1.

Design the star type of networking that can connect 24

computers using packet tracer. (all required devices should be
included in the design)
a. List all components used to create star type of network
b. Select appropriate media type.
c. Configure ICPIP
A. List of Components Used to Create a Star Type of Network
1. Switch:
 1 x 24-port switch (e.g., Cisco 2960 or similar)

2. Computers:
 24 x PCs (e.g., PC0 to PC23)

3. Cabling:
 Ethernet cables (Straight-through cables for connecting PCs to the switch)

4. Router (optional, for internet access):

 1 x Router (e.g., Cisco 1941 or similar)

5. Server (optional, for services like DHCP, DNS):

 1 x Server (e.g., Generic Server)

B. Select Appropriate Media Type

 Media Type:
 Ethernet Cable: Use Cat5e or Cat6 Ethernet cables for connecting the PCs to the
switch. This is the most common media type for local area networks (LANs) and
supports high-speed data transfer.
C. Configure IP Addresses
1. Setting Up the Switch:
 In Packet Tracer, drag and drop the switch onto the workspace.
 Connect each PC to the switch using straight-through Ethernet cables.
2. Configuring IP Addresses for PCs:
 Click on each PC and go to the "Desktop" tab, then select "IP Configuration".
 Assign IP addresses in the same subnet. For example:
 PC0: IP Address: 192.168.1.2, Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
 PC1: IP Address: 192.168.1.3, Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
 ...
 PC23: IP Address: 192.168.1.25, Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
 Ensure that the first IP address (192.168.1.1) is reserved for the router if you are using
one.
3. Configuring the Router (if included):
 Drag and drop the router onto the workspace.
 Connect the router to the switch using a straight-through Ethernet cable.
 Configure the router's interface:
 Click on the router, go to the "CLI" tab, and enter the following commands:
plaintext

VerifyOpen In EditorRunCopy code

1enable
2configure terminal
3interface GigabitEthernet0/0
4ip address 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0
5no shutdown
6exit
 This sets the router's IP address to 192.168.1.1, which will serve as the default gateway
for all PCs.
4. Testing Connectivity:
 Use the "Command Prompt" on each PC to ping the router (192.168.1.1) and other PCs
to ensure connectivity.
 Example command: ping 192.168.1.1
2. Design client server and peer to peer type of network and explain the basic difference

Client-Server Network Design

Components:
1. Server: A powerful computer that provides resources, services, or data to clients. It can host
applications, databases, and files.
2. Clients: Multiple computers (PCs) that request and use resources from the server.
3. Switch: A network switch to connect all devices.
4. Router: (Optional) For internet access and routing traffic.
5. Cabling: Ethernet cables to connect devices.
Design Steps:
1. Server Setup:

 Use a dedicated server (e.g., a file server or application server).

 Configure the server with necessary services (e.g., file sharing, web hosting).
2. Client Setup:

 Connect multiple PCs to the switch.

 Each client PC will access resources from the server.
3. Network Configuration:

 Assign static IP addresses to the server and dynamic IP addresses to clients (using DHCP if
available).
 Example IP configuration:
 Server: 192.168.1.1
 Clients: 192.168.1.2 to 192.168.1.10
4. Testing:

 Ensure clients can access the server's resources (e.g., shared files).

Peer-to-Peer Network Design

Components:
1. Computers: Multiple PCs that act as both clients and servers.
2. Switch: A network switch to connect all devices.
3. Router: (Optional) For internet access.
4. Cabling: Ethernet cables to connect devices.
Design Steps:
1. PC Setup:

 Each PC is configured to share its resources (files, printers) with other PCs.
 No dedicated server is required; each PC can access resources from any other PC.
2. Network Configuration:

 Assign IP addresses to each PC (static or dynamic).

 Example IP configuration:
 PC1: 192.168.1.2
 PC2: 192.168.1.3
 PC3: 192.168.1.4
 ...
 PC10: 192.168.1.11
3. Testing:

 Ensure that PCs can access shared resources from each other.
 Basic Differences Between Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer
Networks
| Feature | Client-Server Network | Peer-to-Peer Network |
|-----------------------------|------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------
---------| | Architecture | Centralized; relies on a dedicated server. | Decentralized; all
devices are equal. | | Resource Management | Server manages resources and
services. | Each device manages its own resources. | | Scalability | More scalable; can
add more clients easily. | Limited scalability; performance may degrade with more
peers. | | Security | Generally more secure; centralized control. | Less secure; each
device must manage its own security. | | Cost | Higher initial cost due to server
hardware/software. | Lower cost; no need for dedicated server. | | Performance | Better
performance for large networks. | Performance can decrease as more devices are
added. | | Maintenance | Centralized maintenance; easier to manage. | More complex
maintenance; each device must be managed individually. |

1. Communication between a computer and a keyboard involves ________ transmission.

a. Simplex
2. Line coding is the process of converting digital data to a ____________ signal.
a. Digital
3. Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is a _____________ technique.
b. Analog
4. The process-to-process delivery of the entire message is the responsibility of the
_______ layer.
a. Transport
5. A digital signal is a composite analog signal with a/an __________ bandwidth.
b. Finite
6. The physical, data link, and ____________ layers are the network support layers.
a. Network

Differences Between Parallel and Serial Transmission

 Parallel Transmission: In parallel transmission, multiple bits are sent simultaneously over
multiple channels (wires). This allows for faster data transfer rates but is limited by distance and
can suffer from signal degradation and crosstalk.
 Serial Transmission: In serial transmission, bits are sent one after another over a single
channel. This method is slower than parallel transmission but is more reliable over longer
distances and is less susceptible to interference.

2. Differentiate Between TCP/IP Protocol Suite and OSI Model

 TCP/IP Protocol Suite: This is a set of communication protocols used for the Internet and
similar networks. It consists of four layers: Application, Transport, Internet, and Network
Interface. It is more practical and widely used in real-world applications.
 OSI Model: The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a theoretical framework that
standardizes the functions of a telecommunication or computing system into seven layers:
Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data Link, and Physical. It is more of a
conceptual model used for understanding and designing network protocols.

3. Minimum Sampling Rate for a Complex Low-Pass Signal with

200 kHz Bandwidth
According to the Nyquist theorem, the minimum sampling rate must be at least twice the
maximum frequency of the signal to avoid aliasing. Therefore, for a bandwidth of 200
kHz, the minimum sampling rate is:

 Minimum Sampling Rate = 2 × Bandwidth = 2 × 200 kHz = 400 kHz.

4. Bit Rate for Digitizing Human Voice

To digitize the human voice, which typically contains frequencies up to 4000 Hz, we can
use the Nyquist theorem to determine the sampling rate. The minimum sampling rate is
twice the maximum frequency:

 Sampling Rate = 2 × 4000 Hz = 8000 samples/second.

 If each sample is 8 bits, the bit rate can be calculated as:
 Bit Rate = Sampling Rate × Bits per Sample = 8000 samples/second × 8 bits/sample =
64,000 bits per second (or 64 kbps).

5. Two Approaches to Packet-Switching

 Datagram Approach: In this method, each packet is treated independently, and packets can
take different paths to reach the destination. This allows for flexibility and efficient use of
network resources.
 Virtual Circuit Approach: In this method, a pre-established path is created for the packets
before transmission. All packets follow the same path, which can provide more reliable delivery
but may be less efficient in terms of resource usage.
(b) Distinguish Between a Link and a Channel in Multiplexing
 Link: A link refers to a physical connection between two devices in a network, such as a cable
or wireless connection. It can carry multiple signals simultaneously.
 Channel: A channel is a logical division of a link that allows multiple data streams to be
transmitted over the same physical medium. Channels can be created through techniques like
time-division multiplexing (TDM) or frequency-division multiplexing (FDM).

6. Three Techniques of Digital-to-Digital Conversion

1. Line Coding: This technique converts digital data into a digital signal by encoding the data into
a specific format, such as Non-Return to Zero (NRZ) or Manchester encoding.
2. Block Coding: This technique adds redundancy to the data by grouping bits into blocks and
encoding them to ensure error detection and correction.
3. Scrambling: This technique modifies the data to ensure a more uniform distribution of bits,
which helps in reducing DC bias and improving synchronization.

7. Advantages of Dividing an Ethernet LAN with a Bridge

1. Reduced Collision Domains: Bridges divide a network into smaller collision domains, which
reduces the chances of collisions and improves overall network performance.
2. Increased Bandwidth: By segmenting the network, bridges can help distribute traffic more
evenly, allowing for better utilization of available bandwidth.
3. Improved Network Management: Bridges can filter traffic and manage data flow between
segments, making it easier to monitor and control network performance and security.

Transmission Media in a Campus Network

1. Twisted Pair Cable
 Description: Twisted pair cables consist of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted
together. They are commonly used for Ethernet connections. There are two main types:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Most commonly used for local area networks (LANs).
It is cost-effective and supports data rates up to 1 Gbps (Gigabit Ethernet) over short
distances.
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Similar to UTP but includes shielding to reduce
electromagnetic interference (EMI). It is used in environments with high interference.
2. Fiber Optic Cable
 Description: Fiber optic cables use glass or plastic fibers to transmit data as light
signals. They offer high bandwidth and can transmit data over long distances without
significant loss. Fiber optics are immune to electromagnetic interference and are ideal
for backbone connections in a campus network. There are two main types:
 Single-Mode Fiber (SMF): Designed for long-distance communication, allowing a
single light path.
 Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF): Used for shorter distances, allowing multiple light paths.
3. Coaxial Cable
 Description: Coaxial cables consist of a central conductor, an insulating layer, a
metallic shield, and an outer insulating layer. They are less common in modern campus
networks but may still be used for specific applications, such as connecting cable
television or broadband internet services. Coaxial cables can carry high-frequency
signals and are more resistant to interference than twisted pair cables.
4. Wireless (Wi-Fi)
 Description: Wireless transmission uses radio waves to connect devices without
physical cables. Wi-Fi networks are common in campus environments, allowing
students and staff to connect laptops, smartphones, and other devices to the network.
Wireless standards (such as 802.11ac or 802.11ax) determine the speed and range of
the wireless network.
5. Ethernet over Powerline (HomePlug)
 Description: This technology allows network data to be transmitted over existing
electrical wiring. While not as common in campus networks, it may be used in specific
scenarios where running new cabling is impractical. It can provide network access in
areas where traditional Ethernet cabling is not available.
B. Description of Each Network Media
1. Twisted Pair Cable:
 Usage: Commonly used for connecting computers, printers, and other devices to
network switches and routers within buildings.
 Advantages: Cost-effective, easy to install, and sufficient for most local area network
applications.
 Disadvantages: Limited distance (up to 100 meters for Ethernet) and susceptible to
interference, especially in UTP.
2. Fiber Optic Cable:
 Usage: Often used for backbone connections between buildings or for high-speed
connections to data centers and servers.
 Advantages: High bandwidth, long-distance transmission capabilities, and immunity to
electromagnetic interference.
 Disadvantages: More expensive than copper cables and requires specialized
installation and termination equipment.
3. Coaxial Cable:
 Usage: May be used for specific applications like cable TV or broadband internet
access.
 Advantages: Good resistance to interference and can carry high-frequency signals.
 Disadvantages: Bulkier and less flexible than twisted pair cables, and not commonly
used for new installations in LANs.
4. Wireless (Wi-Fi):
 Usage: Provides network access to mobile devices and laptops throughout the campus,
enabling flexibility and mobility.
 Advantages: Easy to deploy, allows for mobility, and can cover large areas without the
need for cabling.
 Disadvantages: Limited range, potential interference from other devices, and security
concerns if not properly secured.
5. Ethernet over Powerline:
 Usage: Used in specific scenarios where traditional cabling is impractical, such as
extending network access to remote areas.
 Advantages: Utilizes existing electrical wiring, making it easy to set up without
additional cabling.
 Disadvantages: Performance can be affected by electrical noise and distance, and it
may not be suitable for high-bandwidth applications.

A. Identify Different Media Types

1. Twisted Pair Cable:
 Description: Look for Ethernet cables (usually with RJ-45 connectors) that connect
computers to switches or routers.
 Identification: Check the cable type; it may be labeled as Cat5e, Cat6, etc.
2. Fiber Optic Cable:
 Description: Look for cables with a thicker, glass or plastic core, often with SC, LC, or
ST connectors.
 Identification: These cables are usually more rigid and may have a protective outer
layer.
3. Coaxial Cable:
 Description: Identify cables with a single copper conductor in the center, surrounded by
insulation and a metallic shield.
 Identification: Coaxial cables are often used for cable TV or broadband connections.
4. Wireless Media:
 Description: Identify wireless access points (APs) or routers that provide Wi-Fi
connectivity.
 Identification: Look for devices that broadcast a Wi-Fi signal, often indicated by
antennas.
B. Search MAC Address of a Device Computer
1. On Windows:
 Open the Command Prompt (cmd).
 Type the command: ipconfig /all
 Look for the "Physical Address" under the network adapter you are using. This is the
MAC address.
2. On macOS:
 Open the Terminal.
 Type the command: ifconfig
 Look for the "ether" line under the active network interface. This is the MAC address.
3. On Linux:
 Open the Terminal.
 Type the command: ifconfig or ip addr
 Look for the "ether" line under the active network interface. This is the MAC address.
 C. Search IP Address of a PC
1. On Windows:
 Open the Command Prompt (cmd).
 Type the command: ipconfig
 Look for the "IPv4 Address" under the network adapter you are using.
2. On macOS:
 Open the Terminal.
 Type the command: ifconfig
 Look for the "inet" line under the active network interface. This is the IP address.
3. On Linux:
 Open the Terminal.
 Type the command: ifconfig or ip addr
 Look for the "inet" line under the active network interface. This is the IP address.
D. Configure TCP/IP Settings Using Four Computers in Star
Topology
1. Set Up the Star Topology:
 Use a switch to connect four computers (PC1, PC2, PC3, PC4) using Ethernet cables.

2. Assign IP Addresses:
 PC1:

 IP Address: 192.168.1.2
 Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
 PC2:
 IP Address: 192.168.1.3
 Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
 PC3:
 IP Address: 192.168.1.4
 Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
 PC4:
 IP Address: 192.168.1.5
 Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
3. Configure TCP/IP Settings:
 On Windows:

 Go to Control Panel > Network and Sharing Center > Change adapter settings.
 Right-click on the network adapter and select "Properties."
 Select "Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4)" and click "Properties."
 Choose "Use the following IP address" and enter the IP address and subnet mask.
 On macOS:
 Go to System Preferences > Network.
 Select the active network interface and click "Advanced."
 Go to the "TCP/IP" tab and set "Configure IPv4" to "Manually." Enter the IP address and
subnet mask.
 On Linux:
 Use the ifconfig command to set the IP address or edit the network configuration files
depending on the distribution.
4. Test Connectivity:
 Use the ping command from each PC to test connectivity to the other PCs and the
switch.
 Example command: ping 192.168.1.3 (from PC1 to PC2).

I. Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives

1. Which of the following is not the layer of TCP/IP protocol? A) Application
Layer B) Session Layer C) Transport Layer D) Internetwork layer
2. Address use 7 bits for the and 24 bits for the portion of the IP address. A)
Class A B) Class B C) Class C D) Class D
3. Addresses are reserved for multicasting. A) Class B B) Class C C) Class D
D) Class E
4. Which of the following is an 802.3u specification? A. 10BASE-F B.
10BASE-T C. 100BASE-TX D. 1000BASE-CX
5. Which of the following is a more appropriate choice for Ethernet
connectivity? A. 10-Mbps Ethernet as a connection between server and LAN
B. Gigabit Ethernet as the link at the access layer to provide good
performance C. Fast Ethernet as a link between the access layer and
distribution layer devices to support the aggregate traffic from each Ethernet
segment on the access link D. 100-Mbps between core switches to provide
greater bandwidth.
BLACKBOXAI

Here are the correct answers to the objective type questions you provided:
1. Which of the following is not the layer of TCP/IP protocol?
B) Session Layer
(The TCP/IP model consists of Application, Transport, Internet, and Network
Interface layers, but does not include a Session layer.)
2. Address use 7 bits for the ________ and 24 bits for the ________ portion of
the IP address.
A) Class A
(Class A addresses use 7 bits for the network portion and 24 bits for the host
portion.)
3. Addresses are reserved for multicasting.
C) Class D
(Class D addresses are used for multicast groups.)
4. Which of the following is an 802.3u specification?
C) 100BASE-TX
(100BASE-TX is the standard for Fast Ethernet, which is defined in the 802.3u
specification.)
5. Which of the following is a more appropriate choice for Ethernet connectivity?
B) Gigabit Ethernet as the link at the access layer to provide good
performance
(Gigabit Ethernet is a suitable choice for providing high performance at the
access layer.)

///////////////////////////////

Browse Animated Visualizations of Different Protocols

1. Use a Web Browser: Open a web browser on a computer connected to the internet in
your lab.
2. Search for Animated Visualizations: You can use search terms like:
 "animated visualizations of network protocols"
 "how TCP/IP works animation"
 "network protocol animations"
 "animated DNS visualization"
3. Recommended Resources:
 YouTube: Search for channels that focus on networking concepts. For example:

 "Computerphile": They have videos explaining various networking concepts.

 "NetworkChuck": Offers engaging explanations of networking protocols.
 Websites:
 Cisco: Cisco often provides educational resources and animations related to
networking protocols.
 Khan Academy: They have sections on computer networking that may include visual
aids.
 GCFGlobal: Offers tutorials on networking concepts with visual aids.
B. Visualize the Working Procedures of DNS
1. Understanding DNS: The Domain Name System (DNS) translates human-readable
domain names (like www.example.com) into IP addresses (like 192.0.2.1) that
computers use to identify each other on the network.
2. Search for DNS Visualizations: Use search terms like:
 "DNS working procedure animation"
 "how DNS works visualization"
 "DNS query process animation"
3. Recommended Resources:
 YouTube: Search for videos that explain DNS. For example:

 "How DNS Works" by Computerphile: This video provides a clear explanation of the
DNS process.
 "DNS Explained" by NetworkChuck: Offers a detailed overview of how DNS
functions.
 Websites:
 Cloudflare: They have a detailed explanation of how DNS works, often with diagrams
and animations.
 DNS Made Easy: This site provides a visual representation of the DNS resolution
process.
Example of DNS Working Procedure
To visualize the working procedure of DNS, here’s a simplified step-by-step explanation:

1. User Enters URL: A user types a URL (e.g., www.example.com) into their web
browser.
2. DNS Query Initiation: The browser checks its local cache to see if it has the IP address
for the domain. If not, it sends a DNS query to a DNS resolver (usually provided by the
ISP).
3. Query to Root DNS Server: The DNS resolver queries a root DNS server to find out
which DNS server is responsible for the top-level domain (TLD) (.com in this case).
4. TLD DNS Server Response: The root server responds with the address of a TLD DNS
server that knows about the domain.
5. Query to Authoritative DNS Server: The resolver then queries the TLD server, which
responds with the address of the authoritative DNS server for the domain.
6. Final Response: The resolver queries the authoritative DNS server, which responds
with the IP address of the requested domain (e.g., 192.0.2.1).
7. Caching: The resolver caches the IP address for future requests and sends it back to
the user's browser.
8. Connection Established: The browser can now connect to the server at the IP address
and retrieve the website
////////////////////////////////

: Perform the following activities .

Task 1: Manual Name Resolution

Manual Name Resolution Before we look at how your computer uses the DNS, we will see how a local
name server resolves a DNS name, i.e., we will interact with remote name servers. To do this exercise,
you will pretend to be the local name server and issue requests to remote name ervers using the dig
tool. Pick a domain name to resolve, such as that of your web server. We will use www.uwa.edu.au. Find
the IP address of one of the root name servers by searching the web. For example, the Wikipedia article
on root name servers includes the IP address of the root name servers a through m. Any one of these
should do, as they hold replicated information. You need this information to begin the name resolution
process, and name servers are provided with it as part of their configuration

Manual Name Resolution

Step 1: Choose a Domain Name

For this exercise, we will use the domain name www.uwa.edu.au.

Step 2: Find the IP Address of a Root Name Server

You can find the IP addresses of root name servers from various sources,
including the Wikipedia article on root name servers. Here are a few examples
of root name server IP addresses:

 A Root Server: 198.41.0.4

 B Root Server: 199.9.14.201
 C Root Server: 192.33.4.12
 D Root Server: 199.7.91.13
 E Root Server: 192.203.230.10
 F Root Server: 192.5.5.241
 G Root Server: 192.112.36.4
 H Root Server: 198.97.190.53
 I Root Server: 192.36.148.17
 J Root Server: 192.58.128.30
 K Root Server: 193.0.14.129
 L Root Server: 199.7.83.42
 M Root Server: 202.12.27.33
For this example, we will use A Root Server with the IP address 198.41.0.4.

Step 3: Use the dig Tool to Resolve the Domain Name

1. Open a Terminal: On your computer, open a terminal or command prompt.

2. Query the Root Name Server: Use the dig command to query the root name
server for the authoritative name servers for the .edu.au domain.

bash

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1dig @198.41.0.4 edu.au NS
This command queries the A root server for the name servers (NS records) of
the edu.au domain.
3. Identify the Name Servers: The output will include a list of name servers for
the edu.au domain. Look for the NS records in the output.
4. Query One of the Name Servers: Choose one of the name servers returned
in the previous step (for example, ns1.edu.au) and query it for the A record
of www.uwa.edu.au.

bash

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1dig @<chosen_name_server> www.uwa.edu.au A
Replace <chosen_name_server> with the actual name server you selected.
5. Retrieve the IP Address: The output will include the A record
for www.uwa.edu.au, which contains the IP address.
Example Commands and Outputs

Here’s an example of what the commands and outputs might look like:

1. Querying the Root Name Server:

bash

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1dig @198.41.0.4 edu.au NS
 Output:

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1; <<>> DiG 9.10.6 <<>> @198.41.0.4 edu.au NS
2; (1 server found)
3;; global options: +cmd
4;; Got answer:
5;; ->>HEADER<<- opcode: QUERY, status: NOERROR, id: 12345
6;; flags: qr rd ra; QUERY: 1, ANSWER: 3, AUTHORITY: 0, ADDITIONAL: 0
7
8;; QUESTION SECTION:
9;edu.au. IN NS
10
11;; ANSWER SECTION:
12edu.au. 86400 IN NS ns1.edu.au.
13edu.au. 86400 IN NS ns2.edu.au.
14edu.au. 86400 IN NS ns3.edu.au.
2. Querying the Chosen Name Server:

bash

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1dig @ns1.edu.au www.uwa.edu.au A
Output:

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1; <<>> DiG 9.10.6 <<>> @ns1.edu.au www.uwa.edu.au A
2; (1 server found)
3;; global options: +cmd
4;; Got answer:
5;; ->>HEADER<<- opcode: QUERY, status: NOERROR, id: 54321
6;; flags: qr rd ra; QUERY: 1, ANSWER: 1, AUTHORITY: 0, ADDITIONAL: 0
7
8;; QUESTION SECTION:
9;www.uwa.edu.au. IN A
10
11;; ANSW
/////////////////////////////////
I. choose the correct answer from the available alternatives 1. Which one of the following is a data link
protocol? A) Point to point protocol B) HDLC C) Ethernet D) all of these answers

57
 2. Data communication system within a building or campus is A) MAN B) LAN C) WAN D) none of these
answers 3. Application layer protocol defines A) types of messages exchanged B) message format, syntax
and semantics C) rules for when and how processes send and respond to messages D) all of these
answers 4. TCP/IP model does not have _________ layer but OSI model have this layer. A) Presentation
layer B) application layer C) both session layer and presentation layer D) session layer 5. Which one of
the following tasks is not done by the data link layer? A) Framing B) channel coding C) flow control D)
error control 6. Data Link Control Protocol (HDLC) is implemented at the _________ A) Data link layer B)
Network layer C) transport layer D) Physical layer

Answeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeer

correct answers to the objective type questions you provided:

1. Which one of the following is a data link protocol?

D) all of these answers
(Point to Point Protocol (PPP), HDLC, and Ethernet are all data link layer protocols.)
2. Data communication system within a building or campus is
B) LAN
(A Local Area Network (LAN) is used for data communication within a limited area, such
as a building or campus.)
3. Application layer protocol defines
D) all of these answers
(Application layer protocols define the types of messages exchanged, message format,
syntax and semantics, and rules for when and how processes send and respond to
messages.)
4. TCP/IP model does not have _________ layer but OSI model has this layer.
C) both session layer and presentation layer
(The TCP/IP model does not have a session layer or a presentation layer, while the OSI
model includes both.)
5. Which one of the following tasks is not done by the data link layer?
B) channel coding
(Channel coding is typically associated with the physical layer, while framing, flow
control, and error control are tasks performed by the data link layer.)
6. Data Link Control Protocol (HDLC) is implemented at the _________
A) Data link layer
(HDLC is a protocol that operates at the data link layer of the OSI model.)
//////////////////////////////

UTP Cable Construction Procedure

 Materials Needed:
 UTP cable (Category 5e or Category 6)
 RJ-45 connectors
 Cable stripper or scissors
 Crimping tool
 Cable tester (optional but recommended)
Step-by-Step Procedure:
1. Strip the Cable Jacket:

 Use a cable stripper or scissors to carefully strip off about 2 inches of the plastic jacket from one
end of the UTP cable.
 Be cautious not to nick or cut into the inner wires, as this can affect the cable's performance. If
you accidentally damage the wires, cut the end off and start over.
2. Spread the Wires:

 Gently spread the individual wires apart while holding onto the base of the jacket with your other
hand. This prevents the wires from untwisting too much.
 Ensure that you only have about 1/2 inch of untwisted wire at the end. If you have more than
that, trim the wires back to maintain the proper specification.
3. Arrange the Wires:

 Depending on whether you are making a straight-through or crossover cable, arrange the wires
according to the T568A or T568B wiring standards. Below are the pinouts for both standards:
T568A Wiring Standard:

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1Pin 1: White/Green
2Pin 2: Green
3Pin 3: White/Orange
4Pin 4: Blue
5Pin 5: White/Blue
6Pin 6: Orange
7Pin 7: White/Brown
8Pin 8: Brown
T568B Wiring Standard:

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1Pin 1: White/Orange
2Pin 2: Orange
3Pin 3: White/Green
4Pin 4: Blue
5Pin 5: White/Blue
6Pin 6: Green
7Pin 7: White/Brown
 8Pin 8: Brown
 For a straight-through cable, use the same wiring standard on both ends (either T568A or
T568B).
 For a crossover cable, use T568A on one end and T568B on the other.
4. Trim the Wires:

 Once the wires are arranged in the correct order, trim them to ensure they are all the same
length, about 1 inch long from the jacket.
5. Insert Wires into RJ-45 Connector:

 Hold the RJ-45 connector with the clip facing you. Carefully insert the wires into the connector,
ensuring that they go all the way to the end and maintain the correct order.
 The jacket should also go into the connector slightly to provide strain relief.
6. Crimp the Connector:

 Use a crimping tool to crimp the RJ-45 connector onto the cable. This will secure the wires in
place and make the electrical connections.
7. Repeat for the Other End:

 If you are making a cable with two ends, repeat steps 1-6 for the other end of the cable.

Testing the Cable

1. Use a Cable Tester:

 After completing the cable, it is advisable to test it using a cable tester. This device checks for
continuity and ensures that the wires are correctly connected.
 Connect one end of the cable to the main unit of the tester and the other end to the remote unit.
Turn on the tester and check the lights. A successful test will show that all pairs are correctly
wired.
2. Connect to a Network:

 Once tested, you can connect the UTP cable to network devices such as switches, routers, or
computers.

Optical Cable Connection (if available)

If you have an optical cable connection available, the procedure for connecting optical
fiber cables is different and involves:

1. Stripping the Fiber Jacket: Use a specialized fiber stripper to remove the outer jacket and
buffer coating.
2. Cleaving the Fiber: Use a cleaver to create a clean cut on the fiber.
3. Attaching Connectors: Use appropriate connectors (like SC, LC, or ST) and a fusion splicer or
mechanical splice to attach the connectors to the fiber.
4. Testing the Fiber: Use a fiber optic tester to check for signal loss and continuity.
//////////////////////////////////////////

Which of the following is not the layer of TCP/IP protocol? A) Application Layer B) Session Layer C)
Transport Layer D) Internetwork layer 2. Address use 7 bits for the and 24 bits for the portion of the IP
address. A) Class A C) Class C B) Class B D) Class D 3. addresses are reserved for multicasting. A)
Class B C) Class D B) Class C D) Class E 4. Which is not the Regional Internet Registers (RIR) of the
following? A) American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) B) Europeans Registry for Internet
Numbers (ERIN) C) Reseaux IP Europeans (RIPE) D) Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC)

5. Which protocol deals with emails A). FTP B). SMTP

72

C). LPD D). X window 6. Which protocol deals with resolving domain names A). X-Window B). SMTP C).
DNS D). FTP 7. Which protocol ensures reliable delivery? A. TCP B. UDP C. Both of above D.
None of above 8. Which protocol uses both TCP and UDP A). FTP B). SMTP C). Telnet D). DNS 9. Which
IP is reserved for loopback testing A) 192.168.0.0 B) 10.255.255.255 C) 255.0.0.0 D) None of above 10.
Which protocol finds the MAC address from IP address? A) SMTP B) ICMP C) ARP D) RARP

Aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaasweeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeer

1. Which of the following is not the layer of TCP/IP protocol?

B) Session Layer
(The TCP/IP model consists of the Application, Transport, Internet, and Network
Interface layers, but does not include a Session layer.)
2. Address use 7 bits for the ________ and 24 bits for the ________ portion of the IP
address.
A) Class A
(Class A addresses use 7 bits for the network portion and 24 bits for the host portion.)
3. ________ addresses are reserved for multicasting.
C) Class D
(Class D addresses are used for multicast groups.)
4. Which is not the Regional Internet Registers (RIR) of the following?
B) Europeans Registry for Internet Numbers (ERIN)
(There is no RIR called "Europeans Registry for Internet Numbers"; the correct term is
"RIPE NCC" for Europe.)
5. Which protocol deals with emails?
B) SMTP
(SMTP, or Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, is used for sending emails.)
6. Which protocol deals with resolving domain names?
C) DNS
(DNS, or Domain Name System, is used to resolve domain names to IP addresses.)
7. Which protocol ensures reliable delivery?
A) TCP
(TCP, or Transmission Control Protocol, ensures reliable delivery of data.)
8. Which protocol uses both TCP and UDP?
D) DNS
(DNS uses both TCP for zone transfers and UDP for standard queries.)
9. Which IP is reserved for loopback testing?
D) None of above
(The loopback address is typically 127.0.0.1.)
10. Which protocol finds the MAC address from IP address?
C) ARP
(ARP, or Address Resolution Protocol, is used to find the MAC address associated with
a given IP address.)
////////////////////////////////////////

1.Connect the Router/Switch using Console Port

2. Assign IP address for five computers manually

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Connect the Router/Switch Using the Console Port

Materials Needed:
 Cisco Router or Switch
 Console Cable: Typically a rollover cable with RJ-45 connectors.
 Terminal Emulator Software: Examples include PuTTY, Tera Term, or HyperTerminal.
Procedure:
1. Physical Connection:

 Connect one end of the console cable to the console port of the router or switch.
 Connect the other end to the serial port of your computer. If your computer does not have a
serial port, you may need a USB-to-serial adapter.
2. Open Terminal Emulator:

 Launch your terminal emulator software.

 Configure the connection settings:
 Connection Type: Serial
 Serial Line: COM1 (or the appropriate COM port for your system)
 Speed (Baud Rate): 9600
 Data Bits: 8
 Parity: None
 Stop Bits: 1
 Flow Control: None
3. Access the Device:

 Click "Open" in your terminal emulator. You should see the router or switch prompt. If it’s a new
device, you may need to press "Enter" to get to the command line.

Step 2: Configure the Router/Switch

Basic Configuration (Router Example):
1. Enter Privileged EXEC Mode:

bash

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1enable
2. Enter Global Configuration Mode:

bash

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1configure terminal
3. Assign an IP Address to the Router's Interface:

 Assuming you are configuring the interface connected to the local network (e.g.,
FastEthernet0/0):
bash

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1interface FastEthernet0/0
2ip address 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0
3no shutdown
4exit
4. Save the Configuration:

bash

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 1write memory
Step 3: Assign IP Addresses to Five Computers Manually
IP Addressing Scheme:
You can use a private IP address range for your computers. Here’s an example
scheme:

 PC1: 192.168.1.2
 PC2: 192.168.1.3
 PC3: 192.168.1.4
 PC4: 192.168.1.5
 PC5: 192.168.1.6
 Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
 Default Gateway: 192.168.1.1 (the router's IP address)
Procedure for Each Computer:
1. Open Network Settings:

 On each computer, go to the network settings. This can usually be found in:
 Windows: Control Panel > Network and Sharing Center > Change adapter settings.
 macOS: System Preferences > Network.
 Linux: Network settings can vary by distribution, but generally found in the system settings.
2. Configure IP Address:

 Right-click on the network adapter (e.g., Ethernet) and select "Properties" (Windows) or
"Advanced" (macOS).
 Select "Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4)" and click "Properties."
 Choose "Use the following IP address" and enter the following details for each computer:
 IP Address: (Use the respective IP address from the scheme above)
 Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
 Default Gateway: 192.168.1.1 (the IP address of your router)
3. Save Settings:

 Click "OK" to save the settings and close the dialog boxes.

Step 4: Verify Connectivity

1. Ping the Router:

 Open the command prompt (Windows) or terminal (macOS/Linux) on each computer.

 Type the command:
 bash

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1ping 192.168.1.1
 You should receive replies from the router if the connection is successful.
2. Ping Other Computers:

 You can also ping other computers using their assigned IP addresses to ensure they can
communicate with each other.
///////////////////////

: Answer the following question

1. Which layers in the Internet model are the network support layers? 2. Which layer in the
Internet model is the user support layer? 3. What is the difference between network
layer delivery and transport layer delivery? 4. List the layers of the Internet model. 5.
What is a peer-to-peer process? 6. How does information get passed from one layer to
the next in the Internet model? 7. What are headers and trailers, and how do they get
added and removed? 8. What are the concerns of the physical layer in the Internet
model? 9. What are the responsibilities of the data link layer in the Internet mode
2. ASSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS

1. Which layers in the Internet model are the network support

layers?
The network support layers in the Internet model are:

 Network Layer: Responsible for routing packets across the network and handling
logical addressing (IP addresses).
 Data Link Layer: Responsible for node-to-node data transfer and handling physical
addressing (MAC addresses) within a local network segment.
 Physical Layer: Responsible for the physical transmission of data over the network
medium, including electrical, optical, or radio signals.
2. Which layer in the Internet model is the user support layer?
The Application Layer is the user support layer in the Internet model. It provides
network services directly to end-user applications and facilitates user interaction with
the network.

3. What is the difference between network layer delivery and

transport layer delivery?
 Network Layer Delivery: This layer is responsible for delivering packets from the
source host to the destination host across multiple networks. It handles routing and
addressing but does not guarantee delivery or order of packets.
 Transport Layer Delivery: This layer is responsible for end-to-end communication
between applications on the source and destination hosts. It ensures reliable delivery (in
the case of TCP) or provides connectionless service (in the case of UDP), managing
flow control, error detection, and retransmission of lost packets.
4. List the layers of the Internet model.
The layers of the Internet model (also known as the TCP/IP model) are:

1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Link Layer (also referred to as the Network Interface Layer or Data Link Layer)
5. What is a peer-to-peer process?
A peer-to-peer (P2P) process refers to a communication model where each participant
(peer) in the network can act as both a client and a server. In this model, peers can
share resources, such as files or processing power, directly with each other without the
need for a centralized server. P2P processes are commonly used in file-sharing
applications and decentralized networks.

6. How does information get passed from one layer to the next in
the Internet model?
Information is passed between layers in the Internet model through a process called
encapsulation and decapsulation:

 Encapsulation: When data is sent from a higher layer to a lower layer, the higher layer
adds a header (and sometimes a trailer) to the data. This process continues down the
layers until the data reaches the physical layer, where it is transmitted over the network.
 Decapsulation: When the data reaches the destination, each layer removes its
corresponding header (and trailer) as the data moves up the layers until it reaches the
application layer.
7. What are headers and trailers, and how do they get added and
removed?
 Headers: Headers are additional information added to the data by each layer of the
Internet model. They contain control information, such as source and destination
addresses, sequence numbers, and protocol information. Headers are added during the
encapsulation process as data moves down the layers and are removed during
decapsulation as data moves up the layers.
 Trailers: Trailers are similar to headers but are added at the end of the data packet.
They often contain error-checking information, such as a Frame Check Sequence
(FCS). Like headers, trailers are added during encapsulation and removed during
decapsulation.
8. What are the concerns of the physical layer in the Internet
model?
The concerns of the physical layer in the Internet model include:

 Transmission Medium: The type of physical medium used for data transmission (e.g.,
copper cables, fiber optics, wireless).
 Signal Encoding: How data is converted into signals for transmission (e.g., electrical
signals, light pulses).
 Data Rate: The speed at which data is transmitted over the medium.
 Physical Topology: The arrangement of devices and connections in the network (e.g.,
star, bus, ring).
 Physical Characteristics: Factors such as voltage levels, timing, and synchronization
of signals.
9. What are the responsibilities of the data link layer in the
Internet model?
The responsibilities of the data link layer in the Internet model include:

 Framing: Dividing the data stream into frames for transmission.

 Physical Addressing: Adding MAC addresses to frames for delivery within a local
network segment.
 Error Detection and Correction: Detecting and correcting errors that may occur during
transmission.
 Flow Control: Managing the rate of data transmission between sender and receiver to
prevent overwhelming the receiver.
 Access Control: Determining how multiple devices share the same physical medium
(e.g., using protocols like CSMA/CD for Ethernet).
/////////////////
1.Assign static IP address for six commuters in windows
2. Configure a dynamic IP addressing in windows.

Assign Static IP Addresses for Six Computers in Windows

Step-by-Step Procedure for Assigning Static IP Addresses
1. Open Network Settings:
 Right-click on the Network icon in the system tray (bottom right corner of the screen).
 Select Open Network & Internet settings.
 Click on Change adapter options.
2. Select the Network Adapter:

 Right-click on the network adapter you want to configure (usually named "Ethernet" or "Wi-Fi")
and select Properties.
3. Select Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4):

 In the Properties window, scroll down and select Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4).
 Click on Properties.
4. Assign a Static IP Address:

 Select the option Use the following IP address.

 Enter the following details for each computer (example IP addresses are provided below):
 IP Address: (e.g., 192.168.1.2 for PC1, 192.168.1.3 for PC2, etc.)
 Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
 Default Gateway: 192.168.1.1 (assuming this is the router's IP address)
 Preferred DNS Server: 192.168.1.1 (or another DNS server, such as 8.8.8.8 for Google DNS)
Example IP Address Assignments:

 PC1:
 IP Address: 192.168.1.2
 PC2:
 IP Address: 192.168.1.3
 PC3:
 IP Address: 192.168.1.4
 PC4:
 IP Address: 192.168.1.5
 PC5:
 IP Address: 192.168.1.6
 PC6:
 IP Address: 192.168.1.7
5. Save Settings:

 Click OK to save the settings, then click Close on the network adapter properties window.
6. Repeat for Each Computer:
 Follow the same steps for each of the six computers, using the respective IP addresses.

Part 2: Configure Dynamic IP Addressing in Windows

Step-by-Step Procedure for Configuring Dynamic IP Addressing (DHCP)
1. Open Network Settings:

 Right-click on the Network icon in the system tray.

 Select Open Network & Internet settings.
 Click on Change adapter options.
2. Select the Network Adapter:

 Right-click on the network adapter you want to configure (usually named "Ethernet" or "Wi-Fi")
and select Properties.
3. Select Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4):

 In the Properties window, scroll down and select Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4).
 Click on Properties.
4. Configure for Dynamic IP Addressing:

 Select the option Obtain an IP address automatically.

 Select the option Obtain DNS server address automatically.
5. Save Settings:

 Click OK to save the settings, then click Close on the network adapter properties window.
6. Verify Dynamic IP Address:

 Open the Command Prompt by typing cmd in the Start menu search and pressing Enter.
 Type the command:
bash

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1ipconfig
 Look for the IPv4 Address under the network adapter. It should show an IP address assigned
by the DHCP server (usually the router).
///////////////////////

Choose the correct answer from the available alternatives

1. Why should the IP addressing scheme be carefully planned and documented? (Choose two.)

A. Improved network performance

B. Easiercontrol of security

C. Easiertroubleshooting

D. Reduction in network traffic

E. Elimination of requirement forsubnetting

2. What would be considered an example of redundancy in network design? (Choose three.)

A. Installation of a switch that functions at both Layer2 and Layer3.

B. Installation of duplicate Layer3 switches in a company network.

C. Installation of a switch with two separate powersupplies.

D. Keeping a spare routerthat has already been properly configured.

E. Installation of multiple high-speed links to the company serverfarm.

3. Which type of traffic should be given the highest priority on a network?

A. Voice

B. SMTP

C. Instant messaging

D. FTP

4. Which planning and design factors would be considered as part of manageability focus when

implementing a small network? (Choose two.)

A. Types of cable runs

B. Prioritization of data traffic

114

C. Upgrades to network devices

D. Numberof interfaces required

E. IP addressing scheme
F. Bandwidth requirement

5. What is true of an application layerservice?

A. Application layerservices provide the human interface.

B. Application layerservices interface with the network and prepare the data fortransfer.

C. Application layerservices include such things as email and web clients.

D. Application layerservices are dependent on the OS vendor.

6. Which network protocol should a network administratoruse to remotely configure a network

device?

A. FTP

B. FTPS

C. HTTPS

D. Telnet

E. SSH

7. What factors should be taken into account when using a protocol analyzerto determine traffic

flow on a network? (Choose two.)

A. Always capture the traffic on the same network segment.

B. Capture traffic during peak utilization times.

C. Capture traffic on different network segments.

D. Capture traffic only during off-peak times.

E. Capture traffic during both peak and off-peak times.

115

8. A key network switch has failed because of excessive humidity. What type of physical threat

caused the problem?

A. Hardware threat

B. Environmental threat

C. Electrical threat

D. Maintenance threat

9. What is network vulnerability?

A. The degree of weakness inherent in a network

B. Tools used to launch attacks against a network

C. Individuals interested and qualified in taking advantage of security weaknesses

D. Ping of death

correct answers to the questions you provided:

1. Why should the IP addressing scheme be carefully planned

and documented? (Choose two.)
A. Improved network performance
C. Easier troubleshooting
(Planning and documenting the IP addressing scheme helps in optimizing network
performance and simplifies troubleshooting when issues arise.)

2. What would be considered an example of redundancy in

network design? (Choose three.)
B. Installation of duplicate Layer 3 switches in a company network.
C. Installation of a switch with two separate power supplies.
D. Keeping a spare router that has already been properly configured.
(Redundancy in network design involves having backup components to ensure network
reliability and availability.)
3. Which type of traffic should be given the highest priority on a
network?
A. Voice
(Voice traffic is sensitive to delays and requires the highest priority to maintain call
quality.)

4. Which planning and design factors would be considered as

part of manageability focus when implementing a small network?
(Choose two.)
C. Upgrades to network devices
E. IP addressing scheme
(Manageability focuses on how easily the network can be maintained and upgraded,
including the IP addressing scheme.)

5. What is true of an application layer service?

C. Application layer services include such things as email and web clients.
(Application layer services provide the interface for applications to communicate over
the network, including services like email and web browsing.)

6. Which network protocol should a network administrator use to

remotely configure a network device?
E. SSH
(SSH, or Secure Shell, is a secure protocol used for remote configuration of network
devices, providing encryption and secure access.)

7. What factors should be taken into account when using a

protocol analyzer to determine traffic flow on a network?
(Choose two.)
B. Capture traffic during peak utilization times.
E. Capture traffic during both peak and off-peak times.
(Capturing traffic during different times helps in understanding the overall traffic patterns
and utilization of the network.)

8. A key network switch has failed because of excessive

humidity. What type of physical threat caused the problem?
B. Environmental threat
(Excessive humidity is considered an environmental threat that can damage electronic
equipment.)
9. What is network vulnerability?
A. The degree of weakness inherent in a network
(Network vulnerability refers to the weaknesses in a network that can be exploited by
attackers.)

/////////////

Identify the following Address Class

Address Class

10.250.1.1 _____

150.10.15.0 _____

192.14.2.0 _____

148.17.9.1 _____

b. Using the IP address and subnet mask shown write out the network address:

1. 188.10.18.2

255.255.0.0 _____________________________

2. 10.10.48.80

255.255.255.0 _____________________________

3. 192.149.24.191

255.255.255.0 _____________________________

4. 150.203.23.19

255.255.0.0_____________________________

5. 10.10.10.10

255.0.0.0 _____________________________

c. Subnetting Number of needed subnets 14

Number of needed usable hosts 14

Network Address 192.10.10.0

Given the above information, compute and write the following

 Address class ___________________________

Default subnet mask ____________________________

Custom subnet mask ____________________________

Total number of subnets ____________________________

129

Total number of host addresses _______________________

Number of usable addresses __________________________

Part A: Identify the Address Class

To identify the class of each IP address, we can use the following criteria:

 Class A: 1.0.0.0 to 126.0.0.0 (First octet: 1-126)

 Class B: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.0.0 (First octet: 128-191)
 Class C: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.0 (First octet: 192-223)
 Class D: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 (Multicast)
 Class E: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255 (Experimental)
Address Class Identification:
| Address | Class | |------------------|-------| | 10.250.1.1 | A | | 150.10.15.0 | B | | 192.14.2.0
| C | | 148.17.9.1 | B |

Part B: Write Out the Network Address

To find the network address, perform a bitwise AND operation between the IP address
and the subnet mask.

1. 188.10.18.2
Subnet Mask: 255.255.0.0
Network Address: 188.10.0.0
2. 10.10.48.80
Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
Network Address: 10.10.48.0
3. 192.149.24.191
Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
Network Address: 192.149.24.0
4. 150.203.23.19
Subnet Mask: 255.255.0.0
Network Address: 150.203.0.0
5. 10.10.10.10
Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0
Network Address: 10.0.0.0
Part C: Subnetting
Given the requirements:

 Number of needed subnets: 14

 Number of needed usable hosts: 14
 Network Address: 192.10.10.0
Compute the Following:
1. Address Class:
Class C (since the first octet is 192)
2. Default Subnet Mask:
255.255.255.0 (Class C default)
3. Custom Subnet Mask:
To accommodate 14 usable hosts, we need at least 4 bits for hosts (2^4 - 2 = 14
usable). This means we can use 2 bits for subnetting (since 2^2 = 4 subnets).

 Custom Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.252 (or /30) for 4 subnets, but we need to adjust for 14
usable hosts.
 Custom Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.240 (or /28) gives us 16 addresses (14 usable).
4. Total Number of Subnets:
With a /28 subnet mask, we can have:

 Total Number of Subnets: 16 (2^2 = 4 subnets, but since we are using 4 bits for hosts, we can
have 16 subnets)
5. Total Number of Host Addresses:

 Total Number of Host Addresses: 16 (2^4 = 16)

6. Number of Usable Addresses:

 Number of Usable Addresses: 14 (16 total - 2 for network and broadcast)

Summary of Part C:
 Address Class: C
 Default Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
 Custom Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.240
 Total Number of Subnets: 16
 Total Number of Host Addresses: 16
 Number of Usable Addresses: 14
////////////////

I. Choose the correct answer from the available alternatives

1. You have a network that needs 29 subnets while maximizing the number of host addresses available
on each subnet. How many bits must you borrow from the host field to provide the correct subnet
mask? A. 2 B. 3 C. 4 D. 5

2. If an Ethernet port on a router were assigned an IP address of 172.16.112.1/25, what would be the
valid subnet address of this host? A. 172.16.112.0 B. 172.16.0.0 C. 172.16.96.0 D.
172.16.255.0

3. You have an interface on a router with the IP address of 192.168.192.10/29. Including the router
interface, how many hosts can have IP addresses on the LAN attached to the router interface? A. 6
B. 8 C. 30 D. 38

4. The network address of 172.16.0.0/19 provides how many subnets and hosts? A.7 subnets, 30 hosts
each B. 8 subnets, 8,190 hosts each

C. 8 subnets, 2,046 hosts each D. 7 subnets, 2,046 hosts each

5. On a VLSM network, which mask should you use on point-to-point WAN links in order to reduce the
waste of IP addresses? A. /27 B. /28 C. 29 D./30

6. To test the IP stack on your local host, which IP address would you ping? A. 127.0.0.0 B.
1.0.0.127 C. 127.0.0.1 D. 127.0.0.25

correct answers to the questions you provided:

1. You have a network that needs 29 subnets while maximizing

the number of host addresses available on each subnet. How
many bits must you borrow from the host field to provide the
correct subnet mask?
C. 4
(2^4 = 16 subnets, which is the closest to 29 subnets while maximizing host addresses.
You would need to borrow 5 bits to get 32 subnets, but that would reduce the number of
hosts per subnet.)

2. If an Ethernet port on a router were assigned an IP address of

172.16.112.1/25, what would be the valid subnet address of this
host?
 A. 172.16.112.0
(A /25 subnet mask means the first 25 bits are the network part, which gives a subnet
address of 172.16.112.0.)

3. You have an interface on a router with the IP address of

192.168.192.10/29. Including the router interface, how many hosts
can have IP addresses on the LAN attached to the router
interface?
A. 6
(A /29 subnet mask provides 8 total addresses (2^3), but 2 addresses are reserved
(network and broadcast), leaving 6 usable addresses.)

4. The network address of 172.16.0.0/19 provides how many

subnets and hosts?
C. 8 subnets, 2,046 hosts each
(A /19 subnet mask allows for 8 subnets (2^3) and each subnet can have 2,046 usable
hosts (2^(32-19) - 2).)

5. On a VLSM network, which mask should you use on point-to-

point WAN links in order to reduce the waste of IP addresses?
D. /30
(A /30 subnet mask provides 4 IP addresses (2 usable), which is ideal for point-to-point
links, minimizing waste.)

6. To test the IP stack on your local host, which IP address would

you ping?
C. 127.0.0.1
(127.0.0.1 is the loopback address used to test the IP stack on the local host.)

///////////////////

1. Define different types of destination addresses

2. Apply Packet Sniffing using WIRESHARK and analyze packet data

Different Types of Destination Addresses

In networking, destination addresses are used to identify where data packets should be
sent. Here are the main types of destination addresses:

1. Unicast Address:
 Definition: A unicast address is a unique identifier for a single network interface. It allows for
one-to-one communication.
 Usage: When a packet is sent to a unicast address, it is delivered to a specific device on the
network. For example, when you send an email to a specific recipient, the email is sent to that
recipient's unique IP address.
2. Broadcast Address:

 Definition: A broadcast address is used to send data to all devices on a local network segment.
 Usage: When a packet is sent to a broadcast address, all devices on the network receive the
packet. For example, in IPv4, the broadcast address for a subnet is typically the highest address
in that subnet (e.g., 192.168.1.255 for the subnet 192.168.1.0/24).
3. Multicast Address:

 Definition: A multicast address is used to send data to a specific group of devices that are part
of a multicast group.
 Usage: Multicast is efficient for one-to-many communication, such as streaming video to
multiple users. For example, in IPv4, multicast addresses range from 224.0.0.0 to
239.255.255.255.
4. Anycast Address:

 Definition: An anycast address is assigned to a group of interfaces, but the data is delivered to
the nearest interface (in terms of routing distance).
 Usage: Anycast is often used in load balancing and redundancy scenarios. For example,
multiple servers can share the same anycast address, and the routing infrastructure will direct
traffic to the closest server.

Applying Packet Sniffing Using Wireshark

Wireshark is a powerful tool for capturing and analyzing network traffic. Here’s how to
use it for packet sniffing and data analysis:

Step 1: Download and Install Wireshark

 Download: Go to the Wireshark website and download the appropriate version for your
operating system.
 Install: Follow the installation instructions.
Step 2: Start Capturing Network Traffic
1. Open Wireshark: Launch the application.
2. Select Network Interface: Choose the network interface you want to monitor (e.g., Ethernet,
Wi-Fi).
3. Start Capture: Click on the shark fin icon (or go to Capture > Start ) to begin capturing
packets.
 Step 3: Analyze Captured Packets
1. View Packet List: As packets are captured, they will appear in a list. Each row represents a
packet.
2. Select a Packet: Click on any packet to view its details in the lower pane.
 Packet Details: This pane shows the protocol layers (e.g., Ethernet, IP, TCP/UDP) and their
respective fields.
 Packet Bytes: This pane displays the raw data of the packet in hexadecimal and ASCII.
Step 4: Use Filters for Specific Analysis
 Display Filters: Use filters to narrow down the packets you want to analyze. For example:
 To filter by IP address: ip.addr == 192.168.1.1
 To filter by protocol: http or tcp
 Apply Filter: Type the filter in the filter bar at the top and press Enter.
Step 5: Export and Save Captured Data
 Save Capture: Go to File > Save As to save the captured packets for later analysis.
Step 6: Use Statistics for Overview
 Statistics Menu: Navigate to Statistics in the menu to view summaries, such as:
 Protocol Hierarchy: Shows the distribution of protocols in the capture.
 Conversations: Displays communication between pairs of devices.
 Endpoints: Lists all devices that participated in the capture.
/////////////////////

Choose the correct answer from the available alternatives

1) Which of the following is a communication standard in LAN-to-WAN connection a) V.35 b) IEEE c)

SONET d) ISDN 2) Which of the following is wrong about PPP a) Connects two geographically separated
distant areas b) Are more expensive than shared services (eg. Frame relay) c) Carrier dedicates specific
bandwidth for line leased by customer d) Is kind of LAN encapsulation method 3) A kind of multiplexing
method where variable time slot is assigned allowing channels to compete for any free slot a) Time
division multiplexing b) Statistical time division multiplexing c) Shared time division multiplexing d)
Space division multiplexing 4) A device used to convert the user data from DTE into a form acceptable
to WAN service provider a) Router b) Modem c) switch d) Terminal computer 5) Which one of the
following is disadvantage of HDLC Unable to provide multi-protocol support a) Only works on Cisco
devices b) Does not support authentication c) All of them are correct

6) While troubleshooting , a router displayed a message on DTE device “Serial x is up,

147
protocol is down”Loop existed in the network a) There is no problem b) Clock rate not specified c) Link
is not working d) Enables to establish, configure and the check the data link connection over PPP
network of WAN Network control protocol(NCP) e) Extensible link control protocol(LCP) f) Frame relay
g) a and b

Here are the correct answers to the questions you provided:

1) Which of the following is a communication standard in LAN-to-

WAN connection?
a) V.35
(V.35 is a standard for connecting data terminal equipment (DTE) to a data circuit-
terminating equipment (DCE) in WAN connections.)

2) Which of the following is wrong about PPP?

d) Is kind of LAN encapsulation method
(PPP, or Point-to-Point Protocol, is primarily used for WAN connections, not as a LAN
encapsulation method.)

3) A kind of multiplexing method where variable time slot is

assigned allowing channels to compete for any free slot.
b) Statistical time division multiplexing
(Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM) assigns time slots dynamically based on
demand, allowing for more efficient use of bandwidth.)

4) A device used to convert the user data from DTE into a form
acceptable to WAN service provider.
b) Modem
(A modem modulates and demodulates signals for transmission over telephone lines or
other media, converting user data into a form suitable for WAN service.)

5) Which one of the following is a disadvantage of HDLC?

c) All of them are correct
(HDLC does have limitations, including a lack of multi-protocol support, and it may not
support authentication, and it is often associated with Cisco devices.)

6) While troubleshooting, a router displayed a message on DTE

device “Serial x is up, protocol is down.”
 c) Link is not working
(This message indicates that the physical link is operational (up), but the data link layer
protocol is not functioning correctly, which often means there is a configuration issue or
a problem with the link itself.)

Perform an initial configuration of a Cisco Catalyst 2960 switch

Step 1: Connect to the Switch

1. Physical Connection:
 Use a console cable (usually a rollover cable) to connect your computer's serial port to
the console port on the switch.
2. Open Terminal Emulator:
 Launch a terminal emulator program (e.g., PuTTY, Tera Term, or HyperTerminal).
 Configure the connection settings:
 Connection Type: Serial
 Serial Line: COM1 (or the appropriate COM port for your system)
 Speed (Baud Rate): 9600
 Data Bits: 8
 Parity: None
 Stop Bits: 1
 Flow Control: None
3. Access the Switch:
 Click "Open" in your terminal emulator. You should see the switch prompt. If it’s a new
device, you may need to press "Enter" to get to the command line.
Step 2: Enter Global Configuration Mode
1. Enter Privileged EXEC Mode:

bash

VerifyOpen In EditorRunCopy code

1enable
2. Enter Global Configuration Mode:

bash

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1configure terminal
 Step 3: Basic Configuration
1. Set the Hostname:

bash

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1hostname Switch1
2. Set the Enable Secret Password:

bash

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1enable secret YourEnablePassword
3. Set the Console Password:

bash

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1line con 0
2password YourConsolePassword
3login
4exit
4. Set the VTY (Telnet/SSH) Password:

bash

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1line vty 0 15
2password YourVTYPassword
3login
4exit
5. Configure the Message of the Day (MOTD):

bash

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1banner motd # Unauthorized access is prohibited! #
Step 4: Configure Management Interface
1. Configure a Management VLAN (usually VLAN 1):

bash

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1interface vlan 1
 2ip address 192.168.1.2 255.255.255.0
3no shutdown
4exit
2. Set the Default Gateway:

bash

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1ip default-gateway 192.168.1.1
Step 5: Save the Configuration
1. Save the Configuration to NVRAM:
bash

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1write memory
or
bash

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1copy running-config startup-config
Step 6: Verify Configuration
1. Show the Running Configuration:

bash

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1show running-config
2. Show VLANs:

bash

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1show vlan brief
3. Show IP Interface Brief:

bash

VerifyOpen In EditorRunCopy code

1show ip interface brief
How many addresses are defined in ARP? 2. Is an ARP message routable? 3. Describe the Ethernet
addressing used in the standard ARP request. Are the source and destination addresses unicast,
broadcast, or multicast? 4. Describe the Ethernet addressing used in the standard ARP reply. Are the
source and destination addresses unicast, broadcast, or multicast? 5. What is a gratuitous ARP? 6. What
 information is stored in an ARP table? 7. Can we send standard ARP messages directly to computers that
are not on our own network? 8. Is ARP included in IPv6? 9. Is ARP a secure protocol? 10. What is the
Ethertype hexadecimal value for an ARP message?

How many addresses are defined in ARP?

ARP defines two addresses in its messages: the source IP address and
the destination IP address. Additionally, it includes the source MAC address and
the destination MAC address in the Ethernet frame.

2. Is an ARP message routable?

No, ARP messages are not routable. ARP operates at the link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI
model and is used for resolving IP addresses to MAC addresses within a local network
segment.

3. Describe the Ethernet addressing used in the standard ARP

request. Are the source and destination addresses unicast,
broadcast, or multicast?
In a standard ARP request:

 Source MAC Address: The MAC address of the sender (the device making the ARP
request).
 Destination MAC Address: The MAC address is set to the broadcast address
(FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF).
 Type of Addressing: The source address is unicast (specific to the sender), and the
destination address is broadcast (sent to all devices on the local network).
4. Describe the Ethernet addressing used in the standard ARP
reply. Are the source and destination addresses unicast,
broadcast, or multicast?
In a standard ARP reply:

 Source MAC Address: The MAC address of the device that is responding to the ARP
request.
 Destination MAC Address: The MAC address of the original requester (the device that
sent the ARP request).
 Type of Addressing: Both the source and destination addresses are unicast (the reply
is sent directly to the requester).
5. What is a gratuitous ARP?
 A gratuitous ARP is an ARP request that a device sends to announce its own IP
address to the network. It does not require a corresponding ARP reply because it is
used primarily for:

 Updating other devices' ARP tables with the sender's MAC address.
 Detecting IP address conflicts on the network.
6. What information is stored in an ARP table?
An ARP table (or ARP cache) stores the following information:

 IP Address: The IP address of the device.

 MAC Address: The corresponding MAC address of the device.
 Interface: The network interface through which the device is reachable.
 Entry Type: Whether the entry is static (manually configured) or dynamic (learned
through ARP requests).
7. Can we send standard ARP messages directly to computers
that are not on our own network?
No, standard ARP messages cannot be sent directly to computers that are not on the
same local network. ARP operates within a single broadcast domain, and routers do not
forward ARP requests across different networks.

8. Is ARP included in IPv6?

No, ARP is not used in IPv6. Instead, IPv6 uses the Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP)
to perform similar functions, such as address resolution and neighbor discovery.

9. Is ARP a secure protocol?

No, ARP is not a secure protocol. It is susceptible to various attacks, such as ARP
spoofing or ARP poisoning, where an attacker sends forged ARP messages to
associate their MAC address with the IP address of another device, potentially leading
to man-in-the-middle attacks.

10. What is the Ethertype hexadecimal value for an ARP

message?
The Ethertype hexadecimal value for an ARP message is 0x0806. This value is used in
Ethernet frames to indicate that the payload is an ARP message.

Perform the following activities in the lab

1. Configure the routing protocol II. Theoretical I. Choose the correct answer from the available
alternatives
 1. Which command can be used on a Cisco router to display all interfaces, the IPv4 address assigned,
and the current status? A. show ip interface brief B. ping C. show ip route D. show interface fa0/1
2.Which CLI mode allows users to access all device commands, such as those used for configuration,
management, and troubleshooting? A. user EXEC mode B. privileged EXEC mode C. global configuration
mode D. interface configuration mode 3.A router boots and enters setup mode. What is the reason for
this? A. The IOS image is corrupt. B. Cisco IOS is missing from flash memory. C. The configuration file is
missing from NVRAM. D. The POST process has detected hardware failure. 4. What will be the response
from the router after the command, “router(config)# hostname portsmouth” is entered? A.
portsmouth# B. portsmouth(config)# C. invalid input detected D. router(config-host)# E. hostname =
portsmouth portsmouth# F. ? command not recognized router(config)#

correct answers to the questions you provided:

I. Choose the correct answer from the available alternatives

1. Which command can be used on a Cisco router to display all interfaces, the IPv4
address assigned, and the current status?
 A. show ip interface brief
(This command provides a summary of all interfaces, their IP addresses, and their
status.)
2. Which CLI mode allows users to access all device commands, such as those
used for configuration, management, and troubleshooting?
 B. privileged EXEC mode
(Privileged EXEC mode allows access to all commands, including configuration and
troubleshooting commands.)
3. A router boots and enters setup mode. What is the reason for this?
 C. The configuration file is missing from NVRAM.
(If the router cannot find a valid configuration file in NVRAM, it will enter setup mode to
allow the user to configure the device.)
4. What will be the response from the router after the command, “router(config)#
hostname portsmouth” is entered?
 B. portsmouth(config)#
(The command changes the hostname of the router to "portsmouth," and the prompt will
reflect this change.)
Configuring Static and Default Routes 2. Configuring a Serial Interface

II. Theoretical

I. Choose the correct answer from the available alternatives

1. In which of the following modes in Cisco's IOS can you issue show commands?
A. User

B. Privileged

C. Line Configuration

D. Global Configuration

2. You are the network administrator for a large corporation. You want to be able to store all your
configurations in a centralized location. Which of these servers will allow you to do so? (Choose all that
apply.)

A. FTP B. TFTP C. SQL D. Oracle

3. You need to troubleshoot your network IP connectivity. Which of the following commands would you
use to find the IP address on your Ethernet 0 interface?

A. ping

B. IPConfig

C. traceroute

D. Show interface Ethernet 0

4. Which command would you use in the CLI at User mode to enter Privileged EXEC mode?

204

A. Privilege B. Admin C. Enable D. Disable

5. You have just received 14 Catalyst 3550 switches for your network. What is required to get them
functioning correctly in your network?

A. Nothing

B. Set up an IP address on the switch

C. Interconnect them to routers

D. Install the Cisco IOS

6. Which of the following prompts indicates your router is in Privileged EXEC mode?
 A. Router> B. Router# C. Router& D. Router$

7. You have made a console connection to your Cisco Catalyst 1900 series switch and you see the >
symbol in HyperTerminal. What does it mean?

A. You are in Privileged EXEC mode.

B. You are in User EXEC mode.

C. The switch has not been configured.

D. The switch is in need of repairs.

8. You would like to assign a meaningful name to your Catalyst 1900 series switch—what command
should you use?

A. enable

B. host name

C. hostname

D. name

9. You need to assign an IP address to your Catalyst 1912 switch. You are at the HQ_SW1> prompt. What
is the correct series of commands? (cr = carriage return)

A. enable <cr> ip address 10.1.1.1

B. enable <cr> ip address 10.1.1.1 255.0.0.0

C. enable <cr> configure terminal <cr> ip address 10.1.1.1

D. enable <cr> configure terminal <cr> ip address 10.1.1.1 255.0.0.0

10. Which of the following commands displays the syntax for the clock command?

A. cl? B. clock? C. clock ? D. cl ?

correct answers to the questions you provided:

I. Choose the correct answer from the available alternatives

1. In which of the following modes in Cisco's IOS can you issue show commands?
 B. Privileged
(You can issue show commands in Privileged EXEC mode.)
2. You are the network administrator for a large corporation. You want to be able to
store all your configurations in a centralized location. Which of these servers will
allow you to do so? (Choose all that apply.)
 A. FTP

 B. TFTP
(Both FTP and TFTP can be used to store configurations centrally.)
3. You need to troubleshoot your network IP connectivity. Which of the following
commands would you use to find the IP address on your Ethernet 0 interface?
 D. Show interface Ethernet 0
(This command displays the IP address and status of the specified interface.)
4. Which command would you use in the CLI at User mode to enter Privileged EXEC
mode?
 C. Enable
(The enable command is used to enter Privileged EXEC mode.)
5. You have just received 14 Catalyst 3550 switches for your network. What is
required to get them functioning correctly in your network?
 B. Set up an IP address on the switch
(You need to configure an IP address on the switches to manage them remotely.)
6. Which of the following prompts indicates your router is in Privileged EXEC
mode?
 B. Router#
(The # symbol indicates that you are in Privileged EXEC mode.)
7. You have made a console connection to your Cisco Catalyst 1900 series switch
and you see the > symbol in HyperTerminal. What does it mean?
 B. You are in User EXEC mode.
(The > symbol indicates that you are in User EXEC mode.)
8. You would like to assign a meaningful name to your Catalyst 1900 series switch—
what command should you use?
 C. hostname
(The correct command to set the hostname is hostname.)
9. You need to assign an IP address to your Catalyst 1912 switch. You are at the
HQ_SW1> prompt. What is the correct series of commands? (cr = carriage return)
 D. enable <cr> configure terminal <cr> ip address 10.1.1.1 255.0.0.0
(This sequence correctly enters Privileged EXEC mode, then global configuration mode,
and assigns an IP address.)
10. Which of the following commands displays the syntax for the clock command?
 C. clock ?
(Using clock ? will display the syntax and options for the clock command.)
configure a wireless connection.
1. Connect to a Wireless network

2. Router Interfaces (ports) and Physical Connections

3. Wireless Router Setup and Configuration

4. Test a Wireless Connection

II. Theoretical

Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives

1. Which one is a type of wireless communication? A. LAN B. WAN C. ALAN D. All

2. Wireless network uses____________ waves to transmit signal A. Mechanical B. radio C. sound D.

all

3. What devices sends and receives radio signal in a wireless network A. Modem

B. digital translator

C. router

D. switch

4. Which short-range wireless standard is used for wireless personal area networks

A. 802.16 B. 802.15 C. 802.13 D. 802.2

5. Which wireless security is impossible to crack?

A. WEP B. WPA C. WPA2 D. WPS

6. Wifi stands for

A. Wireless fidelity

B. Wireless function

C. wireless functionality
 D. None

7. A wifi enabled devices can be _____________

A. PC

B. Game console

C. Mobile phone

D. All of the above

8. Wifi used which kind of multiplexing

A. OFDM B. TDM C. WDM D. FDM

steps to configure a wireless connection, followed by the answers to the theoretical

questions:

Configuring a Wireless Connection

1. Connect to a Wireless Network
 On Windows:

1. Click on the Wi-Fi icon in the system tray.

2. Select the desired wireless network from the list.
3. Click Connect and enter the Wi-Fi password if prompted.
 On macOS:

1. Click on the Wi-Fi icon in the menu bar.

2. Select the desired network from the dropdown list.
3. Enter the password if required and click Join.
 On Mobile Devices:

1. Go to Settings > Wi-Fi.

2. Toggle Wi-Fi on and select the desired network.
3. Enter the password if prompted.
2. Router Interfaces (Ports) and Physical Connections
 WAN Port: Connects to the internet service provider (ISP) via a modem.
 LAN Ports: Connects wired devices (like computers and printers) to the network.
 Power Port: Connects the router to a power source.
 Antennae: Used for transmitting and receiving wireless signals.
3. Wireless Router Setup and Configuration
1. Connect the Router:

 Connect the WAN port to the modem using an Ethernet cable.

 Connect your computer to one of the LAN ports using another Ethernet cable (optional for initial
setup).
2. Access the Router's Web Interface:

 Open a web browser and enter the router's IP address (commonly 192.168.1.1 or 192.168.0.1).
 Log in using the default username and password (often found on the router or in the manual).
3. Configure Wireless Settings:

 Navigate to the Wireless Settings section.

 Set the SSID (network name).
 Choose the security type (WPA2 is recommended).
 Set a strong Wi-Fi password.
 Save the settings.
4. Reboot the Router (if necessary).
4. Test a Wireless Connection
 On Windows:

1. Click on the Wi-Fi icon and ensure you are connected to the correct network.
2. Open a web browser and try to access a website.
 On macOS:

1. Check the Wi-Fi icon to confirm connection.

2. Open Safari or another browser to test internet access.
 On Mobile Devices:

1. Ensure you are connected to the Wi-Fi network.

2. Open a web browser or an app that requires internet access to test connectivity.
 II. Theoretical Questions
1. Which one is a type of wireless communication?

 D. All
(LAN, WAN, and ALAN are all types of wireless communication.)
2. Wireless network uses____________ waves to transmit signal

 B. radio
(Wireless networks use radio waves to transmit signals.)
3. What device sends and receives radio signals in a wireless network?

 C. router
(A router sends and receives radio signals in a wireless network.)
4. Which short-range wireless standard is used for wireless personal area
networks?

 B. 802.15
(IEEE 802.15 is the standard for wireless personal area networks, such as Bluetooth.)
5. Which wireless security is impossible to crack?

 C. WPA2
(WPA2 is currently considered secure and difficult to crack, especially when using a strong
password.)
6. Wi-Fi stands for

 A. Wireless fidelity
(Wi-Fi is short for Wireless Fidelity.)
7. A Wi-Fi enabled device can be _____________

 D. All of the above

(PCs, game consoles, and mobile phones can all be Wi-Fi enabled.)
8. Wi-Fi uses which kind of multiplexing?

 A. OFDM
(Wi-Fi uses Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) for data

Choose the correct answer from the available alternatives

1. Physical layer concerns with

A. bit-by-bit delivery

B. process to process delivery

 C. application to application delivery

D. none of these

2. .A single channel is shared by multiple signals by

A. analog modulation

B. multiplexing

C. digital modulation

D. none of these

. Physical layer concerns with

A. bit-by-bit delivery
(The physical layer is responsible for the transmission and reception of raw bit streams
over a physical medium, focusing on the bit-by-bit delivery of data.)

2. A single channel is shared by multiple signals by

B. multiplexing
(Multiplexing is a technique that combines multiple signals into a single channel to
optimize the use of available bandwidth.)

Subnetting is the process of dividing a larger network into smaller,

manageable sub-networks (subnets). In this case, we will analyze the Class C
IP address 192.168.100.154 with a subnet mask of /27.

1. Subnet Mask and CIDR Notation

 CIDR Notation: /27 indicates that the first 27 bits of the subnet mask are
used for the network part.
 Subnet Mask: The subnet mask in decimal form is 255.255.255.224.
 Binary Representation: 11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000

2. Total Number of Addresses in the Subnet

To calculate the total number of addresses in a subnet, use the formula:

[ \text{Total Addresses} = 2^{(32 - \text{CIDR})} ]

 For /27:
 [ \text{Total Addresses} = 2^{(32 - 27)} = 2^5 = 32 ]

3. Usable Host Addresses

The usable host addresses are calculated by subtracting 2 from the total
addresses (one for the network address and one for the broadcast address):

[ \text{Usable Hosts} = \text{Total Addresses} - 2 ]

 Calculation:

[ \text{Usable Hosts} = 32 - 2 = 30 ]

4. Network and Broadcast Addresses

 Network Address: This is the first address in the subnet.
 Broadcast Address: This is the last address in the subnet.

Calculating the Network Address

1. Convert the IP address and subnet mask to binary:

 IP Address: 192.168.100.154 → 11000000.10101000.01100100.10011010
 Subnet
Mask: 255.255.255.224 → 11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000

2. Perform a bitwise AND operation:

VerifyOpen In EditorRunCopy code
1 11000000.10101000.01100100.10011010 (IP Address)
2AND 11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000 (Subnet Mask)
3---------------------------------------------------
4 11000000.10101000.01100100.10000000 (Network Address)

 Network Address: 192.168.100.128

Calculating the Broadcast Address

 The broadcast address is the last address in the subnet, which can be
calculated by taking the network address and adding the total number of
addresses minus one:

[ \text{Broadcast Address} = \text{Network Address} + \text{Total Addresses} -

1]
 Calculation:

[ \text{Broadcast Address} = 192.168.100.128 + 32 - 1 = 192.168.100.159 ]

5. Summary of Results
 IP Address: 192.168.100.154
 Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.224 or /27
 Total Addresses: 32
 Usable Hosts: 30
 Network Address: 192.168.100.128
 Broadcast Address: 192.168.100.159

This structured approach provides a clear understanding of how to calculate

subnetting for the given Class C IP address.
You

stand for CIDR

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CIDR stands for Classless Inter-Domain Routing. It is a method used to

allocate IP addresses and route Internet Protocol packets more efficiently than
the traditional class-based system.

Key Features of CIDR:

1. Flexible Subnetting: CIDR allows for variable-length subnet masking
(VLSM), which means that networks can be divided into subnets of different
sizes, rather than being restricted to fixed class sizes (Class A, B, C).
2. Efficient IP Address Allocation: CIDR helps in conserving IP addresses by
allowing more efficient allocation of address space. This is particularly
important given the limited availability of IPv4 addresses.
3. Aggregation of Routes: CIDR enables route aggregation (also known as
supernetting), which reduces the size of routing tables. Multiple IP addresses
can be represented as
You

subneting+class+C+IP+address+192.168.50.140/25+how+to+calculate
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To subnet the Class C IP address 192.168.50.140/25, we will go through the

steps to determine the subnet mask, the total number of addresses, usable
host addresses, the network address, and the broadcast address.

1. Understanding CIDR Notation

 CIDR Notation: /25 indicates that the first 25 bits of the subnet mask are
used for the network part.
 Subnet Mask: The subnet mask in decimal form is 255.255.255.128.
 Binary Representation: 11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000

2. Total Number of Addresses in the Subnet

To calculate the total number of addresses in a subnet, use the formula:

[ \text{Total Addresses} = 2^{(32 - \text{CIDR})} ]

 For /25:

[ \text{Total Addresses} = 2^{(32 - 25)} = 2^7 = 128 ]

3. Usable Host Addresses

The usable host addresses are calculated by subtracting 2 from the total
addresses (one for the network address and one for the broadcast address):

[ \text{Usable Hosts} = \text{Total Addresses} - 2 ]

 Calculation:

[ \text{Usable Hosts} = 128 - 2 = 126 ]

4. Network and Broadcast Addresses

 Network Address: This is the first address in the subnet.
 Broadcast Address: This is the last address in the subnet.

Calculating the Network Address

1. Convert the IP address and subnet mask to binary:

 IP Address: 192.168.50.140 → 11000000.10101000.00110010.10001100
 Subnet
Mask: 255.255.255.128 → 11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000

2. Perform a bitwise AND operation:

VerifyOpen In EditorRunCopy code
1 11000000.10101000.00110010.10001100 (IP Address)
2AND 11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000 (Subnet Mask)
3---------------------------------------------------
4 11000000.10101000.00110010.10000000 (Network Address)

 Network Address: 192.168.50.128

Calculating the Broadcast Address

 The broadcast address is the last address in the subnet, which can be
calculated by taking the network address and adding the total number of
addresses minus one:

[ \text{Broadcast Address} = \text{Network Address} + \text{Total Addresses} -

1]

 Calculation:

[ \text{Broadcast Address} = 192.168.50.128 + 128 - 1 = 192.168.50.255 ]

5. Summary of Results
 IP Address: 192.168.50.140
 Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.128 or /25
 Total Addresses: 128
 Usable Hosts: 126
 Network Address: 192.168.50.128
 Broadcast Address: 192.168.50.255