AP Assignment
AP Assignment
AP Assignment
What is LASER?
The acronym LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. This device
emits a coherent light beam, meaning that all the waves emitted have the same frequency, phase,
and direction. In contrast to common light, which consists of waves having different frequencies,
LASER light is monochromatic (it consists of only one wavelength) and possesses a high degree of
coherence (the waves are in phase).
The concept of LASERs was first presented by Albert Einstein in 1917 as part of his work on
stimulated emission; however, it wasn't until 1960 that Theodore Maiman demonstrated the first
working laser using a ruby crystal.
The process whereby a LASER produces light is called stimulated emission. The process is as follows:
1. Excitation (Pumping):
A LASER requires a source of energy to lift the atoms or molecules in the lasing medium -
which could be gaseous, liquid or solid-to a higher energy level. The energy source may be
electrical, optical, or chemical. For instance, in gas laser, an electric current is passed
through the gas. This electric current excites the atoms of the gas. In the case of solid-state
lasers like ruby, a flashlamp is typically used to pump the medium with photonic energy.
2. Stimulated Emission:
In an excited state, atoms or molecules have higher energy. In their return to a lower
energy state, excited atoms emit photons. In stimulated emission, that photon with the
right wavelength causes an excited atom to emit a photon of the same wavelength, phase,
and direction.
Applications:
LASERs have an incredibly diverse range of applications across various disciplines. Some of the
major applications include:
1. Medical Applications:
o Surgery:
o Laser Therapy:
Low-intensity LASER therapy is used for pain relief, enhancing wound healing, and
reducing inflammation.
o Diagnostics:
2. Communication:
o Fiber-Optic Communication:
LASERs are used in fiber-optic cables to transmit information over many miles in the
form of pulses of light. It allows for the sending of high-speed internet, telephone,
and television signals.
o Satellite Communication:
LASER beams are used to transfer information in satellite communication over vast
space distances.
3. Industrial Applications:
o Cutting and Welding:
LASERs are used to cut materials such as metal and plastic apart besides being used
for welding because of their precision and ability to focus on specific areas.
LASERs are used for engraving designs or text on materials such as metals, wood,
and plastics.
o Material Processing:
4. Entertainment:
o Light Displays and Projection Devices:
LASERs are often used in concerts, nightclubs, and other performances to create light
displays. They are also used in projectors, such as those in cinemas, to project
images and videos.
LASER technology allows for the reading and writing of data on optical media like
CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs.
LASERs are used in rangefinders to find distances in both military and civilian uses.
o Targeting:
In military operations, LASERs are used to target missiles or aircraft with very high
precision, directing the weapons to their target.
LASERs are exploited for research that requires control of light at the atomic level,
especially in quantum computation and atomic standards for time.
2. Dangers of Nuclear Radiation and How to Protect Yourself from the Irradiation
Nuclear radiation is energy emission from unstable atomic nuclei. Major categories of nuclear
radiation are alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, and neutrons. All of these have specific
features and effects but can potentially cause danger to the living world.
1. Alpha Radiation:
Alpha particles have a large mass and have a positive charge. Although they are unable to
penetrate skin, inhalation, ingestion, or entry through an open wound expose the internal
organs to potential damage from alpha-emitting materials. For example, radon gas is an
alpha emitter, and accumulation in buildings can lead to an increased probability of lung
cancer.
2. Beta Radiation:
Beta particles are more mobile and lighter compared to the alpha particles. They are likely
to penetrate the outer skin, causing radiation burns or other damage to the skin. In addition,
if ingested or inhaled, beta radiation can be destructive to internal body organs.
3. Gamma Radiation:
Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves and like X-rays, highly penetrating. Gamma
radiation is capable of passing across the human body which poses potential damage to
internal tissues and organs. This type of radiation is dangerous because it causes deep tissue
damage and has the risk of generating a new cancer.
4. Neutron Radiation:
Neutron radiation contains free neutrons and is penetrating. Free neutrons ionize atoms
and molecules in the body, thus causing intensive biological effects. Neutron radiation is
commonly experienced in nuclear reactors and certain radio decay processes.
Health Effects:
Radiation Sickness:
A large dose of radiation over a short period can lead to conditions that may include nausea,
vomiting, exhaustion, and eventually death. However, long-term exposure may lead to
cancers like leukemia, lung cancer, or thyroid cancer.
Genetic Mutations:
Radiation could cause changes in the DNA of cells, thus causing genetic diseases that are
passed on to generations for being birth defects.
Cancer:
2. Shielding:
Other forms of radiation can be halted by various types of materials. Paper or clothing are
enough for alpha particles. Beta particles require plastic or glass to be stopped, and gamma
radiation requires lead or concrete layers to be several centimeters thick in order to protect
them.
3. Time:
Greater periods of radiation exposure imply greater dosage. Thus, it is necessary to reduce
the time spent close to radioactive sources. As an example, workers at nuclear power plants
use radiation dosimeters to record the exposure levels over time.
4. Protective Attire:
Wear protective clothing, including lead aprons or suits designed to block radiation, to
minimize exposure. This is especially important for medical workers dealing with X-rays and
radiotherapy.
5. Radiation Detection:
Use radiation detectors (e.g., Geiger counters) to measure radiation levels in the
environment. This helps identify areas with high radiation levels and avoid exposure.
6. Decontamination:
In case of radioactive contamination, wash radioactive particles off your skin immediately
with soap and water. Change clothing and seal contaminated items in plastic bags for proper
disposal.
What is a Camera:
A camera is an optical instrument used to capture images or videos by the recording of light coming
from a specific scene. In the functioning of cameras, light is focused onto a light-sensitive medium,
which may be photographic film or a digital image sensor. Over the years, cameras have come a
long way from basic pinhole mechanisms to advanced digital technologies.
The basic working of a camera is to collect the light from the scene and use it to form an image. The
formed image can be either still photography or a moving video. The created image can be stored
in both digital and photographic films.
Working of a Camera:
Cameras basically operate on the principles of optics and light. Here's a detailed explanation of how
they work:
1. Lens:
The lens is an important component that captures and focuses light from the scene under
observation. It is composed of one or more glass elements, which refract light in a way that
it will create an image on the light-sensitive medium-film or sensor. In addition, the lens can
be adjusted to focus the light, which then produces a sharp image.
2. Aperture:
The aperture is an adjustable opening in the lens that controls how much light enters into
the camera. A wider aperture means a smaller f-number and allows more light into the
camera. Conversely, a smaller aperture with a larger f-number lets less light enter into the
camera. Additionally, the aperture impacts the depth of field, or how much of the scene will
be in focus.
3. Shutter:
A shutter is the mechanism that controls the duration for which the light-sensitive surface is
exposed to light. In traditional cameras, the shutter acts like a mechanical device but in
digital cameras, such shutter is usually controlled electronically. The rate at which the
shutter opens and closes decides the amount of light that hits the sensor or film.
4. Sensor or Film:
In digital cameras, light is captured by a sensor - a CCD or CMOS sensor, which transforms
the light into an electrical signal. Then, the signal is processed to create a digital image. In
film cameras, light interacts with chemicals spread on the photographic film, creating a
chemical change which, thereafter produces a latent image that needs to be developed in a
dark room.
5. Image Processing:
In digital photography, after the sensor has captured the image, the information is
converted into a digital format (usually either JPEG or RAW). The camera's internal
processing unit may apply modifications, such as color correction or noise reduction, before
recording the final image in memory.
6. Storage:
Using memory cards or internal storage, digital images are stored and film images are stored
chemically on the film roll. In digital cameras, the number of images or videos captured will
be determined by storage capacity and the type of memory used: SD card, microSD, etc.
Types of Cameras:
These cameras use a mirror and prism system to direct light from the lens to the viewfinder.
DSLRs offer excellent image quality, along with manual control over settings like aperture,
shutter speed, and ISO. Professionals often use them.
Mirrorless Cameras:
Mirrorless cameras, although they lack the mirror mechanism, are usually smaller in size as
well as lighter compared to DSLRs. They allow high picture quality but are more compact
and suitable both for enthusiasts and professionals.
Point-and-Shoot Cameras:
These cameras are compact and easy to use, with automatic settings for beginners. They
are perfect for everyday use but do not offer the same level of control or quality as DSLRs or
mirrorless cameras.
Smartphones Cameras:
These cameras are built into smartphones and come with advanced features such as multi-
lens imaging, zooming, and image stabilization. Smartphone cameras are portable and ideal
for daily photography with great convenience and ease of use.
Applications of Cameras:
Photography:
Videography:
Filming moving images for movies, television shows, documentaries, or social media
postings.
Security:
Surveillance cameras are used to monitor public areas, homes, and businesses to ensure
safety.
Medical Imaging:
Devices like endoscopes and X-ray machines allow doctors to view the internal organs of
patients.
Scientific Research:
Many scientific disciplines, including astronomy, environmental science, and biology, use
cameras to capture data and images.
Entertainment:
Cameras are used for film and television shows, music videos, and live events, thus
providing the visual content viewed on screens all over the world.