Introduction to computer science 2008

CHAPTER- 6

DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORKING

6.1 Basic elements of a communication system

Communication is the transfer of information from one place to another. It may be manual – one
person talks to another. Or it may be mechanical or electronic gadget or device. Whatever the
case, the process of communication involves the following three basic components :

 Sender-the component from which information is transferred.

 Receiver –the component to which information is transferred.

 Medium/channel-the component through which information transferred.

6.2 Mode of transmission
The transmission medium may be physical (it connects the transmitter and receivers through
wire) or logical (there are different mode of transmission).

Simplex transmission: - In this transmission, signals are transmitted in only one direction:
One station is transmitter and the other is receiver.
Simplex channels are not often used because it is not possible to send back error(s) or control
signals to transmitter end. Computers rarely use this mode transmission as a receiver cannot send
an acknowledgement signals.
E.g. TV, Radio transmission, door bell etc.

Half-duplex transmission: - Transmission is possible in both directions but only one way
at a time i.e. both stations may transmit, but only one at a time. It is possible to perform error
detection and request the sender to retransmit information that arrived corrupted.A common
situation is for device A, acting as transmitter, to send a series of characters to device B, acting
as receiver. Then A and B simultaneously switch roles and B sends acknowledgement.
E.g. Police radio (wacky talky) or talk back radio

Full-duplex transmission: - In this transmission, signals transmitted in both direction,

both stations may transmit simultaneously. The medium carries signals in both directions at the
same time.
Eg. Telephone

6.3 Data Transmission Channels

A channel is a medium that carries a signal from the transmitter to the receiver. The range of
frequencies that can be transmitted over a transmission medium is called bandwidth of a
channel. The rate of data transmission is directly proportional to the bandwidth.

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There are three types of data transmission channels:-

A/ Narrow-band: - It is the smaller band and has slow data transmission rate.
Example: Telegraph line
B/ Voice- -band: - It is the wider band and has better data transmission rate than the narrow
band. Example, Telephone lines are used for voice-band channel.
C/ Broad-band: - It is the widest band has used to transmit large volume of data with high
speed. Example: circuits, satellite communication and optical fibers are used for broad band
channels.

6.4 Network
What is a Computer Network?
Computer Network is a communication system where a group of Computers and other
devices like printers, scanners, etc are connected by cables and other hardware for the
purpose of sharing resources like hardware, software and exchanging data or information
from one computer to another.

Connection devices: hubs, routers, switches, gateways, bridge etc.

 The advantages /importance of this Networking may be:
 Networks allow efficient management of resources.
 Networks help keep information secure, reliable and update.
 Networks help speed up data, program and peripheral devices sharing.
 Networks facilitate efficient and better communication etc.
 Disadvantages of networks
 Viruses transmission
 Insecurity of information

Types of Networks

Networks are placed under three categories:

 Local Area Network (LAN)

 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Local Area Network (LAN)

 It is a network that is confined to a single location or limited geographical areas

be it a building or building complex. The maximum distance from one end of the
network to another is usually limited by signal strength or the network system
built in time limit for sending and receiving messages through a physical
connection such as cable.

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Examples:
a. Two computers connected by a cable in an office
b. 100s of computers in a corporation

Fig. 4.1 LAN

Wide Area Network (WAN)
 As the advantages of Networking became clear, people thought in terms of expanding
them. LAN could not support the needs of large business and other communities
adequately whose offices and connections were spread over a wide area. This led to
the development of Wide Area Network. Such a Network is spread over cities, states
or countries. Here a physical cable spreading is not possible. So communication in
this Network takes place via telephone lines, satellites, and microwave links.
 Summary : WAN (Wide Area Network)
 No geographical limit.
 Can connect computers and other devices in different parts of
the world.
 Examples:
o A corporation with offices in London & New York
o The Internet

Fig. 4.2 WAN

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 It is located in between LAN and WAN. It may cover an entire city but uses LAN
technology. Cable Television Network distributing signals is an example of MAN.

Whatever the type of the Network, they have the following components and features in
common:
 Servers: Computers that provide shared resources to the Network users.
 Clients: computers that access shared resources provided by servers.
 Media: the way in which computers are connected.
 Resources: files, printers or other items to be used by network users.

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On the basis of functioning of these components Networks can be divided into two broad
categories:
A. Peer-to-Peer network (p-2-p)
B. Client/server based network
A. Peer-to-Peer network
 Each computer is equal on a network.
 They can share the same devices (printers, disk drives etc…) as well as files and
software applications, with another computer on a network.
 The computers perform their activities without relaying on a centralized computer.
 Each computer has equally weighted in terms of their role and responsibility on a
network. And each computer acts as both a client and a server.
 Summary: In peer-to-peer network
 No dedicated servers
 No hierarchy among computers (all are equal, and known as peers)
 Each computer functions as both a client and a server
 No overall network administrator
 Each user determines what data/resources he/she will share
 Typically used for 10 users or less
 Simple, cheap to construct
 Usually no additional software required
Advantages

 It is usually less expensive.

 It is simple to design and maintenance.
Disadvantages

 Decentralized – No central repository for files and applications.

 Security – Does not provide the security available on peer-to-peer.

B. Client/server network

 It is also called a server based network.

 The server act as a central computer and stores the files that need to be shared on
a network. It is optimized to serve requests from network clients.
 A client is any computer on a network that requests the information stored on a
server and the server serves (provides) files and data to the client computers on a
network.
Example: AMU Campus Network
Advantages
 Centralized – Resources and data security are controlled through the server. More over it
offers extensive security.
 Flexibility – New technologies can be easily integrated to the system.

 If a Network has to serve a large number of clients and they are dispersed, a server based

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network is feasible.

 Disadvantages
 High initial expense.
 Maintenance – Large networks will require a staff to ensure efficient operation.
 Dependence – When the server goes down, operations will fail across the network.
Summary: Server-based networks
 Server(s) dedicated to providing particular resources, e.g. File server,
print server, mail server, etc.
 Single administrator to provide security privileges to users
 Typically used for >10 users
 More complex to install & maintain
 Specialized server software required
 The most common type of network

Network Topology

The term network topologyrefers to the shape of how the computers and other network
components are connected to each other. It is the arrangement or physical layout of computers,
cables, and other components on the network. Topology also determines how computers
communicate on the network.

Topology also implies a number of conditions. For example, a particular topology can determine
not only the type of cable used but also how the cable is run through floors and walls. It can also
determine how the computers communicate on the network. Different topologies require
different communication methods.

Determining which topology needs for the network depends on several factors such as:

 Network budget
 Network size
 Level of security required
 Physical layout
 Type of business or organizations etc.

Types of Network topologies:

The most standard or common network topologies are categorized into three:

 Bus topology
 Star topology
 Ring topology
 Hybrid topology : mesh topology

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1. Bus topology

The first type of network topology is called a bus, in which nodes are strung together in a line, as
shown in Figure4.3. Bus topology is commonly used for LANs.

Fig.4.3Bus topology

 A bus topology is also known as linear bus. It consists of several computers attached to a
common cable called the trunk line.
 In this type of topology, data on a network is sent to all the computers on the network.
 Every node uses a common communication link (the trunk, backbone or segment) usually
made from coaxial cable.
 All nodes compete with each other to use the link, if two try to transmit at the same time,
there is a collision.
 The more computers there are on the network, the slower the network will be.
 If 1 computer fails, it does not affect the rest of the network.
 Must have terminators at the ends of the trunk, otherwise signals will bounce back.
 Any break in the trunk will cause the entire network to stop working (there will be un
terminated cables, so signals will bounce, causing all network activity to stop).
 Simple, easy to set up, no extra hardware costs. (e.g. hubs).
 Bus is a passive topology (computers only listen).

Advantages of Bus Topology

- Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
- Requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology
- Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
- Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
- Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
- Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

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2. Star topology
In a star topology, each network node is connected to a central device called a hub or a switch, as
shown in Figure 4.4. Star topologies are also commonly used with LANs.

Fig 4.4 star topology

Signals are transmitted from the sending computer through the hub to all computers on
the network. If a cable in a star network breaks, only the node connected to that cable is isolated
from the network. The other nodes can continue to operate without interruption — unless, of
course, the node that’s isolated because of the break happens to be the file server. The star
network offers the advantage of centralized resources and management. This requires a great
deal of cable in a large network installation (i.e. as each Computer is connected to the hub, this
topology requires a great deal of cabling. Strictly speaking, only networks that use switches have
a true star topology. If the network uses a hub, the network topology has the physical appearance
of a star, but is actually a bus. That’s because when a hub is used, each computer on the network
sees all the packets sent over the network, just like in a bus topology. In a true star topology, as
when a switch is used, each computer sees only those packets that were sent specifically to it, as
well as broadcast packets that were specifically sent to all computers on the network.
Advantages of a Star Topology
- Easy to install and wire.
- No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
- Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.

 If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
 More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the
concentrators.

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Summary: Star topology

 All nodes connect to a central hub.

 Number of links = number of nodes.
 For small networks, only a single hub is required (hubs can have 4, 8, 16
or more connections), larger networks can have multiple hubs.
 Troubleshooting is easy, as entire groups of computers can be taken off
the network by disconnecting their hub.
 If a link fails, only 1 computer will be off the network.
 If the hub fails, the network ceases to operate
 Passive topology.
 Hub transmits messages to all nodes, each computer checks the address on
the message)
3. Ring topology
A third type of network topology is called a ring, shown in Figure 5.5. In a ring topology,
packets are sent around the circle (loop) in one direction from computer to computer. Each
computer looks at each packet to decide whether the packet was intended for it. If not, the packet
is passed on to the next computer in the ring. There is no terminated end. Each computer in the
ring topology can act as a repeater to boost the signal and send it on to the next computer.

Fig 4.5 ring topology

One method of transmitting data around a ring is called token passing. A token is a special series
of bits that travels around a token-ring network. Each network has only one token. The receiving
computer returns a message to the sending computer indicating that the data has been received.

Advantages

 Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the opportunity to
transmit
 Performs better than a star topology under heavy network load
 Can create much larger network using Token Ring
 Does not require network server to manage the connectivity between the computers
 Does not require cabling space-a place for hubs.

Disadvantages

 One malfunctioning workstation or bad port can create problems for the entire network
 Moves, adds and changes of devices can affect the network.

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 Network adapter cards are much more expensive than Ethernet cards and hubs

Summary: Ring topology:

 Each node is connected to exactly 2 other nodes(no central hub)
 Number of links = number of nodes
 Data sent between nodes typically has to travel 2 or more links
 If a link or computer fails, the network will still work, but performance will be
slow because of the extra distance required to travel between nodes.
 Active topology – computers responsible for passing on messages to other
computers

Other topologies

 Mesh topology
 Mesh networks are fully-interconnected, i.e. every node has a link to
every other node
 Number of links L = (N(N-1))/2, where L=Links and
N=Nodes
 Expensive to build, not feasible for large networks
 Fast communication between nodes
 Robust (i.e. if a link fails, the network will still operate)
 Passive topology

Fig 4.6. Mesh topology

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Topology Advantages Disadvantages

Bus - Use of cable is economical. - Network can slow down in heavy

- Media is inexpensive and easy traffic.
to work with. - Problems are difficult to isolate.
- System is simple and reliable. - Cable break can affect many users.
- Bus is easy to extend.

Ring - System provides equal access - Failure of one computer can affect the
for all computers. rest of the network.
- Performance is even despite - Problems are hard to isolate.
many users. - Network reconfiguration disrupts
operation.

Star - Modifying system and adding - If the centralized point fails, the
new computers is easy. network fails.
- Failure of one computer does
not affect the rest of the
network.

Mesh - System provides increased - System is expensive to install because it

redundancy and reliability as uses a lot of cabling.
well as ease of
troubleshooting.

Table 4.1. Advantage and disadvantages of the network topologies

6.5 Internets
Internet is a wide area network, which is the network of networks that provides access to a
vast array of information stored in computer systems throughout the world. Internet has a lot of
services.
 Electronic- Mail (E-mail)
E-mail is one of the most widely used services on the internet, E-mail is easy to send, read,
reply to and manage, and it is fast and convenient. E-mail is also global, allowing messages to
pass from Japan to the U.S in minutes, regardless or the time they were sent. It is much cheaper
to send an e-mail message then a letter, or to make a long distance telephone call. Another
advantage of e-mail is, it is possible to send the same message to any number of individuals as
long as you know their e-mail address.
 World Wide Web (WWW)
Is one of the newest Internet services? The WWW allows you to combine text, a video,
graphics, and even animation to make a document a viewed easy. Links within WWW
documents can take you quickly to other related documents. WWW is a set of sites that you can
go for information. To access the WWW, it is necessary that you run a WWW browser on your
computer.

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Telnet
It is a program that lets you log into a remote computer directly through the Internet and you
can work on that computer.
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
This enables you to examine the files of remote hosts on the Internet and to transfer files b/n
your hosts and the others. Using FTP programs we can upload or download files. But to do this
there should be an admission from the remote computer.
 Video Conferencing
The internet is, in its raw form, communication. Video conferencing means making a
conference on the internet by individuals who live in different locations. The individuals speak
and see each other.
6.5.1 Applications of Internet
As rightly mentioned earlier the Internet was originally meant for research purposes, and now
it has drastically changed for commercial purposes. Due to this drastically change the
applications of Internet are increasing day by day. Following are the few applications of
Internet.
a) Accessing and obtaining Information
The faster growing part of the Internet is the World Wide Web (WWW). The World Wide
Web or simply the Web consists of an interconnected system of sites called Websites. To access
a website, web browser software like Microsoft’s Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator has to
be used. It is very difficult to conceive how much information is available on the web. Any
information can be obtained from the web, say for example, about travel agent, financial
investment groups, restaurant guides, mail-order shopping sites… etc. Online versions of
newspapers and magazines are also available. How to search and find such information?
By using Web search engines information of interest can be obtained. Search engines are
nothing but tools to search and find information from the web. These search engines are
software called ―Spiders‖ to crawl around the Web for searching information.
Examples of some popular search engines are
 Alta vista
 Info seek
 Yahoo

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 Google
b) Communication
The World Wide Web is getting all the headlines, but for many people the main attraction of
Internet is the Electronic Main or E-Mail – the fastest way of sending messages from one user to
another. It hardly takes few fractions of a second to transfer a message. There are several
websites offering this service. For example,
 Yahoo.com
 Hotmail.com
 Rediffmail.com
 Freemail.com
c) Marketing and Business on the Web
Many people are now putting their business online. To do this, one needs to develop a
website with online order forms. This concept is developing very fast day by day. Of course, it
costs money to make more money.

6.6. Hardware Requirements for Networks

In most (Wide Area)Networks, the subnet consists of two distinct components:
 Transmission lines
 Routing Elements
Transmission lines (also called circuits, channels, or trunks) move bits between machines.
The (Routing Elements) Switching Elements are specialized computers used to connect two or
more transmission lines. When data arrive on an incoming line, the switching element must
choose an outgoing line to forward them on. Unfortunately, there is no interchangeable,
especially when discussing hardware on a client/server network. You may notice that the term
client can also refer to software or applications.
Network Medium
Network medium is the general term used to describe all of the cabling and other materials that
can be used to connect a network. The most common network medium is cabling.
Dozens of cable types are available, but only four are in widespread use:
 Coaxial Cables
 Fiber-Optic
 STP (Shielded Twisted-Pair)
 UTP (Unshielded Twisted-Pair)

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But networks are not limited to physical cabling; many wireless media are used as well. These
include Infrared and Laser devices, radio and cellular connections, microwave antennas, and
digital satellites. These media may increase the range of a network, and are often much more
expensive than their physical counterparts, and are susceptible to more types of interference.
Network Interface Card (NIC)
 A NIC is the expansion card that is added to a computer to enable it to communicate on a
network. The NIC translates the signals from the network into a form the computer can
understand and vice versa for outgoing data.
 The NIC connects a computer with the network medium. A NIC can be a standard
expansion card, a PCMCIA card, or even an external device connected through a
communications port (such as a serial or parallel port).
 NIC usually have a memory buffer where information is temporarily stored and is
transmitted to or from the network. This buffer enables the NIC to handle information
bursting and chunking without bogging down the attached computer.
Modem
Modems are the devices used to communicate data over telephone lines. Modems get their name
from their function, Modulation-Demodulation. This function is the translation of digital
computer data into a signal that can be transmitted over a phone line and vice versa. Similar to a
NIC, modems enable computers to communicate over the connection medium of the telephone
system. Networks can be created using modems instead of NICs, but, more often, they are used
to provide temporary connections for remote users.
Hubs:-
Hubs are also called as concentrators.They are network devices that are used to connect multiple
network connections into more manageable configurations. The benefits of hub include the
following:
 Simplification of cabling
 Increased reliability
Trouble shooting is simplified for communication problems.

Hubs can either be simply cable connecting devices or intelligent hubs. Intelligent hubs can
perform additional tasks, such a fault tolerance, remote management, and re-broadcasting. The
term repeater refers to an intelligent hub that can re-send or repeat garbled data.

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Bridges, routers, and gateways are devices that enable one network to communicate or connect
with another network. These specialized devices are required to link networks that use different
connection media, NOS, or platforms. They are also used to link networks located at different
locations, whether in the same building, city, country, or planet.

End of chapter
six

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