample
from a large population at regular interval is?
18. When a large population is given a questionnaire to determine
those who meet the qualification for a study is called
19. The type of error that occurs when one rejects the null hypothesis
when it is true is?
20. The experimental design in which the number of rows, columns
and treatments are equal and each treatment occurs just once in each row
and column is termed?

Answers
1. Biostatistics
2. Experimental design
3. Qualitative variables
4. Discrete variable
5. Continuous variable
6. Since the data are categorical, the blood groups: A, B, O and AB
can be used as the classes for the distribution.
Class Tally Frequency Percent
A ////,////,// 12 30
B ////,////,/ 11 27.5
O ////,//// 10 25
AB ////,// 7 17.5

TOTAL 100
Therefore, it can be concluded that in the sample more students have type
A blood group because its frequency is the highest.

7. The measurements above are presented in the order in which

the observations were recorded. This can be represented in an
ordered array so that the minimum and maximum values can easily
be read.
68 70 70 70 70 71 71 72 72 72

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72 72 73 73 73 73 73 74 74 74

74 74 74 74 74 74 74 75 75 75

75 75 75 75 75 75 75 76 76 76

76 76 76 77 78 78 78 78 79 79
Find the range of the data: Highest value – lowest value (79 – 68 =11).
Since the range of the data is small, classes of single data values can be
used.

Table 2.1: A tally of frequency of the wing length (mm) of 50 laughing

doves.
Class limits Tally Frequency Cumulative Relative
frequency frequency
(%)
68 / 1 1 2
70 //// 4 5 8
71 // 2 7 4
72 //// 5 12 10
73 //// 5 17 10
74 ////, //// 10 27 20
75 ////, //// 10 37 20
76 ////,/ 6 43 12
77 / 1 44 2
78 //// 4 48 8
79 // 2 50 4

100

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Frequency distribution of wing-length

12

10

8
Frequency

0
68 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79
Wing Length

8. 0.4
9. 0.27
10. 0.33
11. 0.6
12. 0.67
13. Binomial
14. Stratified sampling
15. Three
16. Cluster
17. Systematic, Skip
18. Double sampling
19. Type I error
20. Latin square design

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Module 2: Biostatistics Application 1

Unit 1: Measure of Central Tendency

Unit Structure
1.1: Introduction
1.2: Intended Learning Outcomes
1.3: Measure of Central Tendency
1.3.1: Characteristics
1.3.2: Types
1.4: Summary
1.5: References/Further Readings/Web Sources
1.7: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

1.1: Introduction

A measure of central tendency also called measure of location indicates

the location or position of the sample or population among all possible
values of the variable. These measures are descriptive parameters in that
they describe a property of population. There are various measures of
central tendency but the most commonly used ones are discussed here. A
measure of central tendency also called measure of location indicates the
location or position of the sample or population among all possible values
of the variables. These measures are descriptive parameters in that they
describe a property of populations.

1.2: Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, students should be able to:

 describe the different types of measures of central tendencies.
 understand the usage of the different types of central tendencies

1.3: Measures of Central Tendency

1.3.1: Characteristics

a. It should be based on all the observations.

b. It should not be affected by extreme values.
c. It should be as close to the maximum number of observed values
as possible.
d. It should be defined rigidly which means that it should have a
definite value.
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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

e. It should not be subjected to complicated and tedious calculations.

f. It should be capable of further algebraic treatment.
g. It should be stable with regard to sampling. This means that if a
number of samples of the same size are drawn from a population,
the measure of central tendency having minimum variation among
the different calculated values should be prepared.

1.3.2: Types

Arithmetic Mean/Average
If mean is mentioned, it implies arithmetic mean as the other means are
identified by their full names. Mean can be defined as the sum of the
observed values of a set divided by the number of observations in the set.
If X1, X2…..Xn are N observed values, the mean
Mean = (∑▒𝑭𝑿)/(∑▒𝑭)
For weighted mean, in case K variate values X1, X2….Xk have known
weight W1, W2…Wk respectively then the weighted mean (µ) =
(𝑊1𝑋1 + 𝑊2𝑋2 + ⋯ 𝑊𝑘𝑋𝑘)/(𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + ⋯ 𝑊𝑘) = (∑▒𝑊𝑋)/
(∑▒𝑊) = 1/𝑊 ∑▒𝑊𝑖𝑋𝑖 i=1,2...k
Weighted mean is commonly used in the construction of index numbers.
Properties
i) The algebraic sum of the deviations of a set of numbers from their
arithmetic mean is zero.
ii) The sum of the square of the deviations of a set of numbers from
any number above is a minimum if and only if a is equal to mean.
iii) If Fi numbers have Yi and Fk has Yk, then the mean of all the
number is (𝐹1𝑌1 + 𝐹2𝑌2 + ⋯ 𝐹𝑘𝑌𝑘)/(𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + ⋯ 𝐹𝑘)

Merits and Demerits

a) The algebraic sum of the deviations of the given values from their
arithmetic mean is always zero i.e. ∑▒〖(𝑋 − /𝑋)〗 = 0
b) The sum of the squares of the deviations of the given values from
their arithmetic means is minimum i.e. ∑▒〖(𝑋 − /𝑋)〗2 is minimum.
c) An average possesses all the characteristics of a central value given
earlier except no.2 which is greatly affected by extreme values.
d) In case of grouped data if any class interval is open, arithmetic
mean cannot be calculated

Median:
It has been pointed out that mean cannot be calculated whenever there is
frequency distribution with open end intervals. Also, the mean is to a great
extent affected by the extreme values of the set of observations. Hence in
such cases, there has been a search for some better measure of central
tendency. Median is the value of the variable which divides it into two
equal halves; in an order series of data, median is an observation lying in
the middle of the series, in a set of observations below it and remaining

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half above it. The median for a set of observations can easily be found out
after arranging them in either descending or ascending order.
Let X1, X2… Xn be N ordered observations. Now two possibilities are
there:
a) N is an odd number say N=2p +1 where p is an integer. In this case
(p+1)th observation will be the median value.
b) If N is even N =2p, then the average of pth and (p+1)th
observations will be the median value.
The median for grouped data: if the data are given with class interval as:

Class interval Frequency cumulative frequency

X1 – X2 F1 F1
X2 – X3 F2 F2
. . .
. . .
Xp – Xp+1 Fp Fp
. . .
Xk – Xk+1 Fk Fk
Where Fk = N = ∑▒𝐹𝑖 for i = 1,2…..K, we can thereof calculate the
median by
𝑵
−(∑𝑓)1
𝟐
Md = Lo + ( )𝑪
𝒇𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏
Where Lo = Lower class boundary of the median class i.e. lower limit of
interval (the clas containing the median)
N = number of observation (i.e. total frequency)
(∑𝑓)1 = sum of frequencies (cumulative frequency) of all classes
lower than the median class.
C = size of the median class interval i.e. the range of accuracy.
Fmedian = frequency of median class
I = Class interval of the median class

Merits and Demerits

i) Median is a positional average and hence it is not influenced by the
extreme value.
ii) Median can be calculated even in the case of open and end
intervals.
iii) Median can be located even if the data are incomplete.
iv) It is not a good representative of data if the number of items is
small.
v) It is not amenable to further algebraic treatment.
vi) It is susceptible to sampling fluctuations.

Mode
Mode is a value of a particular type of items which occurs most
frequently. It can be defined as a variate value which occurs most
frequently in a set of values. In case of discrete distribution one can find

53
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

mode by inspection. The variate value having the maximum frequency is

the modal value.

Merits and Demerits

i) It is not affected by extreme values of a set of observation
ii) It can be calculated for distributions with open end classes
iii) The main drawback of mode is that often it does not exist
iv) Often value is not unique
v) It does not fulfill most of the requirements of a good measures of
central tendency.
The grades of a student on six examinations were 84, 91, 72, 68, 87 and
78 find the arithmetic mean of the grades.
The grades of a student on six examinations were 84, 91, 72, 68, 87 and
78 find the total frequency of the grades.

Self-Assessment Exercises

1. The measures of the diameter of a plant leaf were 38.8, 40.9, 39.2. 39.7, 40.2,
39.5, 40.3, 39.2, 39.8, 40.6mm, find the number of measures?
2. The measures of the diameter of a plant leaf were 38.8, 40.9, 39.2. 39.7, 40.2,
39.5, 40.3, 39.2, 39.8, 40.6mm, find the total number of frequency?
3. The measures of the diameter of a plant leaf were 38.8, 40.9, 39.2. 39.7, 40.2,
39.5, 40.3, 39.2, 39.8, 40.6mm, find the arithmetic mean?
4. Find the mean of the set of figures obtained from measuring the weight to
nearest gram of fingerlings: 3, 5, 2, 6, 5, 9, 5, 2, 8, 6

1.4: Summary

The different measures of central tendency were discussed with their

advantages and disadvantages. The characteristics of measures of central
tendency were discussed, the different types, their advantages and
disadvantages were also discussed.

1.5: References/Further Readings/Web Sources

 Ogbeibu, A.E. (2005). Biostatistics: A practical Approach to

Research and Data Handling; First Edition, Mindex Publishing
Company Limited, 263pp.
 Agarwal, B.L (2006). Basic Statistics, Revised Fourth Edition,
Newage International Publishers, 763pp

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

 Omalu, ICJ and Arimoro, FO (2010). Research Methods and

Analyses, Logicgate Publishers Ilorin, Minna, Kaduna, Nigeria,
276pp
 Murray, R.S. (1972). Theory and Problems of Statistics, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, 340pp
Mean, Mode and Median - Measures of Central Tendency
https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/measures-central-
tendency-mean-mode-median.php

Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, Median, and Mode

https://statisticsbyjim.com/basics/measures-central-tendency-mean-
median-mode/

https://statisticsbyjim.com/basics/measures-central-tendency-mean-
median-mode/

https://www.thoughtco.com/measures-of-central-tendency-3026706

https://study.com/academy/lesson/central-tendency-measures-
definition-examples.html

1.6: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

1. 10mm
2. 398.2mm
3. 39.8mm
4. 5.1

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Unit 2: Measure of Dispersion/Variability

Unit Structure
2.1: Introduction
2.2: Intended Learning Outcomes
2.3: Measures of Dispersion
2.3.1: Purposes
2.3.2: Types
2.4: Summary
2.5: References/Further Readings/Web Sources
2.6: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

2.1: Introduction

A measure of dispersion or variability is an indication of the spread of

measurement around the centre of the distribution. It shows how variable
the measurements are. In addition to the mean, they are used in
summarizing set of data. Examples of such measures are range, variance,
standard deviation, standard error and coefficient of variation or
variability. Measures of dispersion or variability are indication of the
spread of measurement around the center of the distribution. It shows how
variable the measurements are. In addition to the mean, they are used in
summarizing set of data. Example of such measures includes the range,
standard deviation, standard error, variances and coefficient of variation.

2.2: Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, students should be able to:

 descride the different types of measures of dispersion.
 understand the usage of the different types of dispersion

2.3: Measures of Dispersion

2.3.1: Purposes

a) To have an idea about the reliability of central value. In a way, it

is a measure of degree of scatteredness. If scatter is large, an
average is less reliable. If the value of dispersion is small, it
indicates that a central value is a good representative of all the
values in the set
b) To compare two or more sets of values with regard to their
variability: two or more sets can be compared by calculating the

56
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

same measure of dispersion having the same unit of measure. A set

with smaller value possesses lesser variability
c) To provide information about the structure of a series: a value of
measure of dispersion gives an idea about the spread of the
observations.
d) To control the variation: in many situations a measure of
dispersion provides the basis for controlling the causes which lead
to greater variation.
e) To pave way to the use of other statistical measures: measures of
dispersion especially variance and standard deviation lead to many
statistical techniques like correlation, regression, analysis of
variation etc.

Properties
i) It should be based on all values of a series.
ii) It should not be susceptible to fluctuation of sampling.
iii) It should be rigidly defined i.e.; each investigator should arrive at
the same value for the same set of data.
iv) It should be capable of further algebraic treatment.
v) It is preferable that the unit of measurement of dispersion should
be the same as the unit of measurement of observations
vi) It should be calculable with reasonable ease i.e., the formular
should be such that it does not complicate the computation of a
measure of dispersion.
vii) It should be least affected by extreme values.

2.3.2: Types

Range
Range is defined as the difference between the largest and the smallest
observation in a set
Range (R) = L – S
Where L = largest observation
S = Smallest observation
A relative measure known as coefficient of range is given as
Coefficient of Range = (𝐿 − 𝑆)/(𝐿 + 𝑆)
The lesser the range or coefficient of range, the better the result

Properties
a) It is the simplest measure and can easily be understood.
b) Besides the above merit, it hardly satisfies any property of a good
measure of dispersion e.g., it is based on two extreme values only,
ignoring the others.
c) It is not liable to further algebraic treatment.

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Variance (δ2, Ѕ2)

The variance is the average of the squares of deviations taken from mean
population variances (δ2) =(∑▒〖(𝑋𝑖〗 − µ)^2)/𝑁 where µ is replaced
by /𝑋 and N replaced by n -1 (called the degree of freedom) in the above
equation, it is an unbiased estimate of δ2 which is called the sample
variances thus:
Sample variance = (∑▒〖(𝑋𝑖〗 −/𝑋 )^2)/(𝑛 − 1) = 𝑆𝑆/(𝑛 − 1) =
(∑▒〖𝑋^(2 )– ((∑▒𝑋 )^2)/𝑛〗)/(𝑛 − 1)

Properties
a) It has mostly removed the lacunae which are present in the
measures of dispersion given before it.
b) The main demerit is that its unit is the square of the unit of
measurement of variate values. E.g., the variable X is measured in
cm, the unit of variance is cm2
c) The variance gives more weight to the extreme values as compared
to those which are near to mean value, because the difference is
squared in variance

Standard deviation
The positive square root of the variance is called deviation (S.D) =
√(δ^2 ) = √(S^2 )In simple words, we can say that standard deviation
explains the average amount of variation on either side of the mean. It has
the same S.I unit as the measurement.

Properties
a) It is considered to be the best measure of dispersion and is used
widely.
b) There is however, one difficulty with it. If the unit of measurement
of variables of two series is not the same, then their variability
cannot be compared by comparing the values of standard
deviation.

Coefficient of variation (CV)

Coefficient of variation of a series of variate values is the ratio of the
standard deviation to the mean multiplied by 100.
C.V = δ/mean x 100

Properties
a) It is one of the most widely used measured of dispersion because
of its virtues.
b) Smaller the value of C.V than the C.V of other series is more
consistent i.e.; it has less variability.
c) For field experiment C.V is generally reported. If C.V is low, it
indicates more reliability of experimental findings.

58
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

d) It is a relative measure of variability

Standard Error
It tells how close the values of means are to the population mean S.E =
square root of variance divides by the frequency of sampling (n). The unit
of the standard error is the same as the unit of the individual
measurements
Which of the following are methods under measures of dispersion?
a. Standard deviation
b. Mean deviation
c. Range
d. All of the above
Which of the following are characteristics of a good measure of
dispersion?
a. It should be easy to calculate
b. It should be based on all the observations within a series
c. It should not be affected by the fluctuations within the sampling
d. All of the above

Self-Assessment Exercises
1. If all the observations within a series are multiplied by five,
then ________
a. The new standard deviation would be decreased by five
b. The new standard deviation would be increased by five
c. The new standard deviation would be half of the previous
standard deviation
d. The new standard deviation would be multiplied by five
2. The coefficient of variation is a percentage expression for
__________.
a. Standard deviation
b. Quartile deviation
c. Mean deviation
d. None of the above
3. While calculating the standard deviation, the deviations are
only taken from ______
a. The mode value of a series
b. The median value of a series
c. The quartile value of a series
d. The mean value of a series
4. ____________ and ____________ are types of measures of
dispersion.
a. Nominal, Real
b. Nominal, Relative
c. Real, Relative
d. Absolute, Relative

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

2.4: Summary

The measures that determine the closeness of values to the centre were
considered in this Unit. The different types of measures of dispersion
were considered and treated in this Unit.

2.5: References/Further Readings/Web Sources

 Ogbeibu, A.E. (2005). Biostatistics: A practical Approach to

Research and Data Handling; First Edition, Mindex Publishing
Company Limited, 263pp.
 Agarwal, B.L (2006). Basic Statistics, Revised Fourth Edition,
Newage International Publishers, 763pp
 Omalu, ICJ and Arimoro, FO (2010). Research Methods and
Analyses, Logicgate Publishers Ilorin, Minna, Kaduna, Nigeria,
276pp
 Murray, R.S. (1972). Theory and Problems of Statistics, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, 340pp

Measures of dispersion
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3198538/#:~:text=Stan
dard%20deviation%20(SD)%20is%20the,by%20the%20number
%20of%20observations.

Measures of Dispersion in Statistics (Definition & Types) - Byju's

https://byjus.com/maths/dispersion/

Measures of Dispersion - Definition, Formulas, Examples

https://www.cuemath.com/data/measures-of-dispersion/

https://www.toppr.com/guides/business-mathematics-and-
statistics/measures-of-central-tendency-and-
dispersion/measure-of-dispersion/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YvGeUSeQGYU

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dAwRlYhEWOs

60
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

2.6 Possible Answers to SAEs

1. : d
2.: a
3. d
4. d

61
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Unit 3.0: Student’s t-Distribution

Unit Structure
3.1: Introduction
3.2: Intended Learning Outcomes
3.3: Student’s t test
3.3.1: One Sample t-test
3.3.2: Independent Sample t-test
3.3.3: Paired Sample t-test
3.4: Summary
3.5: References/Further Readings/Web Sources
3.6: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

3.1: Introduction

The t distributions were discovered by William Sealy Gossets in 1908

under the pseudonym ‘student’, hence it is commonly referred to as
Student’s t-distribution or Student’s t-test. This has revolutionary
statistics of small samples. The student’s t test (also called T test) is used
to compare the means between two groups and there is no need of multiple
comparisons as unique P value is observed. A t-test is used to infer on
statistical grounds whether there are differences between group means for
an experimental design with;
(i) one parametric dependent variable and
(ii) one independent variable with two levels, i.e., there is one outcome
measure and two groups.
It is one of the most popular statistical techniques used to test whether
mean difference between two groups is statistically significant. T test are
three types i.e., one sample t test, independent samples t test, and paired
samples t test. The t-distribution is characterized by the following
properties, which are similar to that of a standard normal distribution;
 It is bell-shaped.
 It is symmetric about the mean
 The mean, median and mode are equal to 0 and are located at the
center of the distribution.
 The curve never touches the x-axis.
 The properties that differentiates it from the standard normal
distribution are;.
 The variance is greater than 1.
 The t-distribution is a family of curves based on the sample size
(n), with the degrees of freedom n-1.
 As the sample size increases, the t-distribution approaches the
normal distribution.

62
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

3.2: Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, students should be able to:

 describe the different types of t-test
 understand the circumstance of using the different types of the test

3.3: Student’s test

3.3.1: One Sample t-test

The one sample t test is a statistical procedure used to determine whether

mean value of a sample is statistically same or different with mean value
of its parent population from which sample was drawn. To apply this test,
mean, standard deviation (SD), size of the sample (Test variable), and
population mean or hypothetical mean value (Test value) are used.
Sample should be continuous variable and normally distributed.
One-sample t test is used when sample size is <30. In case sample size is
≥30 used to prefer one sample z test over one sample t test although for
one sample z test, population SD must be known.
If population SD is not known, one sample t test can be used at any sample
size. In one sample Z test, tabulated value is z value (instead of t value in
one sample t test).

3.3.2: Independent Sample t-test

The independent t test, also called unpaired t test, is an inferential

statistical test that determines whether there is a statistically significant
difference between the means in two unrelated (independent) groups? To
apply this test, a continuous normally distributed variable (Test variable)
and a categorical variable with two categories (Grouping variable) are
used. Further mean, SD, and number of observations of the group 1 and
group 2 would.

3.3.3: Paired Sample t-test

The paired samples t test, sometimes called the dependent samples t-test,
is used to determine whether the change in means between two paired
observations is statistically significant? In this test, same subjects are
measured at two time points or observed by two different methods. To
apply this test, paired variables (pre-post observations of same subjects)
are used where paired variables should be continuous and normally
distributed. Further mean and SD of the paired differences and sample
size (i.e., no. of pairs) would be used to calculate significance level.

63
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

t-test: tn-1 = (𝐱 − 𝛍)/(𝐬/√𝐧)

Where: x = Sample mean.
μ = Population mean.
s = Sample standard deviation.
n = Sample size.
Testing of hypotheses using the t-test follows the same procedure as for
the z-test, except that you use the t- table instead.
When the variance is greater that 1, it is a characteristics of ……test.
Testing of hypothesis using the t-test follows the same procedure as for
the z-test except that you use the ……. instead.

Self-Assessment Exercises

i) 1. Which test approaches the normal distribution as sample size increases?

2. The inappropriate test for testing hypothesis when the sample size is less than 30
is?

3.4: Summary

This Unit is able to explain the simplest method of comparing two sets of
variables. The introduction the Unit was provided as well the different
types of the distribution. The rationale for the application of the different
types were also provided.

3.5: References/Further Readings/Web Sources

 Ogbeibu, A.E. (2005). Biostatistics: A practical Approach to

Research and Data Handling; First Edition, Mindex Publishing
Company Limited, 263pp.
 Agarwal, B.L (2006). Basic Statistics, Revised Fourth Edition,
Newage International Publishers, 763pp
 Omalu, ICJ and Arimoro, FO (2010). Research Methods and
Analyses, Logicgate Publishers Ilorin, Minna, Kaduna, Nigeria,
276pp
 Murray, R.S. (1972). Theory and Problems of Statistics, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, 340pp
 Helmut F. van Emden.(2008). Statistics for Terrified Biologists.
Blackwell Publishing Limited. USA.

Student's t-distribution
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/t/tdistribution.asp#:~:text=T

64
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

he%20T%20distribution%2C%20also%20known,distributions%2
C%20hence%20the%20fatter%20tails.

T-Distribution / Student's T: Definition, Step by Step Articles ...

https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/t-
distribution/

T Distribution (Definition and Formula) - Byju's

https://byjus.com/maths/t-distribution/

https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/t-
distribution/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=32CuxWdOlow

https://study.com/academy/lesson/student-t-distribution-definition-
example-quiz.html

3.6: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

1. t-distribution
2. z-test

65
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Unit 4: Contigency Table

Unit Structure
4.1: Introduction
4.2: Intended Learning Outcomes
4.3: Chi-Square
4.3.1: Properties of Chi-square
4.3.2: Chi-Square testing
4.4: Summary
4.5: References/Further Readings/Web Sources
4.6: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

4.1: Introduction

Contingency tables are usually constructed for the purpose of studying

the relationship between two or more variables of classification. One
may wish to know whether the two variables are independence or there
is association between them. By means of chi square. Chi-square (χ2) is
the general method for testing compatibility based on a measure of the
extent to which the observed and expected frequencies agree. Chi-square
is also, referred to as test for homogeneity randomness, association,
independence and goodness of fit.

4.2: Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, students should be able to:

 understand the principles behind the use of chi-square.
 describe the methods of using the test tool.
 understand the application of the tool.

4.3:Chi-Square
Chi-square (χ2) is the general method for testing compatibility based on
a measure of the extent to which the observed and expected frequencies
agree. Chi- square is also, referred to as test for homogeneity
randomness, association, independence and goodness of fit. The
assumptions for the chi-square goodness- of-fit test are:
 The data are obtained from a random sample.
 The expected frequency for each category must be 5 or more.

66
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

The frequencies we observe are compared to those we expect on the

basis of some null hypotheses. If the differences between the observed
and expected frequencies are great and exceed the critical value at
appropriate degrees of freedom, we are then obliged to the reject the null
hypothesis (Ho) and accept the alternative hypothesis (H1).

4.3.1: Properties of Chi-square

a) It is concerned with the sequences of normally distribution

observations, thereby estimating the variance.
b) Chi-square values tend to become normal as the sample size (n)
increases. Its degree of freedom is n - 1.
c) It is non-symmetrical.
d) χ2 can take any value from zero to in infinity.
e) χ2 is additive and always positive.
f) Chi-square can be:
 One-way classification as in testing the goodness of fit of a
hypothesis, with two or more classes.
 Two-way classification as in determining association or
differences between two different classes or the test may involve
more than two classes.

4.3.2: Chi-Square testing

Chi-square distributions are used in a procedure that involves the

comparison of the differences between the sample frequencies of
occurrences or percentages that are actually observed and the hypothetical
or theoretical population frequencies of occurrences or percentages that
are expected if the hypothesis is true. Steps in the general χ2 testing
procedure is;
a. Formulate the null and alternative hypotheses.
b. Select the level of significance to be used in the particular testing
situation.
c. Take random samples from the populations, and record the
observed frequencies that are actually obtained.
d. Compute the frequencies of percentages that would be expected if
the null hypothesis is true.
e. Use the observed and the expected frequencies to compute the χ2.

67
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

f. Compare the value of χ2 computed in step 5 with the χ2 table value

at the specified level of significance (step 2).

The general method for testing compatibility based on a measure of the

extent to which the observed and expected frequencies agree is?
The assumption that data are obtained from a random sample is?

Self-Assessment Exercises
1. In an experiment to test the effectiveness of three different traps for catching
birds, the number of birds captured in each trap design over the study period
was recorded as follows:
Design Observed Frequency
A 10
B 27
C 15
Total 52
2. The offspring of a certain cross gave the following colours: Red, Black or
white in the ratio 9:3:4. Assuming the experiment gave 74, 32, and 38
offspring respectively in those categories, is the theory substantiated?

4.4: Summary

The Unit explain another statistical tool used to compare two variables.
Chi-square significance, methods and application was discussed in this
Unit.

4.5: References/Further Readings/Web Sources

 Ogbeibu, A.E. (2005). Biostatistics: A practical Approach to

Research and Data Handling; First Edition, Mindex Publishing
Company Limited, 263pp.
 Agarwal, B.L (2006). Basic Statistics, Revised Fourth Edition,
Newage International Publishers, 763pp
 Omalu, ICJ and Arimoro, FO (2010). Research Methods and
Analyses, Logicgate Publishers Ilorin, Minna, Kaduna, Nigeria,
276pp
 Murray, R.S. (1972). Theory and Problems of Statistics, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, 340pp
 Bluman, A.G. (2004). Elementary Statistics. A Step by Step
Approach. Fifth Edition. McGraw-Hill Companies Incorporated.
London.

68
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Chi-squared test: https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/chi-square-

statistic.asp#:~:text=A%20chi%2Dsquare%20(%CF%872)%20st
atistic%20is%20a%20measure,especially%20those%20nominal
%20in%20nature.

The Chi squared tests - The BMJ

https://www.bmj.com/about-bmj/resources-
readers/publications/statistics-square-one/8-chi-squared-tests
https://www.statisticshowto.com/what-is-a-contingency-table/

https://study.com/academy/lesson/contingency-table-statistics-
probability-examples.html

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9KIQC9Npndg

4.6: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

1. The observed frequencies are, of course, 10, 27 and 15. The

question we are interested in is “Does the observation that more birds
were caught in trap design B really reflect a genuine difference, or could
the difference be due to chance scatter or sampling error?” Another
question could be “Is the distribution of frequencies between the traps
homogenous (i.e evenly spread)?” From these, the hypotheses are:
Ho: The observed frequencies are homogenous and any departure can be
accounted for by chance scatter or sampling error;
H1: The observed frequencies depart from those expected of a
homogenous (even) distribution by an amount that cannot be explained by
sampling error.
Then, what frequencies would have been expected if Ho is indeed true.
That means if the frequencies reflect a homogenous distribution, we
would expect the 52 birds to be equally distributed in all the three trap
designs. That is 52/3 =17.33 birds in each design is our expected
frequency. To calculate χ2, we can summarize our frequencies as shown
below.

Sample Frequency Frequency Difference Chi-square

(observed) (expected)
A 10 17.33 -7.33 3.10
B 27 17.33 9.67 5.40
C 15 17.33 -2.33 0.313
χ2 = 8.813

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

The calculated χ2 = 8.813 can then be compared with the critical or

table χ2 value at 0.05 or 0.01 levels of significance. The degrees of
freedom = n – 1 ⇒ 3 – 1 = 2. From the χ2 table at 2 df, we have 5.99
under the 0.05 (5%) level of significance and 9.21 under the
0.01(1%). Our calculated χ2 value of 8.813 is bigger than the first but
smaller than the second. We conclude that the difference between the
observed and expected frequencies is statistically ‘significant’ but not
‘highly significant’. This simply means that “the trap of design B was
shown in a trial to be more effective in catching birds than the
other two traps tested; χ2(2d.f) =8.813, P<0.05”.
2.
RedBlackWhiteTotal
74 32 38 144
9 3 4 16

The expected frequencies are calculated as follows:

Red: 9/16 x 144 = 54
Black: 3/16 x 144 = 27
White: 4/16 x 144 = 36

χ2 = (74 –54)2 + (32 –27)2 + (38 –36)2 = 8.45

54 27 36
χ2 = 8.45
The D.F n–1
3–1= 2
The calculated χ2 of 8.45 is higher than the table χ2 value of 5.99 at
α= 0.05 and d.f 2. Therefore, we conclude that the number of offspring
in the 3 colours is not compatible with the given ratios. i.e. we reject the
null hypothesis.

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Unit 5: Analysis of Variance and Co-Variance

Unit Structure
5.1: Introduction
5.2: Intended Learning Outcomes
5.3: Analysis of Variance
5.3.1: Assumptions of ANOVA
5.3.2: Mechanism of Calculation
5.4: Summary
5.5: References/Further Reading/Web Sources
5.6: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

5.1: Introduction

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a statistical tool used to detect

differences between experimental group means. ANOVA is warranted in
experimental designs with one dependent variable that is a continuous
parametric numerical outcome measure, and multiple experimental
groups within one or more independent (categorical) variables. In
ANOVA terminology, independent variables are called factors, and
groups within each factor are referred to as levels.

5.2: Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, students should be able to:

 understand the principles behind the use of ANOVA.
 describe the methods of using the test tool.
 understand the application of the tool.

5.3: Analysis of Variance

5.3.1: Assumptions of ANOVA

Specifically, a data set should meet the following criteria before being
subjected to ANOVA:
 Parametric data: A parametric ANOVA, the topic of the article,
requires parametric data (ratio or interval measures). There are
non-parametric, one-factor versions of ANOVA for nonparametric
ordinal (ranked) data, specifically the Kruskal-Wallis test for
independent groups and the Friedman test for repeated measures
analysis.

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

 Normally distributed data within each group: ANOVA can be

thought of as a way to infer whether the normal distribution curves
of different data sets are best thought of as being from the same
population or different populations.

5.3.2: Mechanism of Calculation

ANOVA evaluates differences in group means in a round-about fashion,

and involves the “partitioning of variance” from calculations of “Sum of
Squares” and “Mean Squares.” Three metrics are used in calculating the
ANOVA test statistic, which is called the F score (named after R.A.
Fisher, the developer of ANOVA):
(i) Grand Mean, which is the mean of all scores in all groups;
(ii) Sum of Squares, which are of two kinds, the sum of all squared
differences between group means and the Grand Mean (between- groups
Sum of Squares) and the sum of squared differences between individual
data scores and their respective group mean (within-groups Sum of
Squares), and
(iii) Mean Squares, also of two kinds (between-groups Mean Squares,
within-groups Mean Squares), which are the average deviations of
individual scores from their respective mean, calculated by dividing Sum
of Squares by their appropriate degrees of freedom.

The systematic procedure for obtaining two or more estimate of variance

and comparing them is?
Analysis of variance is a statistical method of comparing the ________ of
several populations. a. standard deviations b. variances c. means d.
proportions e. none of the options

Self-Assessment Exercises
1. The table below shows the number of seeds for five varieties of garden
egg to three level of Indo-acetic acid (IAA)
IAA\varieties A B C D E
I 3 5 10 7 8
II 2 4 7 4 5
III 4 5 8 6 7

5.4: Summary

This Unit, looked in another test tool used to compare two variables. The
single factor analysis of variance was considered here

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

5.5: References/Further Readings/Web Sources

 Omalu, ICJ and Arimoro, FO (2010). Research Methods and

Analyses, Logicgate Publishers Ilorin, Minna, Kaduna, Nigeria,
276pp
 Murray, R.S. (1972). Theory and Problems of Statistics, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, 340pp
 Bailey, N.T.J. (1994). Statistical Methods in Biology. Third
Edition. Cambridge University Press. United Kingdom.

Analysis of variance https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-

statistics/hypothesis-testing/anova/

Analysis Of Variance (ANOVA) - Analytics Vidhya

https://www.analyticsvidhya.com/blog/2018/01/anova-analysis-of-
variance/

https://www.statisticssolutions.com/analysis-of-covariance-ancova/

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/anova.asp

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZSwjaIUPBRg

5.6: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

State the null hypothesis: There is no significant difference between seed

number in five varieties of garden egg and levels of IAA. Calculate the
totals from the table as below:

IAA\varieties A B C D E Total
I 3 5 10 7 8 33
II 2 4 7 4 5 22
III 4 5 8 6 7 30

Total 9 14 25 17 20 GT=85

Then calculate the Correction Factor (CF) as: CF = GT2/N = 852/15 =

481.7
Calculate the Mean Squares (SS)

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 Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

BLOCKss = (332 + 222 + 302/5) – CF = 12.9

VARIETIESss = (92 + 142 +………..+ 202)/3 – CF = 48.6

TOTALss = (32 + 52 +………...+72) – CF = 65.3

ERRORss = TOTALss – (BLOCK + VARIETIESss) = 3.8

Then calculate:

BLOCKMS = BLOCKss/ BLOCKDF = 12.9/2 = 6.45

VARIETIESMS = VARIETIESss/VARIETIESDF = 48.6/4 = 12.15

Block F-value = BlockMS /ErrorMS = 6.45/0.475 = 13.58

Varieties F-value = VarietiesMS /ErrorMS = 12.15/0.475 = 25.5

The calculated F-values are compared with the F-distribution table, using
their respective degrees of freedoms.

SOURCE DF SS MS F
Block 2 12.9 6.45 13.58**
Varieties 4 48.6 12.15 25.58**
Error 8 3.8 0.475

Total 14 65.3
** indicates that the values are highly significant.

Conclusion: Since the F-values are highly significant, we reject the null
hypothesis. It means that the three levels of IAA have effect on the seed
number of the five varieties of garden egg.

Complete the Anova table below and draw your conclusions.

Source Sum of Degrees Mean F-ratio

squares of
freedom squares
(SS) (DF) (MS)
Varieties 123.44 * * *
Residual * 15 *
Total 210.21 18

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

RESIDUALss = 210.21 – 123.44 = 86.8

VARIETIESDF = 18 – 15 = 3

VARIETIESMS = 123.44/3 = 41.15

RESIDUALMS = 86.8/15 = 5.79

F- ratio = 41.15/5.79 = 7.11

The complete table is as shown below.

Source Sum of Degrees of Mean squares F-

ratio

squares (SS) freedom (DF) (MS)

Varieties 123.44 3 41.15 7.11
Residual 86.8 15 5.79
Total 210.21 18

Conclusion:
The observed variance ratio of 7.12 is greater than the table values at
both 5% (3.29) and 1% (5.42). That means there is high-significant
difference among the varieties. Therefore, we reject the null hypothesis
that the varieties are the same.

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Glossary
 ANOVA: Analysis of variance usually refers to an analysis of a
continuous dependent variable where all the predictor variables are
categorical.
 Chi-square distribution: the distribution used to analyze counts in
frequency tables.
 descriptive statistics: Statistics, such as the mean, the standard
deviation, the proportion, and the rate, used to describe attributes
of a set of data.
 goodness of fit: Assessment of the agreement of the data with
either a hypothesized pattern (e.g., independence of row and
column factors in a contingency table or the form of a regression
relationship) or a hypothesized distribution (e.g., comparing a
histogram with expected frequencies from the normal
distribution).
 mean (X̅): The most common measure of central tendency,
denoted by ľ in the population and by in the sample. In a sample,
the mean is the sum of the X values divided by the number n in the
sample (σX/n).
 median: Value such that half of the observations’ values are less
than and half are greater than that value.
 P-value: The probability of getting a result (e.g., t or χ2 statistics)
as or more extreme than the observed statistic had H0 been true.
 significance level: A preset value of α against which P-values are
judged in order to reject H0
 standard deviation: A measure of the variability (spread) of
measurements across subjects.
 standard error: The standard deviation of a statistical estimator.
 two-sided test: A test that is non-directional and that leads to a two-
sided P-value.
 variance: A measure of the spread or variability of a distribution,
equaling the average value of the squared difference between
measurements and the population mean measurement.

End of the module Questions

1. Find the median of the set of figures obtained from measuring the
weight to nearest gram of fingerlings: 3, 5, 2, 6, 5, 9, 5, 2, 8, 6
2. Find the mode of the set of figures obtained from measuring the
weight to nearest gram of fingerlings: 3, 5, 2, 6, 5, 9, 5, 2, 8, 6
3. Find the mean of the set of figures obtained from the measure of
the length of fish juvenile: 51.6, 48.7, 50.3, 49.3, 48.9
4. Find the median of the set of figures obtained from the measure of
the length of fish juvenile: 51.6, 48.7, 50.3, 49.3, 48.9
5. The numerical value of a standard deviation can never be
_________.

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

a. Negative
b. Zero
c. Larger than the variance
d. None of the above
6. The average of squared deviations from the arithmetic mean is
known as ___________.
a. Quartile deviation
b. Standard deviation
c. Variance
d. None of the above
7. Which of the following is not a characteristic of a good measure
of dispersion?
a. It should be rigidly defined
b. It should be based on extreme values
c. It should be capable of further mathematical treatment and
statistical analysis
d. None of the above
8. Which of the following cannot be calculated for open-ended
distributions?
a. Standard deviation
b. Mean deviation
c. Range
d. None of the above
9. The statistical tool for the mean of a population used when the
population is normally or approximately normally distributed is?
10. Two plant extracts are claimed to be effective in curing stomach
ulcer were tested on patients. The patients’ reactions to treatment were
recorded in the table below:
EFFICACY

EXTRACTS HELPED HARMED NO

Anona 62 84 EFFECT
24
senegalensis
Bauhinia 34 44 22
Test monandra
the data whether the two extracts have the same effects.

11. The table below is an outcome of a survey of Ahmadu Bello

University Zaria graduates working in Abuja. They were divided into
four groups on the basis of their classes of degree and their income in
practice, ten years after graduation

Income
High Medium Low
Class of degree 22
First 10 10
Second 10 13 7
Third 20 6 6
Pass 5 9 15

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Determine the relationship between the class of degree and their income.

12. The ______ sum of squares measures the variability of the

observed values around their respective treatment means. a.
treatment b. error c. interaction d. total
13. The ________ sum of squares measures the variability of the
sample treatment means around the overall mean. a. treatment b.
error c. interaction d. total
14. If the true means of the k populations are equal, then MSTR/MSE
should be: a. more than 1.00 b. close to 1.00 c. close to 0.00 d.
close to -1.00 e. a negative value between 0 and - 1 f. not enough
information to make a decision
15. If the MSE of an ANOVA for six treatment groups is known, you
can compute a. df1 b. the standard deviation of each treatment
group c. the pooled standard deviation d. b and c e. all answers are
correct
16. To determine whether the test statistic of ANOVA is statistically
significant, it can be compared to a critical value. What two pieces
of information are needed to determine the critical value? a. sample
size, number of groups b. mean, sample standard deviation c.
expected frequency, obtained frequency d. MSTR, MSE

Answers
1. 5
2. 5
3. 49.8
4. 49.5
5. Answer: a
6. Answer: c
7. Answer: d
8. Answer: b
9. t-test
10. Our null hypothesis (Ho): The two plant extracts have the same
effect on the patients. First calculate the expected frequencies.
Helped Harmed No effect Total
A. 62 84 24 17
senegalensis
B. monandra 34 44 22 100
Total 96 128 46 270

Frequencies of each category:

Helped: A. senegalensis: 170 x 96 ÷ 270 = 60.4
B. monandra: 100 x 96 ÷ 270 = 35.6

Harmed: A. senegalensis: 170 x 128 ÷ 270 = 80.4

B. monandra: 100 x 128 ÷270 = 47.4
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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

No effect: A. senegalensis: 170 x 46 ÷ 270 = 29.0

B. monandra: 10 0 x46 ÷ 270 = 17.0

Form a table of expected frequencies.

Helped Harmed No effect

A. senegalensis 60.4 80.6 29.0

B. monandra 35.6 47.4 17.0
Total 96 128 46
χ2 = (62 –60.4)2 + (84 –80.6)2 + …………. (22 –17.0)2 = 2.83
60.4 80.6 17.0
Therefore, χ2 = 2.83
Find the degrees of freedom (DF): Rows (r) = 2; Columns (c) = 3
DF = (r – 1) (c – 1)
= (2 – 1) (3 – 1) = 2
The table χ2 value at DF 2 is 5.99, at α= 0.05
Since our calculated χ2 value (2.83) is less than the χ2 table value (5.99),
it shows that the effect of the extracts is not significant. Therefore, we
accept our Ho i.e the two extracts have the same effect on the patients.

11. First, we state the hypotheses.

1. Null hypothesis (Ho): There is no significant relationship between the

class of degree and income of A.B.U. Zaria graduates in Abuja.
2. Alternative hypothesis (H1): There is significant relationship
between the class of degree and income of A.B.U. Zaria graduates in
Abuja.
Compute the totals of the observed values.

Income
High Medium Low Total
Class of degree 22
First 10 10 42
Second 10 13 7 30
Third 20 6 6 32
Pass 5 9 15 29
Total 57 38 38 133

Compute the expected frequencies.

First – High 42 x 57 / 133 = 18
First - Medium 42 x 38 / 133 = 12
First – Low 42 x 38 / 133 = 12
Second – High 30 x 57 / 133 = 12.9

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Second – Medium 30 x 38 / 133 = 8.6

Second – Low 30 x 38 / 133 = 8.6
Third – High 32 x 57 / 133 = 13.7
Third – Medium 32 x 38 / 133 = 9.1
Third – Low 32 x 38 / 133 = 9.1
Pass – High 29 x 57 / 133 = 12.4
Pass - Medium 29 x 38 / 133 = 8.3
First – Low 29 x 38 / 133 = 8.3

Place the computed expected values in the table of frequencies.

Income
High Medium Low
First 18 12 12
Second 12.9 8.6 8.6
Third 13.7 9.1 9.1
Pass 12.4 8.3 8.3
We can compute the chi square value using the χ2 formular.

χ2 = (22 - 18)2 + (10 -12)2 + (10 –12.9)2……. (15 - 8.3)2 = 19.65

18 12 12.9 8.3
Then determine the degrees of freedom (d.f).
d.f = (column -1)(row -1)
= (3-1)(4-1) = 6
Check the value in the chi square table at df 6 At df 6, the value is 12.59

Conclusion:
Since the calculated value of 19.65 in higher than the table value of
12.59, it shows that the relationship between the class of degree and
income of the A.B.U Zaria graduates in Abuja is significant. Therefore,
we reject our null hypothesis
(Ho) and accept our alternative hypothesis (H1).
12. B
13. A
14. B
15. C
16. A

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Module 3: Application of Biostatistics II

Unit 1: Simple Linear Regression

1.1: Introduction
1.2: Intended Learning Outcomes
1.3: Simple Linear Regression
1.4: Summary
1.5: References/Further Reading/Web Sources
1.6: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

1.1: Introduction

The relationship between two dependable variables is considered in this

unit as simple linear relationship.

1.2: Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, students should be able to:

 understand the principles behind simple linear relationship

1.3: Simple Linear Regression

Regression is defined as a dependent relationship between two or more

variables. Simple in the sense means only two variables are involved.
Linear means the relationship is a straight line. Therefore, simple linear
relation is a straight-line dependent relationship between two variables.
The standard procedure for doing the simple linear regression is to plot
the dependent variable ‘Y’ on the ordinate and the independent variable
‘X’ on the abscissa known as Scattergram. The relationship is described
as the regression of Y on X. There are other kinds of relationships that
can occur between X and Y; if Y varies directly with X, then the
relationship is linear, however, if Y changes with a different unit per unit
change in X is called curvilinear.
In an experiment situation, such perfect relationship between X and Y
does not occur. If the points plotted do not fall in a straight line, then there
is need to construct the line of best fit/regression line. The line of best
fit is defined as the line which best fits a series, passing through the points
in such a way that the summation of the squared deviation between the
points and the line is at minimum. The regression line for a linear
relationship is represented by the equation:
Y = a + bx
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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Where a = intercept at Y
b = slope/gradient/regression coefficient.
∑𝑿∑𝒀
∑ 𝑿𝒀−
𝒏
b= (∑ 𝑿)²
∑ 𝑿𝟐 −
𝒏
a = y – bx
The line that best fit the point in a scatter diagram is called?
In a straight-line equation ‘Y = M + bX’, the ‘b’ denotes?

Self-AssessmentExercises
A scientist was interested in finding out the acute effect of neem leaf dust
(mg/l) on African catfish during the 4 days experimental period and obtained
the following result.
Concentration of neem 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
leaf dust (mg/l)
Cumulative mortality (%) 0.00 30.00 40.00 56.70 63.60 76.70 90.00
Use the data to calculate aforementioned

1.4: Summary

The method of determining the relationship between two dependable

variables was discussed in this Unit. Procedure for the determination of
simple linear regression was determined and learnt

1.5: References/Further Readings/Web Sources

 Ogbeibu, A.E. (2005). Biostatistics: A practical Approach to

Research and Data Handling; First Edition, Mindex Publishing
Company Limited, 263pp.
 Agarwal, B.L (2006). Basic Statistics, Revised Fourth Edition,
Newage International Publishers, 763pp
 Omalu, ICJ and Arimoro, FO (2010). Research Methods and
Analyses, Logicgate Publishers Ilorin, Minna, Kaduna, Nigeria,
276pp
 Murray, R.S. (1972). Theory and Problems of Statistics, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, 340pp
Simple linear regression:
https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/simple-linear-
regression/#:~:text=What%20is%20simple%20linear%20regressi
on,Both%20variables%20should%20be%20quantitative.

What is Simple Linear Regression? | STAT 462

https://online.stat.psu.edu/stat462/node/91/

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

https://www.jmp.com/en_sg/statistics-knowledge-portal/what-is-
regression.html

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=owI7zxCqNY0

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GhrxgbQnEEU

1.6: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

1.
∑𝑿∑𝒀
∑ 𝑿𝒀−
𝒏
b= (∑ 𝑿)²
∑ 𝑿𝟐 −
𝒏
X Y XY X2
0 0 0 0
1 30 30 1
2 40 80 4
3 56.7 170.1 9
4 63.6 254.4 16
5 76.7 383.5 25
6 90 540 36
21 356.7 1458 91

b = (𝟏𝟒𝟓𝟖 − (𝟐𝟏𝒙𝟑𝟓𝟔. 𝟕)/𝟕)/(𝟗𝟏 −

((𝟐𝟏)²)/𝟕)
(𝟏𝟒𝟓𝟖 − (𝟕𝟒𝟗𝟎. 𝟕)/𝟕)/(𝟗𝟏 − 𝟒𝟒𝟏/𝟕)
(𝟏𝟒𝟓𝟖 − 𝟏𝟎𝟕𝟎. 𝟏)/(𝟗𝟏 − 𝟔𝟑)
(𝟑𝟖𝟕. 𝟗)/𝟐𝟖
b=13.85
Y = a + 13.85x
a = y – bx
mean of y = 356.7/7 = 50.96
mean of x = 21/7 = 3
a = 50.96 – 13.85 x 3
a = 50.96 – 41.55
a= 9.41
Y = 9.41 + 13.85x
When x = 6.5
Y = 9.41 + 13.85(6.5)
Y = 9.41 + 90.025
Y = 99.435
When x = -0.5
Y = 9.41 + 13.85(-0.5)
Y = 9.41-6.925
Y= 2.485

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

100

90 y = 13.821x + 9.5357
R² = 0.9662
80

CUMULATIVE MORTALITY (%) 70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
NEEM POWDER (mg/L)

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Unit 2: Simple Linear Correlation

Unit Structure
2.1: Introduction
2.2: Intended Learning Outcomes
2.3: Simple Linear Correlation
2.4: Summary
2.5: References/Further Reading/Web Sources
2.6: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

2.1: Introduction

The relationship between two simultaneously variables is

considered in this unit as simple linear correlation.

2.2: Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, students should be able to:

 understand the principles behind simple linear correlation

2.3: Simple Linear Correlation

Simple linear correlation exists when the two variables changes

simultaneously but they are functionally dependent on each other. To
know whether two of these variables are correlated ‘r’ is calculated. There
are different types of correlation coefficients;
a. Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r): this is used for any bivariate
populations which are normally distributed. The value of r can
range from -1 to 0 to +1. If r is positive, the variables are positively
correlated and if negative they are negatively correlated. Whether
the calculated r is strongly correlated or not depends on the degree
of freedom available, because a change in the degree of freedom
will affect the degree of significance.
(∑ 𝑿)( ∑ 𝒀)
∑ 𝑿𝒀−
𝒏
r= (∑ 𝑿)𝟐 (∑ 𝒀)𝟐
𝟐
√(∑ 𝑿 − )(∑ 𝒀𝟐 − )
𝒏 𝒏
The degree of freedom for correlation is n-2, because on df goes for X
and the other goes for Y variable. Coefficient of determination (r2)
tells the percentage amount of variation due to regression or
correlation. It measures the part due to the dependence of one
variable on the other.

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

b. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient = rs: this is non parametric

rank correlation. The ranking in this test is the same as in other
non-parametric tests.
6 ∑ 𝑑𝑡 2
rs = 1 –( 3 )
𝑛 −𝑛
The values of the two stations can be compared to detect significant
difference by using Mann-Whitney U test which has a similar
approach to the problem and gives entirely equivalent results to the
Wilcoxon two sample test.

The range of values for correlation coefficient is from -1 to +1 that is if

there is
a. Strong positive linear relationship between the variables, the value
or r will be close to +1.
b. Strong negative linear relationship between the variables, the value
of r will be close to -1.
c. No linear relationship between the variables or only a weak
relationship, the value of r will be close to 0.

Figure 6.1: Strength of linear relationships

↑ ↑ ↑
Strong negative No linear relationship (0) Strong Positive
Generally, simple correlation and simple linear regression may be:

1. Positive correlation – when an increase in one variable is

associated to a greater or lesser extent with an increase in the other.
2. Negative correlation – when an increase in one variable is
associated to a greater or lesser extent with a decrease in the other.
3. Perfect correlation – when a change in one variable is exactly
matched by a change in the other variable. If both increase
together, it is perfect positive correlation: if one decreases as
the other increases, it is perfect negative correlation.
4. High correlation – When a change in one variable is almost
exactly matched by a change in the other.
5. Low correlation – when a change in one variable is to a
small extent matched by a change in the other.
6. Zero correlation – when the two variables are not in matched
at all, and there is no relationship between changes in one variable
and changes in the other

SPURIOUS CORRELATION
When interpreting correlation, r, it is important to realize that, there may
be no direct connection at all between highly correlated variables. When

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

this is so, the correction is termed spurious or nonsense correlation. It can

arise in two ways: a). There may be an indirect connection; b) There may
be a series of coincidences.
The statistical techniques that measure the degree/strength of linear
relationship in a bivariate normal distribution is called? If the calculated
‘r; is close to -1, it indicates?
The correlation that is symbolized with ‘r’ is?

Self-Assessment Exercises
1. A scientist was interested in finding out the acute effect of neem leaf dust (mg/l)
on African catfish during the 4 days experimental period and obtained the
following result.
Concentration of neem 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
leaf dust (mg/l)
Cumulative mortality (%) 0.00 30.00 40.00 56.70 63.60 76.70 90.00
Use the data to calculate correlation coefficient
2. The following data of dissolved oxygen values was recorded for two stations of a
River. Use the Spearman’s correlation to determine any relationship between the values
obtained for the two stations.
Station 1 Station 2
7.4 10.4
7.6 10.8
7.9 11.1
7.2 10.2
7.4 10.3
7.1 10.2
7.4 10.7
7.2 10.5
7.8 10.8
7.7 11.2
7.8 10.6
8.3 11.4
7.4 8.6

2.4: Summary

The methods of comparing non dependable simple variables in

both parametric and non-parametric instances were discussed. The Unit
also discussed the methods of determining significant relationship
between two variables that are not necessary dependent.

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

2.5: References/Further Readings/Web Sources

 Ogbeibu, A.E. (2005). Biostatistics: A practical Approach to

Research and Data Handling; First Edition, Mindex Publishing
Company Limited, 263pp.
 Agarwal, B.L (2006). Basic Statistics, Revised Fourth Edition,
Newage International Publishers, 763pp
 Omalu, ICJ and Arimoro, FO (2010). Research Methods and
Analyses, Logicgate Publishers Ilorin, Minna, Kaduna, Nigeria,
276pp
 Murray, R.S. (1972). Theory and Problems of Statistics, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, 340pp
 Helmut F. van Emden.(2008). Statistics for Terrified Biologists.
Blackwell Publishing Limited. USA.

Simple linear correlation

https://www.ndsu.edu/faculty/horsley/Corr_revised.pdf

SIMPLE LINEAR CORRELATION Simple linear correlation ...

https://www.ndsu.edu/faculty/horsley/corr.pdf

Pearson Correlation and Linear Regression

http://sites.utexas.edu/sos/guided/inferential/numeric/bivariate/cor/
https://www.graphpad.com/support/faq/what-is-the-difference-
between-correlation-and-linear-regression/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wHatBwHLrnA

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aztcS-3MwH0

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

2.6: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

1.
X Y XY X2 Y2
0 0 0 0 0
1 30 30 1 900
2 40 80 4 1600
3 56.7 170.1 9 3214.89
4 63.6 254.4 16 4044.96
5 76.7 383.5 25 5882.89
6 90 540 36 8100
21 356.7 1458 91 23742.74

(∑ 𝑿)( ∑ 𝒀)
∑ 𝑿𝒀 −
𝒏
(∑ 𝑿 ) 𝟐 (∑ 𝒀)𝟐
√(∑ 𝑿𝟐 − )(∑ 𝒀𝟐 − )
𝒏 𝒏
𝟐𝟏 𝒙 𝟑𝟓𝟔.𝟕
𝟏𝟒𝟓𝟖−
𝟕
r= (𝟐𝟏)𝟐 (𝟑𝟓𝟔.𝟕)𝟐
√(𝟗𝟏− )(𝟐𝟑𝟕𝟒𝟐.𝟕𝟒− )
𝟕 𝟕
𝟕𝟒𝟗𝟎.𝟕
𝟏𝟒𝟓𝟖−
𝟕
= 𝟒𝟒𝟏 𝟏𝟐𝟕𝟐𝟑𝟒.𝟖𝟗
√(𝟗𝟏− )(𝟐𝟑𝟕𝟒𝟐.𝟕𝟒− )
𝟕 𝟕

𝟏𝟒𝟓𝟖 − 𝟏𝟎𝟕𝟎. 𝟏
√(𝟗𝟏 − 𝟔𝟑)(𝟐𝟑𝟕𝟒𝟐. 𝟕𝟒 − 𝟏𝟖𝟏𝟕𝟔. 𝟒𝟏)
𝟑𝟖𝟕. 𝟗
√(𝟐𝟖)(𝟓𝟓𝟔𝟔. 𝟑𝟑)
𝟑𝟖𝟕. 𝟗
√𝟏𝟓𝟓𝟖𝟓𝟕. 𝟐𝟒

𝟑𝟖𝟕. 𝟗
𝟑𝟗𝟒. 𝟕𝟗
r =0.9825 this implies that it strongly positively correlated
r2 = 0.98252
r2 = 0.9654
interpretation = 96.54% i.e. you are 96.54% sure that the relationship
exist (p<0.05)

2.
Station 1 Station 2 Rank 1 Rank 2 d dt2
7.4(4) 10.4(5) 5.5 5 0.5 0.25
7.6(8) 10.8(9) 8 9.5 -1.5 2.25
7.9 11.1(11) 12 11 1 1
7.2(3) 10.2(2) 2.5 2.5 0 0

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

7.4(5) 10.3(4) 5.5 4 1.5 2.25

7.1(1) 10.2(3) 1 2.5 -1.5 2.25
7.4(6) 10.7(8) 5.5 8 -2.5 6.25
7.2(2) 10.5(6) 2.5 6 -3.5 12.25
7.8(10) 10.8(10) 10.5 9.5 1 1
7.7 11.2(12) 9 12 -3 9
7.8(11) 10.6(7) 10.5 7 3.5 12.25
8.3 11.4(13) 13 13 0 0
7.4(7) 8.6(1) 5.5 1 4.5 20.25
69

6 ∑ 𝑑𝑡 2
rs = 1 –( )
𝑛3 −𝑛
6(69)
rs = 1 –( )
133 −13
390
= 1 –( )
2197 −13
414
= 1 –( )
2184
= 1 – 0.1896
= 0.810
positively correlated
r2 = 0.810 x 0.810 = 0.656 = 65.6% = p>0.05

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Unit 3: Non-Parametric Tests

3.1: Introduction
3.2: Intended Learning Outcomes
3.3: Non-Parametric tests
3.3.1: The sign test
3.3.2: Wilcoxon Signed Rank test
3.3.3: Mann-Whitney test
3.3.4: Kruskal-Wallis Rank test
3.4: Summary
3.5: References/Further Readings/Web Sources
3.6: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

3.1: Introduction

There are five advantages that non parametric methods have over
parametric methods.
a. They can be used to test population when the variable is not
normally distributed.
b. They can be used when the data are nominal or ordinal.
c. Can be used to test hypothesis that do not involve population
parameters.
d. In most cases, computation is easier than in parametric.
e. They are easier to understand.

The disadvantages include;

a. They are less sensitive than in parametric i.e., larger differences
are needed before the null hypothesis can be rejected.
b. They tend to use less information than the parametric tests.
c. They are less efficient than their parametric counterparts when the
assumptions of the parametric are met.

3.2: Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, students should be able to:

 understand the methods and application of sign test.
 Understand the methods and applications of Wilcoxon Signed
Rank Test.
 Understand the methods and applications of Mann-Whitney test
 Understand the methods and applications of Kruskal Wallis Rank
test

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

3.3: Non-Parametric tests

3.3.1: The sign test

The simplest non-parametric test is the sign test for single samples.
It is used to test the value of a median for a specific sample. In using
Sign test, you:
a. Hypothesize the specific value for the median of a population.
b. Select a sample of data and compare each value with the
conjectured median.
c. Assign plus sign if the data value is above the conjectured
median.
d. Assign minus sign if the data value is below the conjecture
median.
e. And zero (0) if it is the same as the conjecture median.
f. Compare the number of plus and minus signs and ignore the
zeros
g. If the null hypothesis (Ho) is true, the number of plus
signs should be approximately equal to the number of minus
signs.
h. But if the Ho is not true, there will be disproportionate
number of plus or minus signs.

3.3.2: Wilcoxon Signed Rank test

This is a paired sample testing by ranks that represents the parametric

counterpart of the paired sample t-test. Both tests can be used to solve the
same kind of problem but the paired sample t-test is more powerful than
the non-parametric test. Wilcoxon signed rank test is used when the
samples are not drawn from normal distribution. In that all observations
are pulled in ascending order of magnitude ignoring the signs and zero
values. The non-zero values are assigned the ranks 1 to n.
Wilcoxon (TI) = m (n+1) ─ T
= (mn + m) - T
Where m= number of ranks with less frequent sign
T= sum of ranks with less frequent sign
n= total number of sample
Test for significance
Note if either T or TI is less than or equal to critical t, reject H0 (Null
hypothesis) . To accept H0 the critical t must be less than both T and TI at
degree of freedom (df) = n.

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

3.3.3: Mann-Whitney test

This is a non-parametric analogue test of the parametric unpaired t-test.

As in all non-parametric tests, the actual measurements are not employed,
instead the ranks of the measurements are used.
U1 = n1n2─ U
U = n1 n2 +𝐧₁((𝐧₁ + 𝟏))/𝟐 – R1
Where; n1 and n2 = total number of observations in group 1 and 2
respectively.
R1 and R2= sum of ranks of group 1 and 2 respectively.
Test of Significance
If U and U1 calculated are both less than U critical, H0 is accepted at df=
Uα(2) n1n2. In checking the accuracy of ranking.
R1+R2 = (𝐍 (𝐍 + 𝟏))/𝟐 = (N2 + N)/2
Where N= total number of observations

3.3.4: Kruskal-Wallis Rank test

This is often called an analysis of variance by ranks. It is a non-parametric

test that can be used in a situation where the single factor is not applicable
(when underlying assumptions are not met) i.e., ni is not the same. The
procedure of ranking is similar to Mann-Whitney test.
𝟏𝟐 𝑹₁²
H= ∑𝐤𝒊=𝟏 − 𝟑 (𝐍 + 𝟏)
𝐍(𝐍+𝟏) 𝒏₁
Where n = number of observations in a sample (group i)
N = ∑𝑘𝑖=1 (total number of observations in all i= 1)
R1 = sum of ranks of ni observation in group i
KRUSKAL WALLIS TEST WITH TIED RANKS
H
Hc =
C
∑𝐓
C= correction factor = 1 −
𝐍³−𝐍
∑T= ∑𝒎 𝒊=𝟏 (𝒕₁³ − 𝒕₁)
Where;
T=number of ties per groupdf =K─1
Note: if K is greater than 3 treatments, the H table cannot be used, it is
therefore, recommended that chi=square at df = k-1 be used to verify Ho.

How many advantages does exist of non-parametric test methods over the
parametric methods?
The group of tests that can be used when data are nominal or ordinal is?
What is parametric test known to compare?

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 Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Self-Assessment Exercises

1. The effect of drugs on the zone of inhibition of bacteria sample is as follows;

X1 X2
54.2 80.3
60.4 99.9
80.5 50.5
49.5 75.5
33.2 60.2
35.5 105.1
20.3 25.4
29.1 19.5
40.8 30.1
33.2 3.4
Calculate the relationship and Prove that Ho should either be accepted or rejected.
2. Consider the height (m) of males and students in Biostatistics II class as provided below, ca
the difference between them and verify the accuracy of the result.
Male Female
7.6 6.9
7.4 6.8
7.3 6.6
7.2 6.5
7.1 6.4
7.0 -
6.7 -

3.4: Summary

This unit dealt with four non-parametric tests, commonly used in

Biostatistics. The methods and principles of four non-parametric tests
were considered in this Unit

3.5: References/Further Readings/Web Sources

 Ogbeibu, A.E. (2005). Biostatistics: A practical Approach to

Research and Data Handling; First Edition, Mindex Publishing
Company Limited, 263pp.
 Agarwal, B.L (2006). Basic Statistics, Revised Fourth Edition,
Newage International Publishers, 763pp

94
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

 Omalu, ICJ and Arimoro, FO (2010). Research Methods and

Analyses, Logicgate Publishers Ilorin, Minna, Kaduna, Nigeria,
276pp
 Murray, R.S. (1972). Theory and Problems of Statistics, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, 340pp

Non-parametric Test (Definition, Methods, Merits ... - Byju's

https://byjus.com/maths/non-parametric-
test/#:~:text=Non%2Dparametric%20tests%20are%20experiment
s,not%20have%20any%20underlying%20population.

Nonparametric Tests - Overview, Reasons to Use, Types

https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/knowledge/other/nonpar
ametric-tests/

Nonparametric Statistics: Overview - Investopedia

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/n/nonparametric-statistics.asp
https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/statistics-
definitions/parametric-and-non-parametric-data/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ftnOBcXtBEQ

https://www.statisticshowto.com/mann-whitney-u-test/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fEobVCV2TJE

https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/statistics-
definitions/kruskal-wallis/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q1D4Di1KWLc

3.6: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

1.
X1 X2 X1 –X2 Ranks of di Signed Rank
54.2 80.3 -26.1 5 -5
60.4 99.9 -39.5 9 -9
80.5 50.5 30 8 +8
49.5 75.5 -26 4 -4
33.2 60.2 -27 6 -6
35.5 105.1 -69.6 10 -10
20.3 25.4 -5.1 1 -1
29.1 19.5 9.6 2 +2

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

40.8 30.1 10.7 3 +3

33.2 3.4 29.8 7 +7
Wilcoxon (T ) = 4(10+1) ─ 20
I

Wilcoxon (TI) = 4(11) ─ 20

Wilcoxon (TI) = 44 ─ 20
Wilcoxon (TI) = 24
= 40+4 -20
= 44 – 20
=24
Then check the Wilcoxon table for significance difference

2.
Male Female Rank male Rank female
7.6 6.9 12 6
7.4 6.8 11 5
7.3 6.6 10 3
7.2 6.5 9 2
7.1 6.4 8 1
7.0 - 7
6.7 - 4
n1=7 n2=5 R1=61 R2=17
Prove to either accept or reject the null hypothesis and verify the
accuracy of the result.
U = n1 n2 +n₁((n₁ + 1))/2 – R1
U = 7x5 +7 ((7 + 1))/2 – 61
U = 35 +7 ((8))/2 - 61
U = 35 +((56))/2 - 61
U = 35 +28 - 61
U = 63 – 61
U=2
U1 = n1n2─ U
U1 =7x5─ 2
35 - 2
U1= 33
R1+R2 = (𝐍 (𝐍 + 𝟏))/𝟐
61+17 = (12 (12 + 1))/2
78 = (12 (13))/2
78 = 156/2
78 = 78

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Unit 4.0: Ecological Statistics

Unit Structure
4.1: Introduction
4.2: Intended Learning Outcomes
4.3: Ecological Indices
4.3.1: Species Richness
4.3.2: Diversity index
4.3.3: Species Evenness
4.3.4: Species Dominance
4.4: Summary
4.5: References/Further Readings/Web Sources
4.6: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

4.1: Introduction

Biological communities vary in the number of species they contain and

the knowledge of this number is important in understanding the structure
of the community.

4.2: Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, students should be able to:

 understand the methods and application of species richness.
 describe the methods and applications of diversity index.
 understand the methods and applications of species evenness
 describe the methods and applications of species dominance

4.3: Ecological Indices

4.3.1: Species Richness

This is the number of species in a community. The total number of species

(S) in a community has been used in most studies as an index of species
richness. This is wrong since S depends on the sample size, the higher the
species richness). However, the following indices are independent of the
sample size, they are based on the relationship S and the total number of
individuals observed (N), which increase with increasing sample size.
Margalef’s index (d) = (S − 1)/(In (N))
Where S = total number of species,
N = total number of individuals

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

In is the natural logarithm

Menhinicks index (D) = S/VN

4.3.2: Diversity index

Species diversity includes both specie richness and evenness.

Communities with large number of species that are evenly distributed are
the most diverse and communities with few species that are dominated by
one species are the least diverse.
Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H): Peet (1974) terms those indices
heterogeneity indices because they take into account both evenness and
species richness to produce a single value. The most widely used measure
of diversity are the information theory indices. Shannon and Wiener
independently derived the function which has become known as Shannon-
Wiener index of diversity.
NLog N−∑si=1 F₁ log F₁
H=
N
CALCULATION OF SIGNIFICANCE DIFFERENCE
Hutcheson (1970) provides methods of calculating ‘t’ to test for
significant difference between samples.
H₁−H₂
t=
√H₁S² −H₂S²
(∑F₁logF₁)²
∑F₁log²F₁−
N
Where S²H =Variance of H =
N²
(F₁logF₁)²
F₁log²F₁ =
F₁
(F₁logF₁)² (∑F₁logF₁)²
−
F₁ N
Where S²H =Variance of H =
N²

4.3.3: Species Evenness

The relative abundance of species is also important. For instance, two

communities may both contain the same number of species but one
community may be dominated by one specie while the other community
may contain large numbers of all species. The relative abundance of rare
and common species is called evenness. Communities dominated by one
or a few species have a low evenness while those that have a more
distribution of species have high evenness. The ratio of the observed
diversity (H) to the maximum diversity (Hmax) is taken as a measure of
evenness (E).
E = H/Hmax = H/(Log S)

4.3.4: Species Dominance

This is the best known of the second group of heterogeneity indices

referred to as measure of dominance. They are weighed towards the

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

abundance of the commonest species. If a community with high diversity

was randomly sampled twice, there is a good chance that the two sample
will contain different species. However, if a low-density community were
sampled twice, it is likely that both of the samples will contain many of
the same species. Simpson (1949) derived a formula based on the
expected outcome of two random samples.
ni(ni−1)
D = ∑s0=1
N(N−1)
Where ni= the number of individuals in the ith species
N= the total number of individuals
The best known of the second group of heterogeneity indices is referred
to as?
Shannon and Wiener independently derived the function which has
become known as?

Self-Assessment Exercises
1. The following data were recorded of the abundance of Bacteria in three stations
of Nile River. Using the data provided, determine all the ecological statistics in
each station.
Species Station 1 Station 2 Station 3
E. coli 21 19 20
Salmonella typhi 8 23 0
Shigella sp 18 7 23
Pseudomonas aureus 17 16 0
Streptococcus sp. 20 24 23
Staphylococcus sp 10 0 12
Klebsilla sp. 14 13 14

4.4: Summary

The Unit dealt with some ecological statistical tools where Five
ecological indices were considered and treated.

4.5: References/Further Readings/Web Sources

 Ogbeibu, A.E. (2005). Biostatistics: A practical Approach to

Research and Data Handling; First Edition, Mindex Publishing
Company Limited, 263pp.
 Agarwal, B.L (2006). Basic Statistics, Revised Fourth Edition,
Newage International Publishers, 763pp

99
Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

 Omalu, ICJ and Arimoro, FO (2010). Research Methods and

Analyses, Logicgate Publishers Ilorin, Minna, Kaduna, Nigeria,
276pp
 Murray, R.S. (1972). Theory and Problems of Statistics, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, 340pp

Ecological statistics – CiteSeerX

https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.177.9
550&rep=rep1&type=pdf#:~:text=Statistical%20ecology%20is%
20the%20subfield,abundance%20and%20distribution%20of%20
organisms.

Environmental and Ecological Statistics | Home - Springer

https://www.springer.com/journal/10651

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GEsGTzOedXw

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w9TvlB4hf7k

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ghhZClDRK_g

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OBfpdM9SJIc

4.6: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

1.
Species Station Station Station
1 2 3
E. coli 21 19 20
Salmonella typhi 8 23 0
Shigella sp 18 7 23
Pseudomonas 17 16 0
aureus
Streptococcus sp. 20 24 23
Staphylococcus sp 10 0 12
Klebsilla sp. 14 13 14
S= 7 6 5
N= 108 102 92
S−1
Margalef’s index (d) =
In (N)
Station 1
7−1
Margalef’s index (d) =
In (108)
6
d=
4.682
d = 1.2815
Station 2
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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

6−1
Margalef’s index (d) =
In (102)
5
d=
4.6240
d =1.0811
Station 3
5−1
Margalef’s index (d) =
In (92)
4
d=
4.5218
d =0.8446
S
Menhinicks index (D) =
VN
Station 1
7
D=
V108
7
D=
10.39
D = 0.6737
Station 2
6
D=
V102
6
D=
10.09
D = 0.5946
Station 3
5
D=
V98
5
D=
9.8995
D = 0.5051

NLog N−∑si=1 F₁ log F₁

H=
N
Station 1
Species Fi Log Fi FiLogFi
E. coli 21 1.3222 27.7662
Salmonella typhi 8 0.9030 7.2240
Shigella sp 18 1.2552 22.5936
Pseudomonas aureus 17 1.2304 20.9168
Streptococcus sp. 20 1.3010 26.0200
Staphylococcus sp 10 1.0000 10.0000
Klebsilla sp. 14 1.1461 16.0454
N=108
S=7 130.5660
NLog N−∑si=1 F₁ log F₁
H=
N
108Log108−130.5660
H=
108
108(2.0334)−130.5660
H=
108
219.6072−130.5660
H=
108

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

89.0412
H=
108
H= 0.8244
Station 2
Species Fi LogFi FiLogFi
E. coli 19 1.2787 24.2953
Salmonella typhi 23 1.3617 31.3191
Shigella sp 7 0.8450 5.9150
Pseudomonas 16 1.2041 19.2656
aureus
Streptococcus sp. 24 1.3802 33.1248
Staphylococcus sp 0 0 0
Klebsilla sp. 13 1.1139 14.4807
N=102 128.4005
S=6

NLog N−∑si=1 F₁ log F₁

H=
N
102Log102−128.4005
H=
102
102(2.0086)−128.4005
H=
102
204.8772−128.4005
H=
102
76.4767
H=
102
H= 𝟎. 𝟕𝟒𝟗𝟕
Station 3
Species Fi LogFi FiLogFi
E. coli 20
Salmonella typhi 0
Shigella sp 23
Pseudomonas aureus 0
Streptococcus sp. 23
Staphylococcus sp 12
Klebsilla sp. 14
S 5
N 92

H = 0.6848
Station 1
Species Fi Log Fi FiLogFi (F₁logF₁)² (F₁logF
/Fi
E. coli 21 1.3222 27.7662 770.9618 36.7124
Salmonella typhi 8 0.9030 7.2240 52.1861 6.5232
Shigella sp 18 1.2552 22.5936 510.4700 28.3594
Pseudomonas aureus 17 1.2304 20.9168 437.5125 25.7360
Streptococcus sp. 20 1.3010 26.0200 677.0404 33.8520
Staphylococcus sp 10 1.0000 10.0000 100.0000 10.000

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Klebsilla sp. 14 1.1461 16.0454 257.4548 18.3896

N=108
S=7 130.5660
F₁log²F₁ = 159.5726
(∑F₁logF₁)²
∑F₁log²F₁−
N
Where S²H =Variance of H =
N²
(130.5660)²
159.5726−
108
Where S²H =Variance of H =
108²
17047.480
159.5726−
108
S²H =Variance of H =
11664
159.5726−157.847
S²H =Variance of H =
11664
1.7255
S²H =Variance of H =
11664
S²H =Variance of H = 0.000147

Station 2
Species Fi LogFi FiLogFi (F₁logF₁)² (
F₁logF₁)²/
Fi
E. coli 19 1.278 24.2953 590.2616 31.0664
7
Salmonella 23 1.361 31.3191 980.8860 42.6472
typhii 7
Shigella sp 7 0.845 5.9150 34.9872 4.9981
0
Pseudomonas 16 1.204 19.2656 371.1633 23.1977
aureus 1
Streptococcus 24 1.380 33.1248 1097.2523 45.7188
sp. 2
Staphylococcu 0 0 0 0.0000 0
s sp
Klebsilla sp. 13 1.113 14.4807 209.6907 16.1300
9
N=10 128.400 163.7582
2 5
S=6
F₁log²F₁ = 163.7582
(∑F₁logF₁)²
∑F₁log²F₁−
N
Where S²H =Variance of H =
N²
(128.4005)²
163.7582−
102
Where S²H =Variance of H =
102²
16486.6884
163.7582−
102
Where S²H =Variance of H =
10404
163.7582−161.6342
Where S²H =Variance of H =
10404

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

2.1240
Where S²H =Variance of H =
10404
S²H =Variance of H = 0.00020415
H₁−H₂
t=
√H₁S² −H₂S²
(∑F₁logF₁)²
∑F₁log²F₁−
N
Where S²H =Variance of H =
N²
(F₁logF₁)²
F₁log²F₁ =
F₁
H₁−H₂
t=
√H₁S² −H₂S²

0.8244−0.7497
t=
√0.000147 − 0.00020415
0.0747
t=
√−0.00005715
0.0747
t=
0.007559
t = 9.8822
Degree of freedom are calculated using the equation
(S²H₁+S²H₂)²
df = (S²H₁)² (S²H₂)²
+
N₁ N₂
(S²H₁+S²H₂)²
df = (S²H₁)² (S²H₂)²
+
N₁ N₂
(0.000147+ 0.00020415)²
df = (0.000147)² (0.00020415)²
+
108 102
(0.00035115)²
df = 0.0000021609 0.00000004168
+
108 102
0.0000001233
df =
0.000000020008 + 0.0000000004086
0.0000001233
df =
0.0000000204166
df = 6.03920 = 6
Evenness

Station 1
0.8244
E=
Log 7
0.8244
E=
0.8450
E = 0.9756
Station 2
H H
E= =
Hmax Log S
0.7497
E=
Log 6
0.7497
E=
0.7781
E = 0.9635
Station 3 ???

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Station 1
Species ni ni-1 ni(ni-1)
E. coli 21 20 420
Salmonella typhi 8 7 56
Shigella sp 18 17 306
Pseudomonas aureus 17 16 272
Streptococcus sp. 20 19 380
Staphylococcus sp 10 9 90
Klebsilla sp. 14 13 182
N=108
S=7 1706
1706
D= ∑s0=1
108(108 −1)
1706
D=
108(107)
1706
D=
11556
D = 0.1476

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Unit 5: Computer approach to Biostatistics

Unit Structure
5.1: Introduction
5.2: Intended Learning Outcomes
5.3: Statistical Software
5.4: Summary
5.5: References/Further Readings/Web Sources
5.6: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

5.1: Introduction

The absence of adequate tools has been, for many years, an obstacle to
the development of Multivariate and Multidimensional analyses as they
were studied only in a theoretical context. Multidimensional analysis may
be defined as a group of techniques that have the aim to visualize, classify
and interpret the data. It tries to underline the latent structure of the data,
removing the redundant information. Multidimensional Statistical
analysis includes: Principal Component Analysis, Correspondence
Analysis, Discriminant Analysis, Canonical Correlation Analysis and
Cluster Analysis.
Simple Correspondence analysis is one of the most known tools for
qualitative data. It studies the relationships between the modalities of two
qualitative variables. Multiple Correspondence Analysis is used when
there are more than 2 qualitative variables where the Simple
Correspondence Analysis is not possible and the relationships between
the characters are studied. Discriminant analysis is used to verify if the
prior classification is confirmed after using the explicative variables. I.e.,
it classifies a new observation in one of the groups. Cluster analysis is a
group of techniques that have the aim to classify observations or
individuals in clusters. The observations in each cluster must be similar
and the clusters must be well separated.

5.2: Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, students should be able to:

 understand the different software for biostatistical analyses

5.3: Statistical Software

Some of the software used for Multidimensional Data Analysis includes:

Excel, SPAD, Xl-stat, SPSS, GraphPad Prism, PSPP. Other software not
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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

only for multidimensional analysis are Matlab, Stata, Eviews, Gauss.

They are not open source and some of them perform only some techniques
of multidimensional analysis.

SPSS is a statistical package developed especially for the social sciences

but it has wide applicability in the areas of biology and agriculture. It
can be used to execute some statistical procedures such as summaries,
custom tables, Anova (Analysis of variance), correlation and regression
analyses, non-parametric tests time series, create charts (Bar, line, Pie,
Area, Histogram, Scatter etc.) and lots more.
The SPSS is a comprehensive package that is command based but
commands list can be generated from menus and interactive operations
are possible.
The MINITAB statistical software provides a wide range of statistical
analysis and graphical capabilities. Like the SPSS, it is also a
comprehensive command based statistical package. MINITAB can be
used for various types of statistical analysis ranging from editing and
manipulating data, basic statistics, arithmetic, regression, Anova, non-
parametric test, exploratory data analysis etc.

The statistical package developed especially for social sciences is?

The statistical software that provides a wide range of statistical analysis
and graphical capabilities is?

Self-Assessment Exercises
1. What is SPSS?
2. Multiple Correspondence Analysis is used when there are more
than……..qualitative variables

5.4: Summary

The different types of biostatistics software were mentioned and

discussed. The unit gave insight into some biostatistics software

5.5: References/Further Readings/Web Sources

 Bailey, N.T.J. (1994). Statistical Methods in Biology. Third

Edition. Cambridge University Press. United Kingdom.
 Bluman, A.G. (2004). Elementary Statistics. A Step by Step
Approach. Fifth Edition. McGraw-Hill Companies Incorporated.

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

London.
 Daniel, W.W. (1995). Biostatistics: a foundation for Analysis in
Health sciences. Sixth Edition. John Wiley and sons Incorporated.
USA.
 Helmut F. van Emden.(2008). Statistics for Terrified Biologists.
Blackwell Publishing Limited. USA.

Biostatistics: A Computing Approach - 1st Edition - Routledge

https://www.routledge.com/Biostatistics-A-Computing-
Approach/Anderson/p/book/9781584888345#:~:text=Biostatistic
s%3A%20A%20Computing%20Approach%20focuses,that%20ca
n%20facilitate%20such%20understanding.

Biostatistics: A Computing Approach (Chapman & Hall ...

https://www.amazon.com/Biostatistics-Computing-Approach-Chapman-
Hall/dp/1584888342

https://www.xlstat.com/en/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4wrtykLDdus

https://www.graphpad.com/series/getting-started/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M0Sl-3eu974

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

5.6: Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

1. SPSS is a statistical package developed especially for the social

sciences but it has wide applicability in the areas of biology and
agriculture. It can be used to execute some statistical procedures such
as summaries, custom tables, Anova (Analysis of variance), correlation
and regression analyses, non-parametric tests time series, create charts
(Bar, line, Pie, Area, Histogram, Scatter etc.) and lots more.

2. two
Glossary
 Data set: A collection of related, discrete items of data that may
be accessed individually or collectively, or managed as a single,
holistic entity. Data sets are generally organized into some formal
structure, often in a tabular format
 nonparametric tests: A test that makes minimal assumptions about
the distribution of the data or about certain parameters of a
statistical model.
 Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r): this is used for any bivariate
populations which are normally distributed.
 regression to the mean: Tendency for a variable that has an extreme
value on its first measurement to have a more typical value on its
second measurement.
 Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient = rs: this is non parametric
rank correlation
 Species richness: The number of species within a region. (A term
commonly used as a measure of species diversity, but technically
only one aspect of diversity.)
 Statistical computing: The collection and interpretation of data
aimed at uncovering patterns and trends. It may be used in
scenarios such as gathering research interpretations, statistical
modeling or designing surveys and studies, and advanced business
intelligence. R is a programming language that's highly compatible
with statistical computing.
 The Shannon evenness index, abbreviated as SEI, provides
information on area composition and richness. It covers the
number of different land cover types (m) observed along the
straight line and their relative abundances (Pi). It is calculated by
dividing the Shannon diversity index by its maximum (h (m)).
Therefore, it varies between 0 and 1 and is relatively easy to
interpret.

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 Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

End of the module Questions

1. The relationship between two simple variables that are dependent
on each other is called?
2. A dependent variable (Y) is the variable in regression that cannot
be?
3. When there are two variables under study the correlation is
termed?
4. The variable that increases with the other variable decrease or vice
versa is called?
5. In a toxicology experiment, hybrid catfish was exposed to acute
concentrations of neem leaf powder as presented in the table
below;
Cumulative 0 20 38 48 60 72 82 90 98 100
Mortality (%)
Conc. of neem 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
powder
(mg/L)
From the table; a. Plot a scattergram b. Calculate the gradient c.
Determine the equation of the relationship
6. In a toxicology experiment, hybrid catfish was exposed to acute
concentrations of neem leaf powder as presented in the table
below;
Cumulative 0 20 38 48 60 72 82 90 98 100
Mortality (%)
Conc. of neem 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
powder
(mg/L)

From the table; a. Pearson correlation and b. Coefficient of determination

7. The following data was obtained from the colony counts of
bacteria in two sampling points.
Station A 3.56 3.67 3.98 3.80 3.76 3.98 2.56 3.23 3.52 4.32 2.67 4.2
(x
10
6
cf
u)
Station B 3.23 3.76 3.09 3.02 3.42 3.23 3.67 3.24 3.34 2.17 3.11 3.1
(x
10
6
cf
u)
Determine the correlation between the sampling points
8. Consider the scores of 22 students in Biostatistics II class thought
by one of the two lecturers A and B but took the same examination.
Lecturer A: A, A, A,B-, B-, B+, C-, C-, C, D Lecturer B: A, A, A,

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

B, B, B+, B-, C, C, C+, C-, D+, D. Test the null hypothesis that the
students performed equally well in the course under both lecturers
and prove the accuracy of the result.
9. A hydrobiologist studying the effluent characteristics of flow
station at different locations collected five effluent samples from
three flow stations for the determination of total hydrocarbon
(THC) concentrations (mg/l). The result of the analysis are given
below.
Location Location Location
A B C
14.6 8.4 6.9
12.1 5.0 7.3
9.6 5.5 5.8
8.2 6.6 4.1
10.2 6.3 5.1

10. A hydrobiologist obtained eight samples of water from each of

four forest ponds and the pH of each water sample was measured.
The results are given below (one of the samples from pond 3 was
lost) H0 = pH is the same in all four ponds. HA = pH is not the same
in all four ponds.

Pond 1 Pond 2 Pond 3 Pond 4

7.68 7.69 7.74 7.71
7.70 7.70 7.75 7.71
7.72 7.71 7.77 7.74
7.73 7.73 7.78 7.79
7.73 7.74 7.80 7.84
7.76 7.74 7.81 7.85
7.78 7.78 7.81 7.81
7.80 7.81 - 7.91
11. Use the appropriate non-parametric test to analyze the effect of
drugs A and B on the zone of inhibition of Salmonella typhi
Drug 54.2 60.4 80.5 49.5 33.2 35.5 20.3 29.1 40.8 33.2 28.9 33.2 32.1
A
Drug 80.3 99.9 50.5 75.5 60.2 105.1 25.4 19.5 30.1 34.4 46.3 49.4 60.1
B
12. Determine and test for the accuracy of your result when evaluating
the differences between the samples of heights (m) of male and female
students in your department as
Male 7.6 7.4 7.3 7.2 7.1 7.0 6.7 8.2 5.6 5.8 8.9
Female 6.9 6.8 6.6 6.5 6.4 6.2 6.9 7.2 6.6 - -
13. Using the appropriate non-parametric test, determine the
possibility that the pH sampled in all the four ponds are the same
Pond 7.68 7.70 7.72 7.73 7.73 7.76 7.78 7.80 7.81 8.23
A

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

Pond 7.69 7.70 7.71 7.73 7.74 7.74 7.78 7.81 7.82 -
B
Pond 7.74 7.75 7.77 7.78 7.80 7.81 7.81 - - -
C
14. Consider the scores of 22 students in Biostatistics II class thought
by one of the two lecturers A and B but took the same examination.
Lecturer A: A, A, A,B-, B-, B+, C-, C-, C, D Lecturer B: A, A, A, B, B, B+,
B-, C, C, C+, C-, D+, D. Test the null hypothesis that the students
performed equally well in the course under both lecturers and prove the
accuracy of the result.
15. Which measurement of species diversity does take into
consideration the number of individuals within a species or population?
16. What type of statistics can MINITAB be used for

Answers
1. Simple linear regression
2. Controlled/Manipulated
3. Simple
4. Negative simple relationship
5.
120
Cumulative Mortality (%)

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Conc. of neem powder (mg/L)

∑𝑿∑𝒀
∑ 𝑿𝒀−
𝒏
b= (∑ 𝑿)²
∑ 𝑿𝟐 −
𝒏
X Y XY X2
0 0 0 0
2 20 40 4
4 38 152 16
6 48 288 36
8 60 480 64
10 72 720 100
12 82 984 144
14 90 1260 196
16 98 1568 256
18 100 1800 324

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

∑ 𝟗𝟎 ∑ 𝟔𝟎𝟖 ∑ 𝟕𝟐𝟗𝟐 ∑ 𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟎

n = 10
(𝟗𝟎)(𝟔𝟎𝟖)
𝟕𝟐𝟗𝟐−
𝟏𝟎
b=5.515
b= (𝟗𝟎)² a = y – bx
𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟎−
𝟏𝟎
𝟕𝟐𝟗𝟐−
𝟓𝟒𝟕𝟐𝟎 mean y = 608/10 = 60.8
𝟏𝟎
b= 𝟖𝟏𝟎𝟎 mean x = 90/10 = 9
𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟎−
𝟏𝟎
𝟕𝟐𝟗𝟐− 𝟓𝟒𝟕𝟐
a = 60.8 – 5.515 (9)
b=
𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟎−𝟖𝟏𝟎
a= 60.8 – 49.636
b=
𝟏𝟖𝟐𝟎 a= 11.164
𝟑𝟑𝟎 Y = 11.164 + 5.515x
b = 5.515
Y = a + bx

6.
X Y XY X2
0 0 0 0
2 20 40 4
4 38 152 16
6 48 288 36
8 60 480 64
10 72 720 100
12 82 984 144
14 90 1260 196
16 98 1568 256
18 100 1800 324
∑ 𝟗𝟎 ∑ 𝟔𝟎𝟖 ∑ 𝟕𝟐𝟗𝟐 ∑ 𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟎
n = 10
(∑ 𝑿)( ∑ 𝒀)
∑ 𝑿𝒀−
𝒏
r= (∑ 𝑿)𝟐 (∑ 𝒀)𝟐
𝟐
√(∑ 𝑿 − )(∑ 𝒀𝟐 − )
𝒏 𝒏

(𝟗𝟎)(𝟔𝟎𝟖)
Y2 𝟕𝟐𝟗𝟐−
𝟏𝟎
0 r= (𝟗𝟎)𝟐 (𝟔𝟎𝟖)𝟐
√(𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟎− )(𝟒𝟕𝟑𝟔𝟎− )
𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎
400 𝟕𝟐𝟗𝟐−
𝟓𝟒𝟕𝟐𝟎
𝟏𝟎
1444 r= 𝟖𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟑𝟔𝟗𝟔𝟔𝟒
√(𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟎− )(𝟒𝟕𝟑𝟔𝟎− )
2304 𝟏𝟎
𝟕𝟐𝟗𝟐− 𝟓𝟒𝟕𝟐
𝟏𝟎

3600 r=
√(𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟎− 𝟖𝟏𝟎)(𝟒𝟕𝟑𝟔𝟎− 𝟑𝟔𝟗𝟔𝟔.𝟒)
5184 r=
𝟏𝟖𝟐𝟎
6724 √(𝟑𝟑𝟎)(𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟗𝟑.𝟔)
𝟏𝟖𝟐𝟎
8100 r=
√𝟑𝟒𝟐𝟗𝟖𝟖𝟖
9604 r=
𝟏𝟖𝟐𝟎
10000 𝟏𝟖𝟓𝟏.𝟗𝟗𝟓𝟕
r = 0.9827
∑ 47360
r2 = 0.98272

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 Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

r2 = 0.9657
7.
Station 1 Station 2 Rank 1 Rank 2 D dt2
3.56 3.23 6 7.5 -1.5 2.25
3.67 3.76 7 13 -6 36
3.98 3.09 10.5 3 7.5 56.25
3.80 3.02 9 2 7 49
3.76 3.42 8 11 -3 9
3.98 3.23 10.5 7.5 3 9
2.56 3.67 1 12 -11 121
3.23 3.24 4 9 -5 25
3.52 3.34 5 10 -5 25
4.32 2.17 13 1 12 144
2.67 3.11 2 4 -2 4
4.21 3.12 12 5 7 49
3.12 3.13 3 6 -3 9
538.5

6 ∑ 𝑑𝑡 2 6(538.5) 3231
rs = 1 –( ) rs = 1 –( ) rs = 1 –( )
𝑛3 −𝑛 133 −13 2197−13
3231
rs = 1 –( ) rs = 1 –1.4794 rs = -0.4794
2184

8
LA LB Rank LA Rank LB
A1 A6 3.5 3.5

A2 A5 3.5 3.5
A3 A4 3.5 3.5
B-11 B10 12 9.5
B-12 B9 12 9.5
B+7 B+8 7.5 7.5
C-18 B-13 19 12
C-19 C15 19 16
C17 C16 16 16
D22 C+14 22.5 14
C-20 19
D+21 21
D23 22.5
n1=10 n2=13 R1=118.5 R2=157.5
U = n1 n2 +n₁((n₁ + 1))/2 – R1
U = 10x13 +10 ((10 + 1))/2 – 118.5
U = 130 +10 ((11))/2 – 118.5
U = 130 +10𝑥 5.5 – 118.5
U = 130 +55 – 118.5
U = 185 – 118.5

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

U = 66.5
U 1 = n 1 n2 ─ U
U1 =10x13─ 66.5
130 -66.5
U1= 63.5
R1+R2 = (𝐍 (𝐍 + 𝟏))/𝟐
118.5+157.5 = (23 (23 + 1))/2
276 = (23 (24))/2
276 = 552/2
276= 276
9
Location Location Location Rank A Rank B Rank C
A B C
14.6 8.4 6.9 15 11 8
12.1 5.0 7.3 14 2 9
9.6 5.5 5.8 12 4 5
8.2 6.6 4.1 10 7 1
10.2 6.3 5.1 13 6 3
R1 = 64 R2= 30 R3= 26
𝟏𝟐 𝑹₁²
H= ∑𝐤𝒊=𝟏 − 𝟑 (𝐍 + 𝟏)
𝐍(𝐍+𝟏) 𝒏₁
𝟏𝟐 𝐤 𝟔𝟒² 𝟑𝟎² 𝟐𝟔²
H= (∑𝒊=𝟏 + + ) − 𝟑 (𝟏𝟓 + 𝟏)
𝟏𝟓(𝟏𝟓+𝟏) 𝟓 𝟓 𝟓
𝟏𝟐 𝐤 𝟒𝟎𝟗𝟔 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝟔𝟕𝟔
H= (∑𝒊=𝟏 + + ) − 𝟑 (𝟏𝟔)
𝟏𝟓(𝟏𝟔) 𝟓 𝟓 𝟓
𝟏𝟐
H= (𝟖𝟏𝟗. 𝟐 + 𝟏𝟖𝟎 + 𝟏𝟑𝟓. 𝟐) − 𝟒𝟖
𝟐𝟒𝟎
H = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 (𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟒. 𝟒) − 𝟒𝟖
H = 𝟓𝟔. 𝟕𝟐 − 𝟒𝟖
H = 𝟖. 𝟕𝟐
10

Pond Pond Pond Pond Rank Rank Rank 3 Rank4

1 2 3 4 1 2
7.681 7.692 7.741 7.716 1 2 13.5* 6*
4
7.703 7.704 7.751 7.717 3.5* 3.5* 16 6*
6
7.728 7.715 7.771 7.741 8 6* 18 13.5*
8 5
7.739 7.731 7.782 7.792 10* 10* 20* 22
1 1 2
7.731 7.741 7.802 7.842 10* 13.5* 23.5* 29
0 2 4 9
7.761 7.741 7.812 7.85 17 13.5* 26.5* 30
7 3 6

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Bio206 Statistics For Agriculture And Biological Sciences

7.781 7.782 7.812 7.812 20* 20* 26.5* 26.5*

9 0 7 8
7.802 7.812 - 7.91 23.5* 26.5* 31
3 5
n=8 n=8 n=7 n=8 R1=9 R2=9 R3=14 R4=16
3 5 4 4

𝟏𝟐 𝑹₁²
H= ∑𝐤𝒊=𝟏 − 𝟑 (𝐍 + 𝟏)
𝐍(𝐍+𝟏) 𝒏₁
𝟏𝟐 𝟗𝟑𝟐 𝟗𝟓𝟐 𝟏𝟒𝟒 𝟏𝟔𝟒𝟐
H= (∑𝐤𝒊=𝟏 + + + ) − 𝟑 (𝟑𝟏 + 𝟏)
𝟑𝟏(𝟑𝟏+𝟏) 𝟖 𝟖 𝟕 𝟖
𝟏𝟐 𝟖𝟔𝟒𝟗 𝟗𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝟐𝟎𝟕𝟑𝟔 𝟐𝟔𝟖𝟗𝟔
H= (∑𝐤𝒊=𝟏 + + + ) − 𝟑 (𝟑𝟐)
𝟑𝟏(𝟑𝟐) 𝟖 𝟖 𝟕 𝟖
𝟏𝟐
H= (𝟏𝟎𝟖𝟏. 𝟏𝟐𝟓 + 𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟖. 𝟏𝟐𝟓 + 𝟐𝟗𝟔𝟐. 𝟐𝟖𝟓 + 𝟑𝟑𝟔𝟐) − 𝟗𝟔
𝟗𝟗𝟐
H = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟗 (𝟖𝟓𝟑𝟑. 𝟓𝟑𝟓) − 𝟗𝟔
H = 𝟏𝟎𝟑. 𝟏𝟕 − 𝟗𝟔
H = 𝟕. 𝟏𝟕𝟎
Groups (M) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Tied Ranks 3.5 6 10 13.5 20 23.5 26.5
3.5 6 10 13.5 20 23.5 26.5
6 10 13.5 20 26.5
13.5 26.5
No. of tied Ranks 2 3 3 4 3 2 4
H
Hc =
C
∑𝐓
C= correction factor = 1 −
𝐍³−𝐍
∑T= ∑𝒎 𝒊=𝟏(𝒕₁³ − 𝒕₁)
Where;
T=number of ties per group
df =K─1

∑T= (𝟐𝟑 − 𝟐𝟏 ) + (𝟑𝟑 − 𝟑𝟏 ) + (𝟑𝟑 − 𝟑𝟏 ) + 𝟒𝟑 − 𝟒𝟏 + 𝟑𝟑 − 𝟑𝟏 +

𝟐𝟑 − 𝟐𝟏 + 𝟒𝟑 − 𝟒𝟏
∑T= 𝟖 − 𝟐 + 𝟐𝟕 − 𝟑 + 𝟐𝟕 − 𝟑 + 𝟔𝟒 − 𝟒 + 𝟐𝟕 − 𝟑 + 𝟖 − 𝟐 + 𝟔𝟒 −
𝟒
∑T = 6 +24 +24 +60 + 24 + 6+60
∑T = 204
𝟐𝟎𝟒
C= correction factor = 1 −
𝟑𝟏³−𝟑𝟏
𝟐𝟎𝟒
C= correction factor = 1 −
𝟐𝟗𝟕𝟗𝟏−𝟑𝟏
𝟐𝟎𝟒
C= correction factor = 1 −
𝟐𝟗𝟕𝟔𝟎
C= correction factor = 1 −𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟖𝟓
C = 0.9932
H
Hc =
C
7.170
Hc =
0.9932

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Hc = 7.219

11
Drug A Drug B X1 –X2 Ranks of Signed
(X1) (X2) (di) di Rank
54.2 80.3 -26.1 8 -8
60.4 99.3 -38.9 12 -12
80.5 50.5 30 11 11
49.5 75.5 -26 7 -7
33.2 60.2 -27 9 -9
35.5 105.1 -69.6 13 -13
20.3 25.4 -5.1 2 -2
29.1 19.5 9.6 3 3
40.8 30.1 10.7 4 4
33.2 34.4 -1.2 1 -1
28.9 46.3 -17.4 6 -6
33.2 49.4 -16.2 5 -5
32.1 60.1 -28 10 -10
Wilcoxon (T ) = m (n+1) ─ T
I

where m= number of ranks with less frequent sign; T= sum of ranks with
less frequent sign; n= total number of sample
TI= 3 (13+1) ─ 18 T I= 3 (14) ─ 18
TI= 42 ─ 18
TI=24

12.
Male Female Rank male Rank female
7.6 6.9 18 10.5
7.4 6.8 17 9
7.3 6.6 16 6.5
7.2 6.5 14.5 5
7.1 6.4 13 4
7.0 6.2 12 3
6.7 6.9 8 10.5
8.2 7.2 19 14.5
5.6 6.6 1 6.5
5.8 - 2
8.9 - 20
n1 = n2 = 9 R1 =140.5 R2 =69.5
11

U = n1 n2 +𝑛₁
(𝑛1+1)
– R1 U1 = 99 – 24.5
2 U1 = 74.5
(11+1)
U = (11)(9) +11 – 140.5
2
12 𝑵 (𝑵+𝟏)
U = 99 +11 – 140.5 R1+R2 =
2 𝟐
U = 99 +11(6) – 140.5
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U = 99 +66 – 140.5 140.5+69.5 =

𝟐𝟎 (𝟐𝟏+𝟏)
𝟐
U = 165 – 140.5 𝟐𝟎 (𝟐𝟏)
U = 24.5 210 =
𝟐
U 1 = n 1 n2 ─ U 210 =
𝟒𝟐𝟎
𝟐
U1 = (11)(9)─ (24.5)
210 = 𝟐𝟏𝟎

13.
Pond Pond Pond Rank Rank B Rank C
A B C A
7.68 7.69 7.74 1 2 11*
7.70 7.70 7.75 3.5* 3.5* 13
7.72 7.71 7.77 6 5 15
7.73 7.73 7.78 8* 8* 17*
7.73 7.74 7.80 8* 11* 19.5*
7.76 7.74 7.81 14 11* 22.5*
7.78 7.78 7.81 17* 17* 22.5*
7.80 7.81 - 19.5* 22.5* -
7.81 7.82 - 22.5* 25 -
8.23 - - 26 - -
R1= R2=105 R3=120.5
125.5
𝟏𝟐 𝑹₁²
H= ∑𝒌𝒊=𝟏 − 𝟑 (𝑵 + 𝟏)
𝑵(𝑵+𝟏) 𝒏₁
Where n = number of observations in a sample (group i)
N = ∑𝑘𝑖=1 (total number of observations in all i= 1)
R1 = sum of ranks of ni observation in group i

𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐𝟓.𝟓² 𝟏𝟎𝟓² 𝟏𝟐𝟎..𝟓²

H= ∑𝒌𝒊=𝟏 + + − 𝟑 (𝟐𝟔 + 𝟏)
𝟐𝟔(𝟐𝟔+𝟏) 𝟏𝟎 𝟗 𝟕
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟓𝟕𝟓.𝟐𝟓 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝟏𝟒𝟓𝟐𝟎.𝟐𝟓
H= ∑𝒌𝒊=𝟏 + + − 𝟑 (𝟐𝟕)
𝟐𝟔(𝟐𝟕) 𝟏𝟎 𝟗 𝟕
𝟏𝟐
H= ∑𝒌𝒊=𝟏 𝟏𝟓𝟕𝟓. 𝟓𝟐𝟓 + 𝟏𝟐𝟐𝟓 + 𝟐𝟎𝟕𝟒. 𝟑𝟐𝟏𝟒 − 𝟑 (𝟐𝟕)
𝟕𝟎𝟐
𝟏𝟐
H= ∑𝒌𝒊=𝟏 𝟒𝟖𝟕𝟒. 𝟑𝟒𝟓 − 𝟖𝟏
𝟕𝟎𝟐
H = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟗𝟒 (4878.345) - 81
H = 𝟖𝟑. 𝟑𝟐𝟐𝟏 − 𝟖𝟏
H = 2.3221

14.
LA LB Rank LA Rank LB
A A 3.5 3.5
A A 3.5 3.5
A A 3.5 3.5
B- B 12 9.5
B- B 12 9.5
B+ B+ 7.5 7.5
C- B- 18 12
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C- C 18 15.5
D C 21.5 15.5
C+ 14
C- 18
D+ 20
D 21.5
n1=9 n2=13 R1=99.5 R2=153.5

U = n1 n2 +𝑛₁
(𝑛1+1)
– R1 U1 = 117 – 62.5
2 U1 = 54.5
(9+1)
U = (9)(13) +9 – 99.5 𝑵 (𝑵+𝟏)
2 R1+R2 =
10 𝟐
U =117 +9 – 99.5 𝟐𝟐 (𝟐𝟐+𝟏)
2 99.5+153.5 =
U = 117 +9(5) – 99.5 𝟐𝟐 (𝟐𝟑)
𝟐

U = 117 +45 – 99.5 253 =

𝟐
U = 162 – 99.5 210 =
𝟓𝟎𝟔

U = 62.5 𝟐
253 = 𝟐𝟓𝟑
U1 = n1n2─ U
U1 = (9)(13)─ (62.5)
15.Species Richness
16.MINITAB can be used for various types of statistical analysis ranging
from editing and manipulating data, basic statistics, arithmetic,
regression, Anova, non-parametric test, exploratory data analysis etc

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