Introduction to computer science by L 2015

Chapter 5
Computer system architecture
Computer system architecture is the discipline that defines the conceptual structure and
functional behavior of a computer system, determining the overall organization, the
attributes of the components parts, and how these parts are combined. It involves
instruction set architecture design, microarchitecture design, logic design and
implementation.
Hierarchical structuring of a computer system Architecture
Actually a computer system composed of many layers of software and hardware. But for
simplicity we see the computer in Abstract way. This avoids details and makes the user
to concern about the outer layer that is easy for the user to communicate with the
computer.
Generally modern computers consist of multi-layers or levels. The following figure
shows the different levels.

Language depends on application program

Application level
7 Hide operational details of lower levels
Machine-independent programming language
6 High-order languages level Program can transfer from one to another comp. easily
Software
level Assembly language
5 Assembly level

4 Operating system level

Masks details of hardware from programmer
and responsible for program creation,
execution, access to I/O and access to a file
3 Machine level
Machine language

2 Micro programming level Basic hardware component

construction and their interaction
Hardware
part 1 Logic gate level
Basic component for
microprogramming
0 Device level Transistors, capacitors & resistors

Fig.The level structure of a typical computer system.

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Logic gates (elements)

In the hierarchical structuring of a computer the logic gate level is above the device level.
These logical elements are primary components of the computer hardware. Given a desired
function, Boolean algebra can be applied to develop a simplified implementation of that
function using interconnection of logical gates.
A gate is an electronic circuit that produces an output signal that is a simple Boolean
operation on its input signals. The basic gates used in digital logic are AND, OR, NOT,
NAND, and NOR. We had also XOR gate for defining Boolean algebra with other gates.
Each gate is defined in three ways: graphical symbols, algebraic notation, and truth table. A
truth table is a table that shows the output of a logical function for all possible
combinations of input values.
Each gate has one/two or more inputs and only one-output signals. The signals are either 0
or 1. When the values at the input are changed, the correct output signal appear almost
instantaneously, delayed by the propagation time of signals through the gate (known as
gate delay)
It is a mathematical abstraction of a physical device to perform the function of a truth table

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Operator Precedence
 Parentheses
 NOT
 AND
 OR

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Boolean algebra
The digital circuitry in digital computers and other digital systems is designed, and its
behavior is analyzed, with the use of mathematical discipline known as Boolean algebra.
The name is in honor of an English mathematician George Boole, who proposed the basic
principles of this algebra in 1854.
This Boolean algebra becomes very convenient in two areas:
 Analysis: It is an economical way of describing the function of digital circuitry.
 Design: given a desired function, Boolean algebra can be applied to develop a
simplified implementation that function.
As any algebra it make use of logical variables, which will have a value true or false (1 or
0), and logical operations.

A Boolean function is described as follows:

F: X Y where X and Y are set of 0’s and 1’s
n
A Boolean function with ‘n’ input variables could operate on 2 possible combinations.
For example:
F(X, Y) =XY+X
G(X, Y, Z) =XY+XYZ+YZ
H(x, y) =x + y = x.y + x.y

There are 3 basic Boolean operators NOT (-), AND (.), OR (+).
Complex logic circuits can be constructed using the basic logic circuits. Any logic circuit
can be represented by a Boolean function and vice versa. Generally before constructing any
logical circuit it has to be simplified based on the rules of Boolean equations in order to
minimize the number of required logical gates.
Rules of the Boolean (equation) operators.
x. 0 =0 x+1=1 Null
x. x =x x+x=x Idempotent
x. x’ =0 x + x’=1 Inverse
x. 1 =x x +o =x Identity
x(x +y)=x x + x. y =x Absorption
x .y =y .x x +y = y +x Commutative

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(x .y) .z =x.(y. z) (x +y) +z= x+(y +z) Associative

X(X’ +Y) = XY X+ X’Y = X + Y Absorbition
x +y z= (x+ y) (x +z) x(y +z) =x y +x z Distributive
x. y = x + y x +y = x. y DeMorgan’s

x=x x =x Double Negative

To construct the logic circuit of a Boolean equation first we have to simplify the Boolean
function using the rules of the operators (theorems)

Construction of logical circuit, logical function and truth table

Any Boolean function can be implemented in electronic form as a network of gates. If you
have the truth table you can generate the Boolean function and you can also use the
Boolean function to construct the logical circuit. The reverse is also possible.

Construction Boolean function and logic circuit from truth table

There are two methods to construct logic function from truth table. These are listed below.
I. SOP (Sum of Product method)
It expresses that the output is 1 if any of the input combinations that produce 1 is true.
i.e.
 Insert a column for the inverse of all the variables
 Find the rows with functional value 1 and variable value one then use them
as an input for an AND operator
 Connect each of them using the OR gate.
II. POS (Product of Sum)
It expresses that the output is 1 if none of the input combinations that produce 0 is 1.
i.e.
 Insert a column for the inverse of all the variables
 Find the rows with functional value 0 and variable value 0 then use them as
an input for an OR operator
 Connect each of them using the AND gate.

See example 1 and 6 below

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Example 1: by using SOP (Sum of Product method)

Logic Equation
 Truth Table to Boolean Function
A B C F F  A B C  A B C  A B C  ABC
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1

How to construct Logic Circuit and truth table from Boolean Expression
Example: Boolean Expression
F = x + y’ z
 Logic Circuit
x
F
y
z
 Truth Table All possible combinations of input variables

X Y Z F

0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

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Determine the Boolean function from logic circuit.

Example 1

Example 2

Example 3

Example 4

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Example 5

Example 6
Construct the Boolean function for the following truth table:
A B C F
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
Solution: - SOP considers row 3, 4, and 7.
F (A, B, C) =ABC + ABC +ABC or
POS considers row 1, 2, 5, 6 and 8.
F (A, B, C) = (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+ B+C)
To construct the logic circuit first simplify the given Boolean function and construct the
network as required using the Boolean function.
Exercise: which method SOP or POS require less number of logical gate to construct logic
circuit?

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Exercise
1. Construct a logical circuit and logical functions using the following truth table
A B F
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 0

2. Construct the logic circuit and truth table of F(x, y) = x +y + x y + ( x+ y) x y

3. Construct the logic circuit and truth table of F(A,B,C,D) = AB + AC + BD + CD

4. Construct the logic circuit and truth table for the following logic expression.
Y = ABCD + ABCD + ABCD and
L = CBA + CBA + CBA + CBA + CBA

5. List the truth table of the function:

F = xy + xy’ + y’z
6. Implement the Boolean function and truth table from the given figure.

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