%'-6

+YMHIJSVXLI%REP]WMWERH(IWMKR
SJ6IMRJSVGIHERH4VIWXVIWWIH
'SRGVIXI+YMHI[E]7XVYGXYVIW

6ITSVXIHF].SMRX%'-%7')'SQQMXXII
 *MVWX4VMRXMRK
2SZIQFIV

+YMHIJSVXLI%REP]WMWERH(IWMKRSJ6IMRJSVGIHERH4VIWXVIWWIH
'SRGVIXI+YMHI[E]7XVYGXYVIW

'ST]VMKLXF]XLI%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI*EVQMRKXSR,MPPW1-%PPVMKLXWVIWIVZIH8LMWQEXIVMEPQE]RSXFI

QIHME[MXLSYXXLI[VMXXIRGSRWIRXSJ%'-

8LIXIGLRMGEPGSQQMXXIIWVIWTSRWMFPIJSV%'-GSQQMXXIIVITSVXWERHWXERHEVHWWXVMZIXSEZSMHEQFMKYMXMIWSQMWWMSRW

SVVIUYMVIQIRXWXLEXQE]FIWYFNIGXXSQSVIXLERSRIMRXIVTVIXEXMSRSVQE]FIMRGSQTPIXISVMRGSVVIGX9WIVW[LS
LEZIWYKKIWXMSRWJSVXLIMQTVSZIQIRXSJ%'-HSGYQIRXWEVIVIUYIWXIHXSGSRXEGX%'-ZMEXLIIVVEXE[IFWMXIEX
[[[GSRGVIXISVKGSQQMXXIIWIVVEXEEWT4VSTIVYWISJXLMWHSGYQIRXMRGPYHIWTIVMSHMGEPP]GLIGOMRKJSVIVVEXEJSV
XLIQSWXYTXSHEXIVIZMWMSRW

ERHPMQMXEXMSRWSJMXWGSRXIRXERHVIGSQQIRHEXMSRWERH[LS[MPPEGGITXVIWTSRWMFMPMX]JSVXLIETTPMGEXMSRSJXLIQEXI
VMEPMXGSRXEMRW-RHMZMHYEPW[LSYWIXLMWTYFPMGEXMSRMRER][E]EWWYQIEPPVMWOERHEGGITXXSXEPVIWTSRWMFMPMX]JSVXLI
ETTPMGEXMSRERHYWISJXLMWMRJSVQEXMSR

%PPMRJSVQEXMSRMRXLMWTYFPMGEXMSRMWTVSZMHIHwEWMWx[MXLSYX[EVVERX]SJER]OMRHIMXLIVI\TVIWWSVMQTPMIHMRGPYH

%'-ERHMXWQIQFIVWHMWGPEMQPMEFMPMX]JSVHEQEKIWSJER]OMRHMRGPYHMRKER]WTIGMEPMRHMVIGXMRGMHIRXEPSVGSR

TYFPMGEXMSR

GMVGYQWXERGIWMRZSPZIH[MXLMXWYWI%'-HSIWRSXQEOIER]VITVIWIRXEXMSRW[MXLVIKEVHXSLIEPXLERHWEJIX]MWWYIW
ERHXLIYWISJXLMWHSGYQIRX8LIYWIVQYWXHIXIVQMRIXLIETTPMGEFMPMX]SJEPPVIKYPEXSV]PMQMXEXMSRWFIJSVIETTP]MRK
XLIHSGYQIRXERHQYWXGSQTP][MXLEPPETTPMGEFPIPE[WERHVIKYPEXMSRWMRGPYHMRKFYXRSXPMQMXIHXS9RMXIH7XEXIW
3GGYTEXMSREP7EJIX]ERH,IEPXL%HQMRMWXVEXMSR 37,% LIEPXLERHWEJIX]WXERHEVHW

4EVXMGMTEXMSRF]KSZIVRQIRXEPVITVIWIRXEXMZIWMRXLI[SVOSJXLI%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXIERHMRXLIHIZIPST
QIRXSJ-RWXMXYXIWXERHEVHWHSIWRSXGSRWXMXYXIKSZIVRQIRXEPIRHSVWIQIRXSJ%'-SVXLIWXERHEVHWXLEXMXHIZIPSTW

3VHIVMRJSVQEXMSR%'-HSGYQIRXWEVIEZEMPEFPIMRTVMRXF]HS[RPSEHSR'(631XLVSYKLIPIGXVSRMGWYFWGVMTXMSR
SVVITVMRXERHQE]FISFXEMRIHF]GSRXEGXMRK%'-

1SWX%'-WXERHEVHWERHGSQQMXXIIVITSVXWEVIKEXLIVIHXSKIXLIVMRXLIERRYEPP]VIZMWIH%'-1ERYEPSJ'SRGVIXI
4VEGXMGI 1'4 

%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI
'SYRXV]'PYF(VMZI
*EVQMRKXSR,MPPW1-
97%
4LSRI
*E\ 
[[[GSRGVIXISVK
-7&2
 %'-6

+YMHIJSVXLI%REP]WMWERH(IWMKRSJ6IMRJSVGIHERH
4VIWXVIWWIH'SRGVIXI+YMHI[E]7XVYGXYVIW
6ITSVXIHF].SMRX%'-%7')'SQQMXXII
2YV=E^HERM (ERMIPPI(/PIMRLERW
'LEMV 7IGVIXEV]

,SWWEQ1%FHSY (EZMH,MIFIV 'PEYHME44YPMHS 'SRWYPXMRKQIQFIVW

,EQMH%LQEH] 8LSQEW8',WY %]QER)7EPEQE *%VFEFM
7EQIL7&EHMI 1SLWIR%-WWE ,EVSPH67ERHFIVK .SLR0'EVVEXS
7LVMRMZEW&&LMHI 6MGLEVH+.ERIGIO .SLER'*7GLSV :1(EZMHKI
7IPZEOYQEV&YZERIRHEVER &VYGI'/EXIWj .IJJVI]07QMXL 8MQ(IPMW
;+IRI'SVPI] >LSRKKYS.SLR1E /LEPIH77SYFVE 1MRK^LY(YER
3Q4(M\MX &EVRI]81EVXMR.V 7XIZIR07XVSL %PPER',EV[SSH
1EQHSYL1)P&EHV] %PER&1EXINS[WO] 1EVME17^IVW^IR .IRR7LMR,[ERK
2SIP.)ZIVEVH %QMV1MVQMVER +EQMP78EHVSW 'PIPPSR00SZIEPP
Apostolos Fafitis %JXEF%1YJXM 6EN:EPPYZER
%RHVI[.*SHIR ,ERM,%2EWWMJ .MQ.>LES
%QMR+LEPM .SLR42I[LSSO 5YR>LSRK&VMWFSMW
%RKIP),IVVIVE %RHV^IN72S[EO


-RHMGEXIWQIQFIVWSJXLIWYFGSQQMXXIIXLEXTVITEVIHXLMWKYMHI
j
7YFGSQQMXXII'LEMV
8LIGSQQMXXIIEGORS[PIHKIW'%&ERGLMO(&MPS[/,NSVXIWIX88',WY%72S[EO%13OIMP+78EHVSWERH/;SRKOEI[JSVXLIMVGSRXVMFYXMSRWXSXLMWKYMHI
%WTIGMEPEGORS[PIHKQIRXMWHYIXS1=6MEH for his significant contributions to this guide.

8LMW KYMHI TVIWIRXW E TVSGIHYVI JSV XLI HIWMKR ERH EREP]WMW SJ '328)287
VIMRJSVGIHERHTVIWXVIWWIHGSRGVIXIKYMHI[E]WXVYGXYVIWJSVTYFPMG
XVERWMX ERH HIWMKR KYMHERGI JSV IPIZEXIH XVERWMX KYMHI[E]W 8LI 'LETXIV{-RXVSHYGXMSRERHWGSTIT
IRKMRIIVMWVIJIVVIHXSXLIETTVSTVMEXILMKL[E]ERHVEMP[E]FVMHKI {-RXVSHYGXMSR
HIWMKRGSHIWJSVMXIQWRSXGSZIVIHMRXLMWHSGYQIRX
zz7GSTI
0MQMXWXEXITLMPSWSTL]MWETTPMIHXSHIZIPSTHIWMKRGVMXIVME%VIPM
ability approach is used in defining load combinations and deriving
PSEHERHVIWMWXERGIJEGXSVW(MJJIVIRXXEVKIXVIPMEFMPMX]MRHI\IW 
JSVHIWMKRWXVIRKXLJSVWIVZMGIEFMPMX]HIWMKRJSVGVEGOMRKERH {2SXEXMSR
 JSV WIVZMGIEFMPMX] HIWMKR JSV JEXMKYI  ERH E WIVZMGI PMJI SJ  2.2—Definitions
]IEVW[IVIYWIHEWXLIFEWMWJSVWEJIX]EREP]WMW%]IEVWIVZMGI
PMJIMWGSRWMWXIRX[MXLXLI%QIVMGER%WWSGMEXMSRSJ7XEXI,MKL[E] 'LETXIV{+IRIVEPHIWMKRGSRWMHIVEXMSRWT
and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Load and Resistance {7GSTI
Factor Design (LRFD) Bridge Design Specifications. {7XVYGXYVEPGSRWMHIVEXMSRW
{*YRGXMSREPGSRWMHIVEXMSRW
/I][SVHW GVEGOMRK HIJSVQEXMSR JEXMKYI KYMHI[E] WXVYGXYVIW TVIGEWX
GSRGVIXITVIWXVIWWIHGSRGVIXITVIWXVIWWMRKPSEHWVIMRJSVGIHGSRGVIXIZMFVEXMSR
{)GSRSQMGGSRWMHIVEXMSRW
{9VFERMQTEGX
{8VERWMXSTIVEXMSRW
%'- 'SQQMXXII 6ITSVXW +YMHIW ERH 'SQQIRXEVMIW EVI {7XVYGXYVIZILMGPIMRXIVEGXMSR
MRXIRHIHJSVKYMHERGIMRTPERRMRKHIWMKRMRKI\IGYXMRKERH {+ISQIXVMIW
MRWTIGXMRKGSRWXVYGXMSR8LMWHSGYQIRXMWMRXIRHIHJSVXLIYWI
of individuals who are competent to evaluate the significance {'SRWXVYGXMSRGSRWMHIVEXMSRW
ERHPMQMXEXMSRWSJMXWGSRXIRXERHVIGSQQIRHEXMSRWERH[LS {6EMPWERHXVEGO[SVO
[MPPEGGITXVIWTSRWMFMPMX]JSVXLIETTPMGEXMSRSJXLIQEXIVMEPMX
GSRXEMRW8LI%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXIHMWGPEMQWER]ERH
EPPVIWTSRWMFMPMX]JSVXLIWXEXIHTVMRGMTPIW8LI-RWXMXYXIWLEPP
%'-6[EWEHSTXIHERHTYFPMWLIH2SZIQFIV
RSXFIPMEFPIJSVER]PSWWSVHEQEKIEVMWMRKXLIVIJVSQ
'ST]VMKLX%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI
6IJIVIRGIXSXLMWHSGYQIRXWLEPPRSXFI QEHIMRGSRXVEGX %PPVMKLXWVIWIVZIHMRGPYHMRKVMKLXWSJVITVSHYGXMSRERHYWIMRER]JSVQSVF]ER]
HSGYQIRXW -J MXIQW JSYRH MR XLMW HSGYQIRX EVI HIWMVIH F] QIERW MRGPYHMRK XLI QEOMRK SJ GSTMIW F] ER] TLSXS TVSGIWW SV F] IPIGXVSRMG SV
XLI%VGLMXIGX)RKMRIIVXSFIETEVXSJXLIGSRXVEGXHSGYQIRXW QIGLERMGEPHIZMGITVMRXIH[VMXXIRSVSVEPSVVIGSVHMRKJSVWSYRHSVZMWYEPVITVSHYG
XLI]WLEPPFIVIWXEXIHMRQERHEXSV]PERKYEKIJSVMRGSVTSVEXMSR XMSRSVJSVYWIMRER]ORS[PIHKISVVIXVMIZEPW]WXIQSVHIZMGIYRPIWWTIVQMWWMSRMR
F]XLI%VGLMXIGX)RKMRIIV [VMXMRKMWSFXEMRIHJVSQXLIGST]VMKLXTVSTVMIXSVW


 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6

'LETXIV{0SEHWT XLIWI GVMXIVME JSV EHZERGIH XIGLRSPSKMIW SXLIV XLER XLSWI

{+IRIVEP HMWGYWWIHMRXLMWKYMHIVIUYMVIWERMRHITIRHIRXEWWIWWQIRX
{7YWXEMRIHPSEHW AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (AASHTO
{8VERWMIRXPSEHW 2012) and ACI 343R are referenced for specific items not
{0SEHWHYIXSZSPYQIXVMGGLERKIW GSZIVIH MR XLIWI VIGSQQIRHEXMSRW MRGPYHMRK QEXIVMEPW
{)\GITXMSREPPSEHW GSRWXVYGXMSRGSRWMHIVEXMSRWERHWIKQIRXEPGSRWXVYGXMSR
{'SRWXVYGXMSRPSEHW
',%48)6zz238%8-32%2(()*-2-8-327
'LETXIV{0SEHGSQFMREXMSRWPSEHJEGXSVWERH
WXVIRKXLVIHYGXMSRJEGXSVWT {2SXEXMSR
{7GSTI % ! I\TSWIHEVIESJTMIVTIVTIRHMGYPEVXSXLIHMVIGXMSR
{&EWMGEWWYQTXMSRW of stream flow, ft Q
{7IVZMGIPSEHGSQFMREXMSRW %GT ! EVIE IRGPSWIH F] XLI SYXIV FSYRHEV] SJ GVSWW
{7XVIRKXLPSEHGSQFMREXMSRW WIGXMSRMR QQ
%P ! EVIE SJ PSRKMXYHMREP VIMRJSVGIQIRX MR E QIQFIV
'LETXIV{7IVZMGIEFMPMX]HIWMKRT MR QQ
{+IRIVEP %S ! PIZIV EVQ EVIE IRGPSWIH F] XLI GIRXIVPMRI SJ XLI
{&EWMGEWWYQTXMSRW shear flow, in. QQ
{4IVQMWWMFPIWXVIWWIW %SL ! EVIE IRGPSWIH F] XLI GIRXIVPMRI SJ XLI SYXIVQSWX
{0SWWSJTVIWXVIWW GPSWIHXVERWZIVWIXSVWMSRVIMRJSVGIQIRXMR QQ
{*EXMKYI %V ! GVSWWWIGXMSREPEVIESJEVEMPMR QQ
{:MFVEXMSRERHH]REQMGVIWTSRWI %W ! EVIESJGSQTVIWWMSRVIMRJSVGIQIRXMR QQ
{(IJSVQEXMSRWERHVSXEXMSRW %X ! EVIESJSRIPIKSJEGPSWIHWXMVVYTVIWMWXMRKXSVWMSR
{'VEGOGSRXVSP MR QQ
%Z ! EVIESJWLIEVVIMRJSVGIQIRXSVEVIESJWLIEVVIMR
'LETXIV{7XVIRKXLHIWMKRT JSVGIQIRXTIVTIRHMGYPEVXSQEMRVIMRJSVGIQIRXJSV
{+IRIVEPHIWMKRERHEREP]WMWGSRWMHIVEXMSRW HIITFIEQWMR QQ 
7.2—Design for flexure and axial loads E ! GIRXIVXSGIRXIV HMWXERGI SJ WLSVXIV HMQIRWMSR SJ
{7LIEVERHXSVWMSR GPSWIHVIGXERKYPEVWXMVVYTMR QQ
& ! FYS]ERG]
'LETXIV{6IJIVIRGIWT &6 ! FVSOIRVEMPJSVGIW
F ! GIRXIVXSGIRXIV HMWXERGI SJ PSRKIV HMQIRWMSR SJ
',%48)6{-2863(9'8-32%2(7'34) GPSWIHVIGXERKYPEVWXMVVYTMR QQ
'( ! flowing water drag coefficient
{-RXVSHYGXMSR 'H ! horizontal wind drag coefficient
8LIVIGSQQIRHEXMSRWMRXLMWKYMHITVSZMHITYFPMGEKIR ') ! GIRXVMJYKEPJSVGIPF 2
GMIW GSRWYPXERXW ERH SXLIV MRXIVIWXIH TIVWSRRIP [MXL 'I ! wind exposure coefficient
GSQTVILIRWMZI GVMXIVME JSV XLI HIWMKR ERH EREP]WMW SJ 'K ! wind gust effect coefficient
GSRGVIXI KYMHI[E]W JSV TYFPMG XVERWMX W]WXIQW8LI] HMJJIV '30*, !LSVM^SRXEPGSPPMWMSRPSEHPF 2
JVSQXLSWIKMZIRJSVFVMHKIHIWMKRERHEREP]WMWMR%'-6 '30*: !ZIVXMGEPGSPPMWMSRPSEHPF 2
%QIVMGER%WWSGMEXMSRSJ7XEXI,MKL[E]ERH8VERWTSVXEXMSR '6 ! JSVGIWHYIXSGVIITMRGSRGVIXIPF 2
Officials (AASHTO) bridge specifications (AASHTO 2002, '8 ! GSPPMWMSRPSEHPF 2
 ERHXLI%QIVMGER6EMP[E])RKMRIIVMRK G ! GPIEVGSRGVIXIGSZIVMR QQ
ERH 1EMRXIRERGISJ;E] %WWSGMEXMSR %6)1%  1ERYEP (' ! HIEHPSEHPF 2
SJ 6EMP[E] )RKMRIIVMRK %6)1%   8LMW HSGYQIRX (6 ! XVERWMX ZILMGPIQMWLETPSEHHYIXSZILMGPIHIVEMP
provides guidance related chiefly to the design of guideway QIRXPF 2
WYTIVWXVYGXYVIW *SV XLI HIWMKR SJ WYFWXVYGXYVI YRMXW XLI (; ! HIEHPSEHSJ[IEVMRKWYVJEGIWERHYXMPMXMIWPF 2
VIEHIV MW VIJIVVIH XS SXLIV VIJIVIRGIW WYGL EW %%7,83 H ! distance from extreme compressive fiber to centroid
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (AASHTO 2012). SJPSRKMXYHMREPXIRWMSRVIMRJSVGIQIRXMR QQ
HZ ! HMWXERGIJVSQGIRXVSMHSJXIRWMPIWXIIPXSGIRXVSMHSJ
zz7GSTI GSRGVIXIWXVYXWMR QQ
Design criteria specifically recognize the unique features )G ! QSHYPYWSJIPEWXMGMX]SJGSRGVIXITWM 14E
SJ GSRGVIXI XVERWMX KYMHI[E]W{REQIP] KYMHI[E]ZILMGPI )GM ! QSHYPYW SJ IPEWXMGMX] SJ GSRGVIXI EX XVERWJIV SJ
MRXIVEGXMSRVEMPWXVYGXYVIMRXIVEGXMSRWTIGMEPJEXMKYIVIUYMVI TVIWXVIWWTWM 14E
QIRXW ERH EIWXLIXMG VIUYMVIQIRXW MR YVFER EVIEW 'VMXIVME )V ! QSHYPYWSJIPEWXMGMX]SJVEMPWXIIPTWM 14E
EVIFEWIHSRGYVVIRXWXEXISJXLIEVXTVEGXMGIJSVQSHIVEXI )W ! QSHYPYWSJIPEWXMGMX]SJVIMRJSVGIQIRXTWM 14E
WTIIH YTXSQTL?OQLA ZILMGPIW%TTPMGEXMSRSJ ), ! PSEHWHYIXS[IMKLXERHTVIWWYVISJWSMP[EXIVMR
WSMPSVSXLIVQEXIVMEPPF 2

%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6 

)- ! flexural stiffness of compression members, lb-in. NH ! HMWXERGIFIX[IIRXIRWMPIERHGSQTVIWWMSRJSVGIWEX

O2QQ EWIGXMSRFEWIHSRERIPEWXMGEREP]WMWMR QQ
)0 ! EGGYQYPEXIHPSGOIHMRJSVGIIJJIGXWVIWYPXMRKJVSQ P ! WTERPIRKXLJX Q
GSRWXVYGXMSR TVSGIWW MRGPYHMRK WIGSRHEV] JSVGIW 0 ! PMZIPSEHHYVMRKGSRWXVYGXMSRPF 2 [EZIPIRKXL
JVSQTSWXXIRWMSR JX Q
)5 ! IEVXLUYEOIJSVGIPF 2 0*I ! IQIVKIRG]PSRKMXYHMREPFVEOMRKJSVGIPF 2
)6 ! I\XIVREPVIWXVEMRIHJSVGIPF 2 0*R ! RSVQEPPSRKMXYHMREPFVEOMRKJSVGIPF 2
*L ! LSVM^SRXEPHIWMKRHVEKPSEHHYIXS[MRHTWM 4E 0* ! PSRKMXYHMREPJSVGIPF 2
*6 ! VEHMEP JSVGI TIV YRMX PIRKXL HYI XS GYVZEXYVI SJ 00 ! ZIVXMGEPWXERHEVHZILMGPIPSEHPF 2
GSRXMRYSYWP][IPHIHVEMPOMR 4EQQ 06 ! PSEHSRWEJIX]VEMPMRKPF 2
*V ! E\MEPJSVGIMRXLIGSRXMRYSYWP][IPHIHVEMPOMT O2 07 ! PMZIPSEHWYVGLEVKIPF 2
*WN ! NEGOMRKJSVGIMRETSWXXIRWMSRMRKXIRHSROMT O2 1 ! QEWW TIV YRMX PIRKXL SJ KYMHI[E] PFMRWMR
*Z ! ZIVXMGEPHIWMKRHVEKPSEHHYIXS[MRHTWM 4E OKQ
J ! first mode flexural (natural) frequency, Hz 1E ! QE\MQYQQSQIRXMRQIQFIVHYIXSWIVZMGIPSEHW
JG ! extreme fiber compressive stress in concrete at at stage for which deflection is being computed,
WIVZMGIPSEHWTWM 14E MRPF 2QQ
JG ! specified compressive strength of concrete, psi (MPa) 1GV ! GVEGOMRKQSQIRXMRPF 2QQ
JGM ! specified compressive strength of concrete at time 4 ! PMZIPSEHSRWIVZMGI[EPO[E]PF 2
SJMRMXMEPTVIWXVIWWTWM 14E 4( ! H]REQMG[MRHTVIWWYVIPFJX 14E
JV ! GVEGOMRKWXVIRKXLSJGSRGVIXITWM 14E 40 ! TIHIWXVMERPMZIPSEHPF 2
JGVM ! GVEGOMRK WXVIWW SJ GSRGVIXI EX XMQI SJ MRMXMEP 47 ! WIGSRHEV]JSVGIIJJIGXWHYIXSTVIWXVIWWMRK
TVIWXVIWWTWM 14E TGT ! TIVMTLIV]SJSYXIVFSYRHEV]SJXLIQIQFIVMR QQ
JJ ! stress range in straight flexural reinforcing steel, ksi U] ! shear flow at yield, lb/in. (N/mm)
14E VL ! VEXMS SJ FEWI VEHMYW XS LIMKLX SJ XVERWZIVWI HIJSV
JQMR ! EPKIFVEMG QMRMQYQ WXVIWW XIRWMSR TSWMXMZI QEXMSRW SJ VIMRJSVGMRK FEVW [LIR EGXYEP ZEPYI MW
GSQTVIWWMSRRIKEXMZIOWM 14E YRORS[RYWI
JTFX ! WXVIWW MR TVIWXVIWWMRK WXIIP MQQIHMEXIP] TVMSV XS 6 ! VEHMYWSJGYVZEXYVIJX Q
XVERWJIVTWM 14E 67 ! VEMPWXVYGXYVIMRXIVEGXMSRPF 2
JTI ! IJJIGXMZIWXVIWWMRTVIWXVIWWMRKWXIIPEJXIVPSWWIWTWM 7 ! WIVZMGIPSEHGSQFMREXMSRW
14E 7) ! HMJJIVIRXMEPWIXXPIQIRXIJJIGXW
JTY ! specified tensile strength of prestressing steel, psi 7, ! JSVGIWHYIXSWLVMROEKIMRGSRGVIXIPF 2
14E W ! WTEGMRK SJ VIMRJSVGIQIRX XS VIWMWX FYVWXMRK WLIEV
JT] ! specified yield strength of prestressing steel, psi SV TMXGL SJ WTMVEP VIMRJSVGIQIRX GIRXIV XSGIRXIV
14E WTEGMRKSJPSRKMXYHMREPWLIEVSVXSVWMSRVIMRJSVGI
JVV ! E\MEPWXVIWWMRXLIGSRXMRYSYWP][IPHIHVEMPOWM 14E QIRXMR QQ
JW ! GEPGYPEXIHXIRWMPIWXVIWWMRVIMRJSVGIQIRXEXWIVZMGI WP ! WTEGMRKJSVPSRKMXYHMREPVIMRJSVGIQIRXMR QQ
PSEHWTWM 14E WX ! WTEGMRKSJLSSTVIMRJSVGIQIRXMR QQ
JWV ! WXVIWW VERKI MR WLIEV VIMRJSVGIQIRX SV MR [IPHIH 8 ! WXVIWWJVIIXIQTIVEXYVISJXLIGSRXMRYSYWP][IPHIH
VIMRJSVGMRKFEVWOWM 14E VEMP”* ”'
JWX ! GLERKI MR WXVIWW MR XSVWMSR VIMRJSVGIQIRX HYI XS 8 ! final temperature in the continuously welded rail,
JEXMKYIPSEHMRKWOWM 14E ”* ”'
JWZ ! GLERKI MR WXVIWW MR WLIEV VIMRJSVGIQIRX HYI XS 8Y ! XSVWMSREPQSQIRXMRPF 2QQ
JEXMKYIPSEHMRKWOWM 14E 8+ ! PSEHW HYIXSXIQTIVEXYVI KVEHMIRX MRXLIWXVYGXYVI
J] ! specified yield strength of reinforcement, psi (MPa) I\GPYWMZISJVEMPJSVGIWPF 2
K ! EGGIPIVEXMSRHYIXSKVEZMX]!JXW QW 89 ! PSEHW HYI XS YRMJSVQ XIQTIVEXYVI MR XLI WXVYGXYVI
, ! LIMKLX JVSQ KVSYRH PIZIP XS XLI XST SJ XLI I\GPYWMZISJVEMPJSVGIWPF 2
WYTIVWXVYGXYVI X ! XMQIHE]W
,* ! LYRXMRKJSVGIPF 2 XH ! shear flow zone thickness of a member subjected to
L ! SZIVEPPXLMGORIWWSVLIMKLXSJQIQFIVMR QQ XSVWMSREPJSVGIWMR QQ
-GV ! QSQIRX SJMRIVXMESJ GVEGOIHWIGXMSRXVERWJSVQIH 9 ! YPXMQEXIPSEHGSQFMREXMSRW
XSGSRGVIXIMR Q : ! WTIIHJXW QW
-I ! IJJIGXMZI QSQIRX SJ MRIVXME JSV GSQTYXEXMSR SJ :GV ! GVMXMGEPWTIIHJXW QW
deflections, neglecting the reinforcement, in. Q :Y ! YPXMQEXIWLIEVJSVGIPF 2
-K ! QSQIRXSJMRIVXMESJKVSWWGSRGVIXIWIGXMSREFSYXXLI Z ! velocity of stream flow, mean hourly velocity of
GIRXVSMHEPE\MWRIKPIGXMRKVIMRJSVGIQIRXMR Q [MRHSVQE\MQYQSTIVEXMRKWTIIHSJXLIZILMGPI
-' ! MGITVIWWYVIPF 2 JXW QW
-1 ! MQTEGXJEGXSV ;% ! stream flow load, lb (N)
-0WX ! MQTEGXPSEHPF 2 ;0 ! [MRHPSEHSRZILMGPIPF 2

%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6

;7 ! [MRHPSEHSRWXVYGXYVIPF 2 IRZMVSRQIRX *MKF XLISTIVEXMSRSJXLIXVERWMXW]WXIQ

[G ! YRMX[IMKLXSJGSRGVIXIPFJX OKQ XLIW]WXIQWYTTPMIVWERHXLIWXVYGXYVEPSTXMSRWEZEMPEFPI
[R ! REXYVEPJVIUYIRG]SJXLIWXVYGXYVI VEHW % KYMHI[E] FIGSQIW E TIVQERIRX JIEXYVI SJ XLI YVFER
]X ! HMWXERGIJVSQXLIGIRXVSMHEPE\MWSJGVSWWWIGXMSR scene. Materials and features, therefore, should be effi
neglecting the reinforcement, to the extreme fiber GMIRXP]YWIHERHFYMPXMRXSXLIKYMHI[E]XSTVSHYGIEWXVYG
MRXIRWMSRMR QQ ture that will support an operating transit system and fit the
! coefficient of thermal expansion IRZMVSRQIRX
8 ! GLERKIMRXSVWMSREXWIGXMSRHYIXSJEXMKYIPSEHMRKW 8LMW KYMHI TVSZMHIW ER SZIVZMI[ SJ OI] MWWYIW XS FI
MROMT 2QQ GSRWMHIVIH MR KYMHI[E] HIWMKR -X MW MRXIRHIH XS WYKKIWX
: ! GLERKI MRWLIEV EX WIGXMSR HYIXSJEXMKYI PSEHMRK QMRMQYQ QEXIVMEPW [SVOQERWLMT XIGLRMGEP JIEXYVIW
OMT O2 HIWMKR ERH GSRWXVYGXMSR JSV TVSHYGMRK E KYMHI[E] XLEX
! WXVIRKXLVIHYGXMSRJEGXSV TIVJSVQWWEXMWJEGXSVMP]7IVZMGIEFMPMX]ERHWXVIRKXLGSRWMHIV
! QEWWHIRWMX]SJ[EXIV!PFJX OKQ EXMSRWEVIEPWSKMZIR-XMRGPYHIWEREP]WMWERHHIWMKRKYMHI
! multiplier for additional deflection due to long- PMRIWXSQIIXWIVZMGIEFMPMX]ERHWXVIRKXLPMQMXWXEXIW7SYRH
XIVQIJJIGXW IRKMRIIVMRKNYHKQIRXWLSYPHFIYWIHMRMQTPIQIRXMRKXLIWI
! ERKPIMRHIKVIIWFIX[IIRXLI[MRHJSVGIERHEPMRI VIGSQQIRHEXMSRW
RSVQEPXSXLIKYMHI[E]GIRXIVPMRI  +YMHI[E]WXVYGXYVIW{%KYMHI[E]WXVYGXYVIWLSYPH
! HIRWMX]SJEMVEXWIEPIZIPEX”* ”' !PF WYTTSVX E XVERWMX ZILMGPI KYMHI MX XLVSYKL XLI EPMKRQIRX
JX OKQ ERH VIWXVEMR WXVE] ZILMGPIW +YMHERGI SJ XVERWMX ZILMGPIW
! XMQIHITIRHIRXJEGXSVJSVWYWXEMRIHPSEH MRGPYHIWXLIEFMPMX]XSW[MXGLZILMGPIWFIX[IIRKYMHI[E]W%
KYMHI[E]WLSYPHEPWSKIRIVEPP]TVSZMHIIQIVKIRG]IZEGYE

ACI provides a comprehensive list of definitions through

ER SRPMRI VIWSYVGI w%'- 'SRGVIXI 8IVQMRSPSK]x LXXT
terminology.concrete.org. Definitions provided herein
GSQTPIQIRXXLEXVIWSYVGI
FSKMI{[LIIPIHJVEQIGSRRIGXIHZMEEWYWTIRWMSRW]WXIQ
XSEVEMP[E]ZILMGPIFSH]SVYRHIVJVEQI
FVSOIRVEMP{JVEGXYVISJEGSRXMRYSYWP][IPHIHVEMP
GSRXMRYSYWP][IPHIHVEMP ';6 {VYRRMRKVEMPWXLEXEGX
EWEGSRXMRYSYWWXVYGXYVEPIPIQIRXEWEVIWYPXSJJYPPTIRI
XVEXMSR [IPHMRK SJ MRHMZMHYEP PIRKXLW SJ VEMP GSRXMRYSYWP]
[IPHIH VEMPW QE] FI HMVIGXP] JEWXIRIH XS XLI KYMHI[E] MR
[LMGLGEWIXLIMVGSQFMRIHPSEHIJJIGXWWLSYPHFIMRGPYHIH
MRXLIHIWMKR
flexural natural frequency—first vertical frequency of
ZMFVEXMSR SJ E KYMHI[E] MRGPYHMRK EPP XLI WYWXEMRIH PSEH
based on the flexural stiffness and mass distribution of the
*MKE{)\EQTPISJEXVERWMXWXVYGXYVIXLEXFPIRHW[MXL
WYTIVWXVYGXYVI
XLIIRZMVSRQIRX GSYVXIW]SJ1+11MVEKI-RG 
PMRIEV MRHYGXMSR QSXSV 0-1 {%' PMRIEV QSXSV XLEX
[SVOW F] XLI WEQI KIRIVEP TVMRGMTPIW EW SXLIV MRHYGXMSR
QSXSVW FYX [LMGL LEW FIIR HIWMKRIH XS HMVIGXP] TVSHYGI
QSXMSRMREWXVEMKLXPMRI
WXERHEVH ZILMGPI{PSEHMRK HIWMKR ZILMGPIJSVGIW VITVI
WIRXMRKXLI[LIIPTEXXIVRERHXSXEP[IMKLXMRGPYHMRKGEVVMEKI
FSKMIERHTEWWIRKIVPSEHWSJEVEMP[E]ZILMGPI

',%48)6{+)2)6%0()7-+2
'327-()6%8-327

{7GSTI
 +IRIVEP{8VERWMX WXVYGXYVIW JVIUYIRXP] GEVV] PSEHW
XLVSYKLYVFER EVIEW (IQERHW JSVEIWXLIXMGW *MK E 
performance, cost, efficiency, and minimum urban disrup
XMSRHYVMRKGSRWXVYGXMSRERHSTIVEXMSREVIKVIEXIVXLERJSV
QSWXFVMHKIWXVYGXYVIW
8LIHIWMKRSJXVERWMXWXVYGXYVIWVIUYMVIWERYRHIVWXERHMRK *MK F{)\EQTPI SJ E XVERWMX WXVYGXYVI MR ER YVFER
SJXVERWMXXIGLRSPSK]GSRWXVEMRXWERHXLIMQTEGXXSERYVFER WIXXMRK GSYVXIW]SJ4'% 
%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6 

*MKFzz:ILMGPIWX]PI GSYVXIW]SJ'PEVMER,IEPXL 

*MK {6ITIXMXMSR SJ WTER PIRKXLW ERH GSPYQR HIXEMPW

GSYVXIW]SJ4'% 

*MKGzz:ILMGPIWX]PI GSYVXIW]SJ,MXEGLM'SVTSVEXMSR 

vehicles. Transit vehicles may be configured as individual

*MK Ezz:ILMGPI WX]PI GSYVXIW] SJ .EGOWSRZMPPI 8VERW YRMXWSVGSQFMRIHMRXSXVEMRW8LIMVWX]PIWZEV]EWWLS[RMR
TSVXEXMSR%YXLSVMX]  *MKEXLVSYKLH

XMSRWYTTSVX[E]WMHITS[IVHMWXVMFYXMSRWIVZMGIWERHLSYWI {7XVYGXYVEPGSRWMHIVEXMSRW
EYXSQEXMGXVEMRGSRXVSPW  +IRIVEP{8VERWMX W]WXIQW EVI GSRWXVYGXIH MR JSYV
;MXLMREQSHIVRXVERWMXKYMHI[E]XLIVIMWELMKLHIKVII X]TIW SJ VMKLXSJ[E] 63;  I\GPYWMZI WLEVIHYWI VEMP
SJVITIEXEFMPMX] *MK ERHRIEVP]ERIUYEPQM\XYVISJ GSVVMHSVWLEVIHYWILMKL[E]GSVVMHSVERHYVFEREVXIVMEP
XERKIRX ERH GYVZIH EPMKRQIRXW +YMHI[E]W SJXIR GSRWMWX 'SRWXVEMRXW SJ63; EJJIGX XLI X]TI SJ WXVYGXYVEP W]WXIQ
SJ TSWXXIRWMSRIH GSRGVIXI QIQFIVW 4SWXXIRWMSRMRK QE] XLEX GER FI IQTPS]IH JSV ER MRHMZMHYEP XVERWMX STIVEXMSR
TVSZMHI TVMRGMTEP VIMRJSVGIQIRX JSV WMQTPIWTER WXVYGXYVIW 'SRWXVEMRXWVIWYPXMRKJVSQETEVXMGYPEV63;QMKLXMRGPYHI
ERH GSRXMRYMX] VIMRJSVGIQIRX JSV GSRXMRYSYW WXVYGXYVIW PMQMXIHGSRWXVYGXMSREGGIWWVIWXVMGXIH[SVOMRKLSYVWPMQMXW
&SRHIH TSWXXIRWMSRIH XIRHSRW EVI VIGSQQIRHIH JSV EPP SR IRZMVSRQIRXEP JEGXSVW WYGL EW RSMWI HYWX JSYRHEXMSR
TVMQEV]PSEHGEVV]MRKKYMHI[E]ETTPMGEXMSRWERHXLIMVYWI ERHWXVYGXYVITPEGIQIRXERHEZEMPEFMPMX]SJWOMPPIHPEFSVERH
MWEWWYQIHMRXLMWKYMHI9RFSRHIHXIRHSRWLS[IZIVQE] IUYMTQIRX:EVMSYWKYMHI[E]PSGEXMSRW[MXLMRXLI63;EVI
FI YWIH [LIVI ETTVSZIH IWTIGMEPP] JSV WXVIRKXLIRMRK SV WLS[RMR*MKEXLVSYKLG
I\TERHMRKI\MWXMRKWXVYGXYVIW  'SRGVIXIKMVHIVX]TIW{'EXIKSVM^IHF]GSRWXVYGXMSR
 :ILMGPIW{8VERWMX ZILMGPIW LEZI E [MHI ZEVMIX] SJ QIXLSHWXLVIIX]TIWSJGSRGVIXIKMVHIVWEVIYWIHJSVXVERWMX
physical configurations, propulsion, and suspension systems. WYTIVWXVYGXYVIWTVIGEWXGEWXMRTPEGIERHGSQTSWMXI
8LIQSWXGSQQSRXVERWMXZILMGPIWEVIWXIIP[LIIPIHZILMGPIW  4VIGEWX KMVHIV GSRWXVYGXMSR{;LIR WMXI GSRHM
VYRRMRK SR WXIIP VEMPW TS[IVIH F] GSRZIRXMSREP KYMHERGI XMSRWEVIWYMXEFPIIRXMVIFIEQIPIQIRXWGERFITVIJEFVMGEXIH
W]WXIQW8VERWMXZILMGPIWEPWSMRGPYHIVYFFIVXMVIHZILMGPIW ERHXVERWTSVXIHXSXLIWMXI&S\KMVHIVWIGXMSRWEVIJVIUYIRXP]
ERH ZILMGPIW [MXL QSVI EHZERGIH WYWTIRWMSR SV KYMHERGI YWIHJSVXLIMVXSVWMSREPWXMJJRIWWIWTIGMEPP]JSVWLSVXVEHMYW
W]WXIQW WYGL EW EMVGYWLMSRIH SV QEKRIXMGEPP] PIZMXEXIH

%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6

*MKGzz63;EXQIHMERPSGEXMSR GSYVXIW]SJ4'% 

*MKHzz:ILMGPIWX]PI GSYVXIW]SJ4'% 

*MKE{4VIGEWXFS\KMVHIVWJSVWLEVTGYVZEXYVI GSYV
XIW]SJ4'% 'SRXMRYMX]LEWFIIRTVSZMHIHXLVSYKLGYVZIH
*MKEzz7LEVIH63; GSYVXIW]SJ4'%  EPMKRQIRX

XSWMQTPIWTERSVX[SWTERGSRXMRYSYWWXVYGXYVIWXSEGGSQ
QSHEXIXLIVQEPQSZIQIRXWFIX[IIRXLIVEMPWERHWXVYGXYVI
0SRKIV PIRKXLW SJ GSRXMRYSYW GSRWXVYGXMSR EVI YWIH QSVI
VIEHMP]MR W]WXIQW[MXLVYFFIVXMVIHZILMGPIW)\EQTPIW SJ
KMVHIV X]TIW ERH GSRXMRYMX] QE] FI WIIR MR *MK E
XLVSYKL H
7IKQIRXEPGSRWXVYGXMSRXIGLRMUYIWQE]FIYWIHJSVQENSV
WXVYGXYVIW WYGL EW VMZIV GVSWWMRKW SV [LIVI WGLIHYPIW SV
EGGIWWXSXLIWMXIJEZSVWHIPMZIV]SJWIKQIRXEPYRMXW8LIYWI
SJWIKQIRXEPGSRWXVYGXMSRMWHMWGYWWIHMR%'-6
 'EWXMRTPEGIWXVYGXYVIW{'EWXMRTPEGIGSRWXVYG
XMSRMWYWIH[LIRWMXIPMQMXEXMSRWTVIGPYHIHIPMZIV]SJPEVKI
TVIGEWX IPIQIRXW SV XLI KYMHI[E] WXVYGXYVI LEW E GSQTPI\
KISQIXV]PMOIFIMRKPSGEXIHSRWLEVTGYVZIW'EWXMRTPEGI
*MKFzz7MHISJ63; GSYVXIW]SJ0EW:IKEW1SRSVEMP GSRWXVYGXMSRLEWRSXFIIRYWIHI\XIRWMZIP]MRQSHIVRXVERWMX
'SQTER]  structures unless warranted by the specific project situation.
 'SQTSWMXI WXVYGXYVIW{8VERWMX WXVYGXYVIW GER
GYVZIW 7SQI XVERWMX W]WXIQW [MXL PSRKVEHMYW LSVM^SRXEP FI GSRWXVYGXIH MR E WMQMPEV QERRIV XS LMKL[E] FVMHKIW
GYVZIWLEZIYWIHHSYFPI8FIEQWJSVXLIWXVYGXYVI YWMRKTVIGEWX GSRGVIXI SV WXIIP KMVHIVW [MXL EGEWXMRTPEGI
'SRXMRYSYW WXVYGXYVIW EVI JVIUYIRXP] YWIH 4VIGEWX GSQTSWMXI GSRGVIXI HIGO 'SQTSWMXI GSRWXVYGXMSR MW IWTI
FIEQWEVIQEHIGSRXMRYSYWF]HIZIPSTMRKGSRXMRYMX]EXXLI GMEPP] GSQQSR JSV WTIGMEP WXVYGXYVIW WYGL EW W[MXGLIW
WYTTSVXW%GSRXMRYSYWWXVYGXYVILEWPIWWHITXLERHMRGVIEWIH XYVRSYXWERHPSRKWTERW[LIVIXLI[IMKLXSJERMRHMZMHYEP
WXVYGXYVEP VIHYRHERG] XLER E WMQTPIWTER WXVYGXYVI 6EMP TVIGEWX IPIQIRX PMQMXW MXW WLMTTMRK XS XLI WMXI 8LI KMVHIV
W]WXIQWYWMRKGSRXMRYSYWP][IPHIHVEMPEVIX]TMGEPP]PMQMXIH

%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6 

*MK Fzz4VIGEWX GSRGVIXI KMVHIVW GSYVXIW] SJ 1+1 *MK Hzz4VIGEWX FS\ KMVHIV SR XERKIRX GSYVXIW] SJ
1MVEKI-RG )\EQTPISJWMQTPIWTERGSRWXVYGXMSR 4'% 1E]FIWMQTPIWTERSVGSRXMRYSYWSZIVQYPXMTPIWTERW
1E]FIWTERF]WTERSVFEPERGIHGERXMPIZIVGSRWXVYGXMSR

*MK Gzz4VIGEWX FS\ KMVHIV SR GYVZI GSYVXIW] SJ *MK Ezz;EPO[E] FIX[IIR VEMPW GSYVXIW] SJ .EGOWSR
4'% &EPERGIHGERXMPIZIVGSRWXVYGXMSRTVSZMHIWGSRXMRYMX] ZMPPI8VERWTSVXEXMSR%YXLSVMX] 
SZIVXLITMIV
WTIIHW IRZMVSRQIRXEP JEGXSVW XVERWMX STIVEXMSRW GSPPMWMSR
GSRHMXMSRWERHZILMGPIVIXIRXMSRWLSYPHEPWSFIGSRWMHIVIH
TVSZMHIWE[SVOMRKWYVJEGIXLEXEPPS[WEGGYVEXITPEGIQIRX 8LIKISQIXVMGIRZIPSTISJEHMWEFPIHZILMGPIMWEJYRGXMSRJSV
SJXVERWMXLEVH[EVISRXLIGEWXMRTPEGIHIGO XLIWYWTIRWMSRW]WXIQWYTTSVXW]WXIQERHZILMGPIHIWMKR
8LMWMRJSVQEXMSRQYWXFITVSZMHIHF]XLIW]WXIQWYTTPMIV
{*YRGXMSREPGSRWMHIVEXMSRW ,YQERWEJIX]EHHVIWWIWIQIVKIRG]IZEGYEXMSRERHEGGIWW
 +IRIVEP{8LI WXVYGXYVEP JYRGXMSRW EVI XS WYTTSVX structural maintenance, and fire control. Transit operations
TVIWIRXERHJYXYVIXVERWMXETTPMGEXMSRWWEXMWJ]WIVZMGIEFMPMX] VIUYMVI JEGMPMXMIW JSV IZEGYEXMRK TEWWIRKIVW JVSQ WXEPPIH SV
VIUYMVIQIRXWERHTVSZMHIJSVTEWWIRKIVWEJIX]8LIXVERWMX HMWEFPIH ZILMGPIW ERH EGGIWW JSV IQIVKIRG] TIVWSRRIP -R
WXVYGXYVIQE]EPWSFIHIWMKRIHXSWYTTSVXSXLIVPSEHWWYGL QSWX GEWIW IQIVKIRG] IZEGYEXMSR MW EGGSQTPMWLIH F] E
as automotive or pedestrian traffic. However, mixed-use [EPO[E]XLEXQE]FIEHNEGIRXXSXLIKYMHI[E]SVMRGSVTS
ETTPMGEXMSRWEVIRSXMRGPYHIHMRXLIPSEHMRKVIUYMVIQIRXWSJ VEXIHMRXSMXWWXVYGXYVI*MKYVIEERHFWLS[[EPO
'LETXIVWERH [E]WTVSZMHIHFIX[IIRXLIKYMHI[E]VEMPW
 7EJIX]GSRWMHIVEXMSRW{'SRWMHIVEXMSRWJSVEXVERWMX 8LI I\EGX HIXEMPW SJ XLI IQIVKIRG] EGGIWW ERH IZEGYE
WXVYGXYVI WLSYPH MRGPYHI XVERWMX XIGLRSPSK] LYQER WEJIX] XMSRQIXLSHWSRXLIKYMHI[E]WLSYPHFIVIWSPZIHEQSRKXLI
ERHI\XIVREPWEJIX]MREGGSVHERGI[MXLXLIVIUYMVIQIRXWSJ XVERWMXSTIVEXSVXVERWMXZILMGPIWYTTPMIVERHIRKMRIIV2*4%
XLI 2EXMSREP *MVI 4VSXIGXMSR %WWSGMEXMSR HSGYQIRX 2*4%  2*4%   KMZIW HIXEMPIH VIUYMVIQIRXW JSV WEJIX]
 2*4%  provisions on fixed guideway transit systems.
8VERWMX XIGLRSPSK] GSRWMHIVEXMSRW MRGPYHI FSXL RSVQEP )\XIVREPWEJIX]GSRWMHIVEXMSRWMRGPYHIWEJIX]TVIGEYXMSRW
ERHI\XVIQIPSRKMXYHMREPPEXIVEPERHZIVXMGEPZILMGPIPSEHW during construction, prevention of local street traffic colli
4EWWMRKGPIEVERGIWJSVRSVQEPERHHMWEFPIHZILMGPIWZILMGPI WMSR [MXL XLI XVERWMX WXVYGXYVI ERH EZSMHERGI SJ REZMKE

%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6

0SRKMXYHMREP HVEMREKI SJ XVERWMX WXVYGXYVIW MW YWYEPP]

EGGSQTPMWLIHF]TVSZMHMRKEPSRKMXYHMREPWPSTIXSXLIWXVYG
XYVI[MXLEQMRMQYQWPSTISJTIVGIRXTVIJIVVIH7GYT
TIVW SV MRPIXW SJ E WM^I ERH RYQFIV XLEX EVI HIWMKRIH ERH
HIXEMPIH XS HVEMR XLI WXVYGXYVI WLSYPH FI TVSZMHIH (S[R
WTSYXW [LIVI VIUYMVIH WLSYPH FI SJ E VMKMH GSVVSWMSR
VIWMWXERXQEXIVMEPTVIJIVEFPIEQMRMQYQSJMR QQ 
FYXRSXPIWW XLER MR  QQ MR HMEQIXIV(S[RWTSYXW
WLSYPHFITVSZMHIH[MXLGPIERSYXW(IXEMPWSJXLIHS[RWTSYX
ERHMXWHIGOMRPIXERHSYXPIXWLSYPHTVIZIRX[EXIVHMWGLEVKI
EKEMRWX ER] TSVXMSR SJ XLI WXVYGXYVI ERH IVSWMSR EX KVSYRH
PIZIP7PSTIWWLSYPHFIEVVERKIHWSXLEXVYRSJJHVEMRWE[E]
JVSQWXEXMSRW0SRKMXYHMREPKVEHIWXSIRWYVIHVEMREKIWLSYPH
FITPERRIH[MXLXLIREXYVEPXSTSKVETL]SJXLIWMXIXSEZSMHER
*MKFzz;EPO[E]WFIX[IIRVEMPW GSYVXIW]SJ0EW:IKEW YRYWYEPWXVYGXYVEPETTIEVERGI
1SRSVEMP'S  %VGLMXIGXYVEPXVIEXQIRXSJI\TSWIHHS[RWTSYXWMWMQTSV
XERXXSXLIEIWXLIXMGETTIEVERGISJXLIJEGMPMX];LIRXVIEX
QIRXFIGSQIWGSQTPMGEXIHXLIYWISJMRXIVREPSVIQFIHHIH
HS[RWTSYXWMWTVIJIVVIH*SVMRXIVREPSVI\XIVREPHS[RWTSYXW
TVIZIRXMSR SJ MGI EGGYQYPEXMSR MR GSPH[IEXLIV GPMQEXIW
WLSYPHFIGSRWMHIVIH8LMWQE]VIUYMVIPSGEPM^IHLIEXMRKSJ
XLIHVEMREVIEERHHS[RWTSYX%PPSZIVLERKMRKTSVXMSRWSJ
XLIGSRGVIXIHIGOWLSYPHLEZIEHVMTFIEHSVRSXGL
 )\TERWMSR NSMRXW ERH FIEVMRKW{)\TERWMSR NSMRXW
WLSYPH FI TVSZMHIH EX WTER IRHW EPPS[MRK FIEQ IRHW XS
EGGSQQSHEXIQSZIQIRXW JVSQZSPYQIXVMG GLERKIW [MXLMR
XLIWXVYGXYVI8LIWIQSZIQIRXWGSQIJVSQWIZIVEPTVMQEV]
WSYVGIW XIQTIVEXYVI GLERKI GSRGVIXI WLVMROEKI GVIIT
IJJIGXW JVSQ TVIWXVIWWMRK ERH TSWXXIRWMSRMRK WLSVXIRMRK
.SMRXWWLSYPHFIHIWMKRIHXSVIHYGIRSMWIXVERWQMWWMSRERH
TVIZIRXQSMWXYVIJVSQWIITMRKXSXLIFIEVMRKW
%HIUYEXIHIXEMPMRKWLSYPHFITVSZMHIHXSJEGMPMXEXIQEMR
XIRERGISJFIEVMRKWERHXLIMVVITPEGIQIRXMJSV[LIRRIIHIH
HYVMRKXLIPMJISJXLIWXVYGXYVI*MKYVIWLS[WFIEVMRKW
FIX[IIR XLI FS\ KMVHIV ERH XLI FIRX GET XLEX EVI GPIEVP]
ZMWMFPI%GGIWWJSVNEGOMRKXLIWXVYGXYVIJSVFIEVMRKVITPEGI
QIRXMWIRLERGIH
When using aprons or finger plates, they should be
HIWMKRIHXSWTERXLINSMRXERHTVIZIRXHIFVMWEGGYQYPEXMSR
SRXLIFIEVMRKWIEXW
 (YVEFMPMX]{8SWEXMWJ]EHIWMKRPMJISJ]IEVWSV
QSVI HIXEMPW EJJIGXMRK HYVEFMPMX] SJ XLI WXVYGXYVI{QEXI
*MK zz&IEVMRKW WLSYPH FI HIWMKRIH JSV VMEPWWIPIGXMSRWXVYGXYVEPHIXEMPMRKERHGSRWXVYGXMSRUYEPMX]
IEW]VITPEGIQIRX GSYVXIW]SJ4'%  GSRXVSP{WLSYPHFIKMZIREHIUYEXIGSRWMHIVEXMSR
1EXIVMEPW WIPIGXMSR MRGPYHIW GSRGVIXI ERH MXW QM\XYVI
TVSTSVXMSR EPPS[MRK JSV E PS[ [EXIVGIQIRXMXMSYW QEXI
XMSREP LE^EVHW [LIR XVERWMX WXVYGXYVIW TEWW SZIV REZMKEFPI VMEP VEXMS [GQ  ERH EMV IRXVEMRQIRX MR EVIEW WYFNIGX XS
[EXIV[E]W JVII^MRKERHXLE[MRK EGXMSR )TS\]GSEXIH VIMRJSVGIQIRX
 0MKLXMRK{8LI VIUYMVIQIRXW JSV XVERWMX WXVYGXYVI and concrete sealers may be beneficial if:
PMKLXMRK WLSYPH FI JSPPS[IH MREGGSVHERGI [MXL TVSZMWMSRW E 'LPSVMHIYWIMWERXMGMTEXIHEWTEVXSJXLI[MRXIVWRS[
SJXLIEYXLSVMX]LEZMRKNYVMWHMGXMSR4VSZMWMSRWQE]VIUYMVI GPIEVMRKSTIVEXMSRW
PMKLXMRKJSVIQIVKIRG]YWISRP]JSVTVSTIVXMIWEHNEGIRXXSXLI F  8LI KYMHI[E] QE] FI I\TSWIH XS WEPX WTVE] JVSQ E
KYMHI[E]WXVYGXYVISVXLEXPMKLXMRKFIIPMQMREXIHEPXSKIXLIV GSEWXEPIRZMVSRQIRX
 (VEMREKI{8STVIZIRXEGGYQYPEXMSRSJ[EXIV[MXLMR G %HNEGIRXLMKL[E]WEVIXVIEXIH[MXLHIMGMRKGLIQMGEPW
XLIXVEGOEVIEXVERWMXWXVYGXYVIWWLSYPHFIHIWMKRIHWSXLEX -R WXVYGXYVEP HIXEMPMRK VIMRJSVGIQIRX SV RSRGSVVSWMZI
WYVJEGIVYRSJJMWHVEMRIHXSXLIIHKISVGIRXIVSJXLIWYTIV VIMRJSVGIQIRXTPEGIQIRXERHQIXLSHWXSTVIZIRXHIPIXIVMSYW
WXVYGXYVI[LIVIXLI[EXIVGERFIGEVVMIHPSRKMXYHMREPP] GSRHMXMSRWJVSQSGGYVVMRKWLSYPHFIGSRWMHIVIH6IMRJSVGI
QIRX WLSYPH FI HMWXVMFYXIH MR XLI WIGXMSR XS GSRXVSP GVEGO

%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6 

HMWXVMFYXMSR ERH WM^I %'- 74 ?%'- 'SQQMXXII 

A  8LI GSZIV WLSYPH TVSZMHI EHIUYEXI TVSXIGXMSR XS
XLIVIMRJSVGIQIRXERHJSPPS[EREXMSREPP]VIGSKRM^IHGSHI
(ACI 318 or AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
[AASHTO 2012]) or specific project requirements.
-RGMHIRXEP ERH EGGMHIRXEP PSEHMRKW WLSYPH FI EGGSYRXIH
JSVERHEHIUYEXIVIMRJSVGIQIRXTVSZMHIHXSMRXIVWIGXTSXIR
XMEPGVEGOW7XVE]IPIGXVMGEPGYVVIRXW[LMGLGSYPHTVIGMTMXEXI
KEPZERMG GSVVSWMSR WLSYPH FI EGGSYRXIH JSV MR IPIGXVMGEP
LEVH[EVIERHIUYMTQIRXHIWMKRERHXLIMVKVSYRHMRK
'SRWXVYGXMSR UYEPMX] GSRXVSP MW IWWIRXMEP XS IRWYVI XLEX
HIWMKR MRXIRX ERH HYVEFMPMX] GSRWMHIVEXMSRW EVI TVSTIVP]
implemented. Construction inspectors should be qualified,
experienced, and certified as ACI Concrete Special Inspec
XSVW5YEPMX]GSRXVSPWLSYPHJSPPS[ETVIIWXEFPMWLIHJSVQEP
plan with inspections performed as specified in the contract
HSGYQIRXW%'-6TVSZMHIWKYMHERGIJSVIWXEFPMWLMRK *MKzz9VFERMQTEGX GSYVXIW]SJ4'% 
JSVQEPTPERW
8S WEXMWJ] E ]IEV WIVZMGI PMJI VIKYPEV MRWTIGXMSR ERH IQIVKIRG] WIVZMGI EGGIWW ERH XLI IQIVKIRG] IZEGYEXMSR
QEMRXIRERGI TVSKVEQW WLSYPH FI MRWXMXYXIH XS IRWYVI XLI SJTEWWIRKIVW%GGIWWXSXLIKYMHI[E]VIUYMVIWWXEMVW[EPO
MRXIKVMX] SJ WXVYGXYVEP GSQTSRIRXW 4VSKVEQW QE] MRGPYHI ways, and platforms. How they are configured, attached, and
TIVMSHMGTPEGIQIRXSJGSEXMRKWWIEPIVWSVGLIQMGEPRIYXVEP [LIVIXLI]EVIPSGEXIH[MPPEJJIGXXLIZMWYEPVIGITXMSRF]XLI
M^IVW %HIUYEXI PMKLXMRK QE] FI RIGIWWEV] [LIVI REXYVEP TYFPMG
light may be insufficient, such as inside box girder structures.  4L]WMGEP ETTIEVERGI{% KYMHI[E] GSRWXVYGXIH MR
ER] FYMPXYT IRZMVSRQIRX WLSYPH QIIX LMKL WXERHEVHW SJ
{)GSRSQMGGSRWMHIVEXMSRW aesthetics for physical appearance. The size and configura
8LIIGSRSQ]SJEGSRGVIXIKYMHI[E]MWQIEWYVIHF]XLI XMSRSJKYMHI[E]IPIQIRXWWLSYPHIRWYVIGSQTEXMFMPMX][MXL
ERRYEPQEMRXIRERGIGSWXERHGETMXEPM^IHGSWXJSVMXWWIVZMGI MXW WYVVSYRHMRKW ;LIVIEW XLI VERKI SJ WM^IW ERH WLETIW
PMJI8LIHIWMKRTVSGIWWWLSYPHMRGPYHITVSZMWMSRWXSQMRM MWYRPMQMXIH MR XLI WIPIGXMSR SJ KYMHI[E] GSQTSRIRXW XLI
QM^MRK STIVEXMSRW ERH QEMRXIRERGI GSWX 'SRWMHIVEXMSR JSPPS[MRKWLSYPHFIGSRWMHIVIH
XLIVIJSVI WLSYPH FI KMZIR XS XLI WIVZMGI PMJI GSWX SJ XLI E :MI[HMWVYTXMSR
KYMHI[E]WXVYGXYVI8LIS[RIVWWLSYPHIWXEFPMWLKYMHIPMRIW F 7LEHIERHWLIPXIVGVIEXIHF]XLIKYMHI[E]
JSVEGSWXEREP]WMW)GSRSQ]MWGSRWMHIVIHF]GSQTEVEXMZI G &PSGOEKISJTIHIWXVMER[EPO[E]W
WXYHMIWSJ VIMRJSVGIHTVIWXVIWWIH ERH TEVXMEPP] TVIWXVIWWIH d) Blockage of streets and the effect on traffic and parking
GSRGVIXI GSRWXVYGXMSR8VEHISJJW WLSYPHFI GSRWMHIVIH JSV e) Impairment of sight distances for traffic
YWMRK LMKLIVKVEHI QEXIVMEPW MR WIRWMXMZI EVIEW HYVMRK XLI J +YMHI[E]WM^IEWMXVIPEXIWXSEHNEGIRXWXVYGXYVIW
MRMXMEP GSRWXVYGXMSR EKEMRWX XLI MQTEGX SJ W]WXIQ HMWVYT K 'SRWXVYGXMSRMRERYVFERIRZMVSRQIRX
XMSREXEPEXIVHEXIMJXLIXVERWMXW]WXIQ QYWXFIYTKVEHIH L 1IXLSHWSJHIPMZIV]JSVTVIJEFVMGEXIHGSQTSRIRXWERH
*SV I\EQTPI LMKLIVUYEPMX] EKKVIKEXIW QE] FI WIPIGXIH GEWXMRTPEGIGSRWXVYGXMSR
JSV XLI XVEGXMSR WYVJEGI [LIVI PSGEP EKKVIKEXIW LEZI E M -RXIVEGXMSR[MXLVSEH[E]ERHXVERWMXZILMGPIW
XIRHIRG]XSTSPMWL[MXLGSRXMRYSYW[IEV8LI EVKYQIRXMR N :MWYEPGSRXMRYMX]
WYTTSVX JSV LMKLIVKVEHI QEXIVMEPW MW IWTIGMEPP] MQTSVXERX *MKYVI E WLS[W XLI PSGEXMSR SJ KYMHI[E] GSPYQRW
because guideway traffic cannot be rerouted during service to avoid disruption of pedestrian traffic, vehicular traffic on
HMWVYTXMSRW local streets, and traffic sight distances.
*MKYVIF HIQSRWXVEXIW LS[ WQSSXL GYVZIW JSV FSXL
{9VFERMQTEGX WXVYGXYVI ERH ZILMGPI EPPS[ XLI W]WXIQ XS FPIRH MRXS MXW
 +IRIVEP{8LI KYMHI[E] EJJIGXW ER YVFER IRZMVSR WYFYVFERWYVVSYRHMRKW
QIRXMRXLVIIKIRIVEPEVIEWZMWYEPP]TL]WMGEPP]ERHXLVSYKL (IXEMPMRKGSRWMHIVEXMSRWWLSYPHMRGPYHI
EGGIWW SJ TYFPMG WEJIX] IUYMTQIRX *MKYVI WLS[W XLI a) Surface finish
MRXIKVEXMSRSJXLIKYMHI[E][MXLMRXLISXLIVXVERWTSVXEXMSR F 'SPSV
GSVVMHSVWMRXLIZMGMRMX] G .SMRXHIXEMPMRK
:MWYEP MQTEGX MRGPYHIW KYMHI[E] ETTIEVERGI JVSQ XLI H 4VSZMWMSRXSEPPIZMEXIHEQEKIJVSQ[EXIVHVMTTMRKJVSQ
WYVVSYRHMRK EVIE ERH XLI ETTIEVERGI SJ XLI WYVVSYRHMRK XLIWXVYGXYVI
EVIEJVSQXLIKYMHI[E]4L]WMGEPMQTEGXMRGPYHIWTPEGIQIRX I 'SRXVSPERHHMWWMTEXMSRSJWYVJEGI[EXIVVYRSJJ
SJ GSPYQRW ERH FIEQWERHXLIHMWWMTEXMSR SJ RSMWI ZMFVE J (MJJIVIRGIWMRXI\XYVIERHGSPSVFIX[IIRGEWXMRTPEGI
XMSRERHIPIGXVSQEKRIXMGVEHMEXMSR)PIGXVSQEKRIXMGVEHME ERHTVIGEWXIPIQIRXW
tion is usually a specific design consideration of the vehicle  7MKLXPMRIW{-R KYMHI[E] HIWMKR XLI ZMI[ SJ XLI
supplier. Public safety requires provisions for fire, police, WYVVSYRHMRKEVIEJVSQXLIXVERWMXW]WXIQWLSYPHFIGSRWMH
%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6

Fig. 3.5.2a––Design decisions to fit guideway around existing *MKzz)\EQTPISJXLI MQTSVXERGI SJWMKLXPMRIW GSYV
JIEXYVIW GSYVXIW]SJ0EW:IKEW1SRSVEMP'S  XIW]SJ'PEVMER,IEPXL 

LEVH[EVISRXLIKYMHI[E]WXVYGXYVIWLSYPHFIHIWMKRIHXS
meet general or specific noise-suppression criteria. Deter
QMREXMSRSJ XLIWIGVMXIVMEMWQEHISREGEWIF]GEWIFEWMW
JVIUYIRXP] MR GSRNYRGXMSR [MXL XLI ZILMGPI WYTTPMIV%7')
 TVSZMHIW EHHMXMSREP MRJSVQEXMSR VIKEVHMRK EGGITXEFPI
I\XIVMSVRSMWIPIZIPWIQEREXMRKJVSQXLIW]WXIQ
 :MFVEXMSRzz8VERWMXZILMGPIWSREKYMHI[E]KIRIVEXI
ZMFVEXMSRWXLEXQE]FIXVERWQMXXIHXSEHNEGIRXWXVYGXYVIW*SV
QSWXVYFFIVXMVIHXVERWMXW]WXIQWXLMWKVSYRHFSVRIZMFVE
XMSR MW RIKPMKMFPI -R QER] VEMP XVERWMX W]WXIQW IWTIGMEPP]
XLSWIW]WXIQW[MXLNSMRXIHVEMPWXLIRSMWIERHZMFVEXMSRGER
FILMKLP]TIVGITXMFPI-RXLIWIWMXYEXMSRWZMFVEXMSRMWSPEXMSR
SJ XLI WXVYGXYVI MW RIGIWWEV]%7')  GSRXEMRW EHHMXMSREP
MRJSVQEXMSRVIKEVHMRKW]WXIQMRHYGIHZMFVEXMSRW
 )QIVKIRG] WIVZMGIW EGGIWWzz% OI] GSRGIVR MR ER
Fig. 3.5.2b––Clean lines and smooth finishes (courtesy of urban area is the accessibility by fire or other emergency
'PEVMER,IEPXL  IUYMTQIRX XS FYMPHMRKW EHNEGIRX XS E KYMHI[E] ;MXLMR XLI
confined right-of-way (ROW) of an urban street, space limita
IVIH8LIIRKMRIIVWLSYPHVIGSKRM^IXLEXTEXVSRWVMHMRKSR XMSRWQEOIXLMWETEVXMGYPEVP]WIRWMXMZIGSRGIVR-RQSWXGEWIW
XLIXVERWMXW]WXIQ[MPPLEZIEHMJJIVIRXZMI[XLERTIHIWXVMERW EGPIEVERGISJETTVS\MQEXIP]JX Q FIX[IIRXLIJEGISJ
EXWXVIIXPIZIPXLIKYMHI[E]TPEGIQIRXERHWMKLXPMRIWWLSYPH EWXVYGXYVIERHEKYMHI[E]TVSZMHIWEHIUYEXIEGGIWW%GGIWW
reflect sensitivity to intrusion on private properties and adja SZIVXLIXSTSJEKYMHI[E]QE]RSXVITVIWIRXEWEJISTXMSR
GIRXFYMPHMRKW-RWSQIGEWIWXLIYWISJRSMWIFEVVMIVWERH
HYWXWGVIIRWWLSYPHFIGSRWMHIVIH {8VERWMXSTIVEXMSRW
*MKYVI  TVSZMHIW ER I\EQTPI SJ GPIER WMKLXPMRIW EW  +IRIVEP{3RGI E XVERWMX W]WXIQ MW STIRIH JSV
XLIKYMHI[E]WTERWXVEHHPIWXLITVSNIGXIHPMRIWSJXLI[EXIV WIVZMGIXLITYFPMGHITIRHWSRMXWEZEMPEFMPMX]ERHVIPMEFMPMX]
GLERRIPFI]SRH 7LYXHS[RW XS TIVQMX QEMRXIRERGI STIVEXMSR SV I\TER
:MI[W SJ XLI KYMHI[E] JVSQ E LMKLIV ZERXEKI TSMRX EVI WMSRSJXLIW]WXIQGEREJJIGXXLIEZEMPEFMPMX]ERHVIPMEFMPMX]
MQTSVXERXJSVETSWMXMZIMQTVIWWMSRSJXLIXVERWMXW]WXIQSR 8LIWI GSRGIVRW SJXIR PIEH XS PSRKXIVQ IGSRSQMG STIVE
TSXIRXMEPTEXVSRW8LIMRXIVMSVWLSYPHTVIWIRXEGPIERSVHIVP] XMSREP ERH TPERRMRK EREP]WIW SJ XLI XVERWMX W]WXIQ HIWMKR
ETTIEVERGIXSXVERWMXTEXVSRWERHEHNEGIRXSFWIVZIVW ERHGSRWXVYGXMSR
 2SMWIWYTTVIWWMSR{%XVERWMXW]WXIQ[MPPEHHXSXLI -R QSWX XVERWMX STIVEXMSRW E WLYXHS[R TIVMSH FIX[IIR
ambient background noise. Specifications for new construc  ERH  EQ GER FI XSPIVEXIH WPMKLXP] PSRKIV WLYX
XMSR KIRIVEPP] VIUYMVI XLEX XLI [E]WMHI RSMWI  JX  Q  HS[RW QE] FI TSWWMFPI MR GIVXEMR PSGEXMSRW ERH SR LSPM
JVSQXLIKYMHI[E]RSXI\GIIHEVERKISJXSH&%8LMW HE]W-XMWHYVMRKWLYXHS[RXLEXVSYXMRIQEMRXIRERGI[SVO
RSMWI MW KIRIVEXIH JVSQ SRFSEVH ZILMGPI IUYMTQIRX WYGL MWTIVJSVQIH
EWTVSTYPWMSRERHEMVGSRHMXMSRMRKYRMXWERHJVSQZILMGPI 1ER] XVERWMX W]WXIQW EPWS TIVJSVQ QEMRXIRERGI HYVMRK
XVEGOMRXIVEGXMSRIWTIGMEPP][LIRNSMRXIHVEMPMWYWIH RSVQEP STIVEXMRK LSYVW 8LMW TVEGXMGI XIRHW XS GSQTVS
2SVQEPP] MX MW XLI ZILMGPI IRKMRIIVvW VIWTSRWMFMPMX] XS QMWI [SVO TVSHYGXMZMX] KYMHI[E] EGGIWW VYPIW ERH E WEJI
GSRXVSPRSMWIIQEREXMRKJVSQXLIZILMGPI4EVETIXWERHSXLIV [SVOMRK WTEGI 8VERWMX STIVEXSVW WLSYPH TVSZMHI XLI IRKM

%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6 

RIIV [MXL KYMHIPMRIW VIKEVHMRK GETMXEP GSWX SFNIGXMZIW ERH

XLIMVSTIVEXMSRERHQEMRXIRERGITPERW
 7TIGMEP ZILMGPIW{8VERWMX W]WXIQW JVIUYIRXP] YWI
WTIGMEPZILMGPIWJSVWTIGMEPXEWOWWYGLEWVIXVMIZMRKHMWEFPIH
ZILMGPIWERHVITEMVMRKWYTTSVXSVWXIIVMRKWYVJEGIW;LMPIXLI
HIWMKRQE]RSXFITVIHMGEXIHSRXLIYWISJWTIGMEPZILMGPIW
XLIMVJVIUYIRG]SJYWIERHXLIMV[IMKLXWERHWM^IWWLSYPHFI
GSRWMHIVIHMRXLIHIWMKRSJXLIWXVYGXYVI
 7]WXIQ I\TERWMSR{)\TERWMSR SJ E XVERWMX W]WXIQ
GERVIWYPXMRWYFWXERXMEPHMWVYTXMSRERHHIPE]XSXVERWMXSTIVE
XMSR[LMPIIUYMTQIRXWYGLEWW[MXGLIWMWFIMRKMRWXEPPIH-R
XLIMRMXMEPHIWMKRERHPE]SYXSJEXVERWMXW]WXIQGSRWMHIVEXMSR
WLSYPHFIKMZIRXSJYXYVII\TERWMSRTSWWMFMPMXMIW4VSZMWMSRW *MK zz+YMHI[E] WYVJEGIW GSYVXIW] SJ 'PEVMER
WLSYPH FI MRGSVTSVEXIH MR XLI MRMXMEP HIWMKR ERH GSRWXVYG ,IEPXL 
XMSRTLEWIWMJI\TERWMSREJXIVGSRWXVYGXMSRMWGSRXIQTPEXIH
[MXLMR XLI JSVIWIIEFPI JYXYVI ERH XLI TVSFEFPI I\TERWMSR WXVMGXIVXSPIVERGIVIUYMVIQIRXWWLSYPHFIETTPMIHEWHIXIV
TSMRXWEVIORS[R QMRIH F] XLI S[RIVIRKMRIIV [MXL VIJIVIRGI XS XLI *6%
which provides track tolerances based on track classifica
{7XVYGXYVIZILMGPIMRXIVEGXMSR XMSRWXLEXEVIVIPEXIHXSTIVQMWWMFPIWTIIH
 +IRIVEP{:ILMGPI MRXIVEGXMSR [MXL XLI KYMHI[E]  :IVXMGEP QMWEPMKRQIRX{:IVXMGEP QMWEPMKR
GEREJJIGXMXWTIVJSVQERGISRWYTTSVXWXIIVMRKTS[IVHMWXVM QIRXQSWXSJXIRSGGYVW[LIREHNEGIRXFIEQIRHWQIIXEXE
FYXMSRERHXVEGXMSRGSQTSRIRXWSJXLIW]WXIQ-XMWYWYEPP] GSPYQRSVSXLIVGSRRIGXMSR
considered in design through the specification of service There are two types of vertical misalignment. The first is
ability requirements for the structure. In the final design stage, TL]WMGEP HMWTPEGIQIRX SJ EHNEGIRX WYVJEGIW [LMGL SGGYVW
GPSWIGSSVHMREXMSR[MXLXLIZILMGPIWYTTPMIVMWMQTIVEXMZI [LIRSRIFIEQMWMRWXEPPIHWPMKLXP]PS[IVSVLMKLIVXLERXLI
 6MHIUYEPMX] EHNEGIRXFIEQ8LMWX]TISJQMWEPMKRQIRXWLSYPHFIPMQMXIH
 +IRIVEP—Ride quality is influenced to a great degree XSPMR QQ  %'- 
by the quality of the guideway surface. System specifications 8LI WIGSRH X]TI SJ ZIVXMGEP QMWEPMKRQIRX SGGYVW [LIR
YWYEPP] TVIWIRX VMHI UYEPMX] GVMXIVME EW PEXIVEP ZIVXMGEP ERH XLIVI MW ERKYPEV HMWTPEGIQIRX FIX[IIR FIEQW [LMGL QE]
PSRKMXYHMREPEGGIPIVEXMSRWERH NIVO GLERKIMR VEXISJEGGIP result from excessive deflection, sag, or camber. Excessive
eration), as measured inside the vehicle. These specifications GEQFIVSVWEKGVIEXIWEHMWGSRXMRYMX]XLEXMQTEVXWERSXMGI
WLSYPH FI XVERWPEXIH MRXS TL]WMGEP HMQIRWMSRW ERH WYVJEGI EFPIMRTYXXSXLIZILMGPIWYWTIRWMSRW]WXIQ-XMWHIWMVEFPI
UYEPMXMIWSRXLIKYMHI[E]ERHMRXLIZILMGPIWYWTIRWMSR XSLEZIXLIKMVHIVGEQFIVGPSWIXS^IVSEXXLIXMQIXLEXXLI
8[SIPIQIRXWXLEXQSWXMQQIHMEXIP]EJJIGXXVERWMXZILMGPI KYMHI[E]WXVYGXYVIMWQEHIGSRXMRYSYW8LIIRKMRIIVQYWX
TIVJSVQERGI EVI XLI WYTTSVX ERH WXIIVMRK WYVJEGIW *MKYVI EPWSGSRWMHIVXLIWQSSXLGVSWWMRKSJI\TERWMSRNSMRXWERH
 WLS[WKYMHI[E] WYVJEGIWHMWGYWWIH MRXLI JSPPS[MRK HIXEMPEGGSVHMRKP]
WIGXMSRW -R XLI HIWMKR ERH GSRWXVYGXMSR SJ FIEQW XLI IJJIGXW SJ
 7YTTSVXWYVJEGI{8LIWYTTSVXWYVJEGIMWXLILSVM service load deflection, initial camber, and long-time deflec
^SRXEP WYVJEGI SJ XLI KYMHI[E] XLEX WYTTSVXW XLI XVERWMX tions should be considered. There is no clear definition on
vehicle against the forces of gravity. It influences the vehicle XLIEQSYRXSJERKYPEVHMWGSRXMRYMX]XLEXGERFIXSPIVEXIHEX
TIVJSVQERGIF]XLIMRXVSHYGXMSRSJVERHSQHIZMEXMSRWJVSQ EFIEQNSMRX(IWMKRWXLEXXIRHXSQMRMQM^IERKYPEVHMWGSR
EXLISVIXMGEPP]TIVJIGXEPMKRQIRX8LIWIHIZMEXMSRWEVIMRTYX XMRYMX]LS[IZIVKIRIVEPP]TVSZMHIEWYTIVMSVVMHI'SRXMR
to the vehicle suspension system. Influence of the support uous guideways are particularly beneficial in controlling
WYVJEGISRXLIZILMGPIMWEJYRGXMSRSJXLIWYWTIRWMSRW]WXIQ WYGLQMWEPMKRQIRX
X]TI XLI WYTTSVX QIHMYQ WYGL EW WXIIP [LIIPW SV VYFFIV  'EQFIV{'EQFIV SV WEK MR XLIFIEQ GEREPWS
XMVIW ERHZILMGPIWTIIH EJJIGXVMHIUYEPMX]'SRWMWXIRXYT[EVHGEQFIVMRWXVYGXYVIW
8LIVIEVIXLVIIKIRIVEPGSQTSRIRXWSJWYTTSVXWYVJEGIWXS [MXLWMQMPEVWTERPIRKXLWGERGVIEXIELEVQSRMGZMFVEXMSRMR
GSRWMHIVPSGEPVSYKLRIWWQMWEPMKRQIRXERHGEQFIV the vehicle, resulting in dynamic amplification, especially in
 0SGEP VSYKLRIWW{0SGEP VSYKLRIWW MW XLI continuous structures. When there is no specific deflection
EQSYRXSJHMWXSVXMSRSRXLIWYVJEGIJVSQEXLISVIXMGEPP]XVYI SV GEQFIV GVMXIVME GMXIH JSV E TVSNIGX XLI IRKMRIIV WLSYPH
WYVJEGI-RQSWXXVERWMXETTPMGEXMSRWXLIGVMXIVMSRSJEMR EGGSYRX JSV XLIWI H]REQMG IJJIGXWF] EREP]XMGEP SV WMQYPE
QQ QE\MQYQHIZMEXMSRJVSQEJX Q WXVEMKLXIHKI tion techniques. The deflection compatibility requirements
MWYWIH %'-  FIX[IIR WXVYGXYVEP IPIQIRXW ERH WXEXMSR TPEXJSVQ IHKIW
;MXLWXIIPVEMPWE*IHIVEP6EMP[E]%HQMRMWXVEXMSR *6%  WLSYPHFIGLIGOIH
'PEWW *6% XSPIVERGIMWEGGITXEFPI*6%TVSZMWMSRW  7XIIVMRK WYVJEGI{8LI WXIIVMRK WYVJEGI TVSZMHIW
MRGPYHI VIUYMVIQIRXW JSV PSRKMXYHMREP ERH XVERWZIVWI VSPP  LSVM^SRXEP MRTYX XS XLI ZILMGPI 7XIIVMRK WYVJEGIW QE] FI
XSPIVERGIW 8LIWI XSPIVERGIW EVI GSRWMWXIRX [MXL STIVEXMRK running rails for a flanged steel-wheel-rail system on concrete
WTIIHW SJ YT XS  QTL  OQL  %FSZI XLIWI WTIIHW SVWXIIPZIVXMGEPWYVJEGIWMRXIKVEXIH[MXLXLIKYMHI[E]WXVYG
%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6

8EFPIzz8VEGOGSRWXVYGXMSRXSPIVERGIW
:EVMEXMSRWj 8VEGOEPMKRQIRXHIZMEXMSR
1MHHPISVHMREXIJX Q 
'VSWWPIZIPERH 8SXEPMR QQ GSVHMR QQ
+EYKI WYTIVIPIZEXMSRMR
8]TIERHGPEWWSJXVEGO MR QQ QQ ,SVM^SRXEP :IVXMGEP ,SVM^SRXEP :IVXMGEP
Direct fixation and ballasted main line            
z
&EPPEWXIH]EVHERHWIGSRHEV]PMRIW          
z

8SPIVERGIWEVIEPPTSWMXMZIYRPIWWSXLIV[MWIMRHMGEXIH
j
:EVMEXMSRWJVSQXLISVIXMGEPKEYKIGVSWWPIZIPERHWYTIVIPIZEXMSREVIRSXXSI\GIIHMR QQ TIVJXMR Q SJXVEGO
2SXI8LIXSXEPHIZMEXMSRMRHMWXERGIJVSQXLITPEXJSVQWLSYPHFIMRXS[EVHXLITPEXJSVQERHMR QQ E[E]JVSQXLITPEXJSVQ8SXEPHIZMEXMSRMWQIEWYVIHFIX[IIRXLI
XLISVIXMGEPERHXLIEGXYEPEPMKRQIRXWEXER]TSMRXEPSRKXLIXVEGO

QIGLERMWQWEGSYTPIGERFIGVIEXIHFIX[IIRXLIX[SXLEX
GEYWIWEWTYVMSYWWXIIVMRKMRTYXXSXLIZILMGPI;LMPIXLIVI
are no general specifications for this condition, the engineer
should be aware of this condition. If there is a significant
HMWXERGI FIX[IIR XLI LSVM^SRXEP ERH X[S ZIVXMGEP GSRXEGX
surfaces, additional tolerance requirements for the finished
WYVJEGIWWLSYPHFIMQTSWIH8LMWWLSYPHVIHYGIXLIGSRWMH
IVEFPIWXIIVMRKMRTYX[LMGLGERGEYWISZIVWXIIVMRKSVYRHIV
WXIIVMRKPIEHMRKXSEREGGIPIVEXIH[IEVSJGSQTSRIRXWERH
HIKVEHIHVMHIGSQJSVX
 8VEGXMSR WYVJEGIW{8VERWMX ZILMGPIW HIVMZI XLIMV
XVEGXMSR JVSQ XLI TL]WMGEP GSRXEGX SJ XLI [LIIPW [MXL XLI
GSRGVIXISVVYRRMRKVEMPSVXLVSYKLERIPIGXVSQEKRIXMGJSVGI
-R W]WXIQW [LIVI XVEGXMSR SGGYVW XLVSYKL TL]WMGEP GSRXEGX
with the guideway, specific attention should be given to the
XVEGXMSRWYVJEGI
-REYXSQEXIHXVERWMXXLIXVEGXMSRFIX[IIRXLI[LIIPERH
XLIVIEGXMSRWYVJEGIMWIWWIRXMEPXSIRWYVIEGSRWMWXIRXEGGIP
IVEXMSREWEJIWXSTTMRKHMWXERGIFIX[IIRZILMGPIWERHJSV
EYXSQEXMGGSRXVSPJYRGXMSRW8LIIRKMRIIVWLSYPHHIXIVQMRI
*MK{-RXIVEGXMSRFIX[IIRWYTTSVXERHWXIIVMRK minimum traction required for specific technology employed.
-J XLI XVEGXMSR WYVJEGI MW GSRGVIXI ETTVSTVMEXI EKKVIKEXIW
XYVIJSVEVYFFIVXMVIHW]WXIQ8LIWXIIVMRKWYVJEGIGSRHMXMSR WLSYPH FI TVSZMHIH MR XLI QM\XYVI TVSTSVXMSR XS QEMRXEMR
MWTEVXMGYPEVP]MQTSVXERXFIGEYWIJI[ZILMGPIWLEZIWSTLMW QMRMQYQXVEGXMSRJSVXLIWXVYGXYVIvW[SVOMRKPMJI3TIVEXMSR
XMGEXIH PEXIVEP WYWTIRWMSR W]WXIQW -R QSWX I\MWXMRK KYMHI MRJVII^MRKVEMRSVWRS[QE]EPWSEJJIGXKYMHI[E]XVEGXMSR
[E]WXLIXSPIVERGISJMR QQ HIZMEXMSRJVSQEJX 8LIIRKMRIIVWLSYPHHIXIVQMRIXLIHIKVIISJXVEGXMSRQEMR
Q WXVEMKLXIHKI %'- GSVVIGXIHJSVLSVM^SRXEPGYVZE XIRERGIVIUYMVIHYRHIVEPPSTIVEXMRKGSRHMXMSRW-JJYPPQEMR
XYVI LEW TVSZIR XS FI EHIUYEXI JSV VYFFIVXMVIH ZILMGPIW XIRERGIMWVIUYMVIHXLIIRKMRIIVWLSYPHI\EQMRIQIXLSHWXS
STIVEXMRKEXQTL OQL SVPIWW-RWXIIPVEMPW]WXIQW QMXMKEXIIJJIGXWSJWRS[SVJVII^MRKVEMR1MXMKEXMRKIJJIGXW
ER*6%'PEWW *6% VEMPXSPIVERGILEWTVSZIRXSFI QE]MRGPYHILIEXMRKSVIRGPSWMRKXLIKYMHI[E]SVFSXL
WEXMWJEGXSV]JSVWTIIHWYTXSQTL OQL %HHMXMSREP -J HIMGMRK GLIQMGEPW EVI GSRXIQTPEXIH TVSTIV QEXI
XSPIVERGIPMQMXWEVITVSZMHIHMR8EFPI VMEP WIPIGXMSR ERH TVSXIGXMSR WLSYPH FI GSRWMHIVIH 'SVVS
8LIVI MW ERMRXIVEGXMSRFIX[IIR XLI WXIIVMRKWYVJEGI ERH WMSR TVSXIGXMSR QE] VIUYMVI GSRWMHIVEXMSR SJ EHHMXMSREP
WYTTSVXWYVJEGI[LMGLMWXIGLRSPSK]HITIRHIRXERHVIUYMVIW GSRGVIXI GSZIV WIEPERXW ITS\]GSEXIH VIMRJSVGMRK WXIIP SV
specific consideration by the engineer. This interaction SXLIV RSRGSVVSWMZI VIMRJSVGIQIRX EPXIVREXMZIW ERH WTIGMEP
VIWYPXW JVSQ E GSYTPMRK IJJIGX XLEX SGGYVW [LIR E ZILMGPI GSRGVIXIQM\XYVIW
VSPPWSRXLITVMQEV]WYWTIRWMSRW]WXIQGEYWMRKXLIWXIIVMRK  )PIGXVMGEP TS[IV HMWXVMFYXMSRzz8LIVI EVI X[S
QIGLERMWQXSQSZIYTERHHS[R *MK 8LIHIKVII GSQTSRIRXW XS IPIGXVMGEP TS[IV HMWXVMFYXMSR XLI [E]WMHI
SJXLMWYTERHHS[RQSZIQIRXMWHITIRHIRXSRXLIWXIIVMRK XVERWQMWWMSRSJTS[IVXSXLIZILMGPIERHXLITVMQEV]TS[IV
QIGLERMWQ[LMGLMWX]TMGEPP]ERMRXIKVEPTEVXSJXLIZILMGPI HMWXVMFYXMSR XS XLI KYMHI[E] ;E]WMHI TS[IV HMWXVMFYXMSR
XVYGO FSKMI W]WXIQERHXLIWXMJJRIWWSJXLITVMQEV]WYWTIR XSXLIZILMGPIMWRSVQEPP] EGLMIZIH XLVSYKLTS[IVVEMPW SV
WMSR[LMGLMWEPWS[MXLMRXLIXVYGOEWWIQFP] ER SZIVLIEH GEXIREV] 4VSZMWMSRW WLSYPH FI QEHI SR XLI
(ITIRHMRK SR XLI VIPEXMSRWLMT FIX[IIR WYTTSVX ERH KYMHI[E]JSVQSYRXMRKWYTTSVXIUYMTQIRXJSVXLMWX]TISJ
WXIIVMRK WYVJEGIW ERH XLI ZILMGPIvW WYTTSVX ERH KYMHERGI MRWXEPPEXMSR

%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6 

*SV W]WXIQW YWMRK WXIIP VYRRMRK VEMPW [LIVI XLI VYRRMRK ;LIR GLSMGIW EVI EZEMPEFPI LS[IZIV XLI TPEGIQIRX SJ
VEMP MW YWIH JSV VIXYVR GYVVIRX TVSZMWMSRW WLSYPH EPWS FI GSPYQRWXSKIRIVEXIWXVEMKLXFIEQWEWSTTSWIHXSXLSWI[MXL
QEHIXSGSRXVSPER]WXVE]IPIGXVMGEPGYVVIRXWXLEXQE]GEYWI EWPMKLXLSVM^SRXEPSVZIVXMGEPGYVZEXYVI[MPPYWYEPP]TVSZIXS
GSVVSWMSRMR XLIKYMHI[E] VIMRJSVGIQIRX SV KIRIVEXI SXLIV FIQSVIGSWXIJJIGXMZI
WXVE]GYVVIRXWMREHNEGIRXWXVYGXYVIWSVYXMPMXMIW8LITVMQEV] 7XERHEVHM^EXMSRERHGSSVHMREXMSRSJMRXIVREPGSQTSRIRXW
TS[IVHMWXVMFYXMSRRIX[SVOEWWSGMEXIH[MXLEKYMHI[E]QE] and fixtures of the guideway also tend to reduce overall
VIUYMVI WIZIVEP WYFWXEXMSRW EPSRK XLI XVERWMX VSYXI 4S[IV GSWX8LIWIMRGPYHIMRWIVXWJSVTS[IVIUYMTQIRXW[MXGLIW
WLSYPH FI XVERWQMXXIH XS XLI TS[IV VEMPW SR XLI KYMHI[E] SV SXLIV WYTTSVX IPIQIRXW 1IXLSHW XS EGLMIZI XLMW EVI
WXVYGXYVIEXZEVMSYWMRXIVZEPW8LMWMWYWYEPP]HSRIXLVSYKL HMWGYWWIHMR
GSRHYMXWQSYRXIHSRSVIQFIHHIHMRXLIKYMHI[E]WXVYGXYVI  ,SVM^SRXEP KISQIXV]{8LI LSVM^SRXEP KISQIXV] SJ
-RXIVREPGSRHYMXWEVIEREGGITXEFPIQIERWSJXVERWQMXXMRK EKYMHI[E]EPMKRQIRXGSRWMWXWSJGMVGYPEVGYVZIWGSRRIGXIH
TS[IV XLI] QE] FI YWIH XS VSYXI TS[IV JVSQ XLI WYFWXE XS XERKIRX IPIQIRXW [MXL WTMVEP XVERWMXMSRW 1SWX X]TIW SJ
XMSRXSXLIKYMHI[E]%GGIWWXSMRXIVREPGSRHYMXWLS[IZIV GYFMG WTMVEPW EVI WEXMWJEGXSV] JSV XLI XVERWMXMSR WTMVEP 8LI
is difficult to detail and construct. Sufficient space should ZILMGPIQERYJEGXYVIVQE]TVSZMHIEHHMXMSREPGSRWXVEMRXWSR
FITVSZMHIH[MXLMRXLIGSPYQRFIEQGSRRIGXMSRERH[MXLMR XLI WTMVEP KISQIXV] WIPIGXMSR XS QEXGL XLI H]REQMG GLEV
XLIFIEQWIGXMSRJSVXLIGSRHYMXXYVRW7TEGIWLSYPHEPWSFI EGXIVMWXMGWSJXLIZILMGPI8LILSVM^SRXEPKISQIXV]MWSJXIR
TVSZMHIH JSV WEJI IPIGXVMGEP GSRRIGXMSRW )\XIVMSV GSRHYMXW HIZIPSTIH F] XLI IRKMRIIV MR GSRNYRGXMSR [MXL GSRWXVEMRXW
GER HIXVEGX JVSQ XLI KYMHI[E] ETTIEVERGI ERH VIUYMVI TVSZMHIHF]XLIZILMGPIQERYJEGXYVIVW
MRGVIEWIHQEMRXIRERGIVIUYMVIQIRXW  :IVXMGEP KISQIXV]{:IVXMGEP KISQIXV] GSRWMWXW SJ
 7TIGMEP IUYMTQIRX{% KYMHI[E] RSVQEPP] GEVVMIW XERKIRX WIGXMSRW GSRRIGXIH F] TEVEFSPMG GYVZIW -R QSWX
WIZIVEP TMIGIW SJ WTIGMEP XVERWMX IUYMTQIRX [LMGL QE] cases, the radius of curvature of the parabolic curves is suffi
GSRWMWXSJW[MXGLIWWMKREPMRKGSQQERHERHGSRXVSP[MVMRK GMIRXP]PSRKWSXLEXEXVERWMXMSRFIX[IIRXLIXERKIRXWIGXMSR
SVWYTTPIQIRXEPXVEGXMSRERHTS[IVHIZMGIW8LIWTIGMEPM^IH ERH XLI TEVEFSPMG WIGXMSR MW RSX VIUYMVIH *MKYVI  MW
XVERWMX WYTTPMIV WLSYPH TVSZMHI XLI IRKMRIIV [MXL I\TPMGMX ERI\EQTPISJ EKYMHI[E]EW[IPPEWFS\KMVHIVKISQIXV]
specifications of special equipment and their spatial restric TVSZMHMRKKIRXPIETTIEPMRKPMRIW
XMSRW*SVI\EQTPIXLITPEGIQIRXSJWMKREPMRKGEFPIWQE] 8LIIRKMRIIVWLSYPHZIVMJ]XLIVEHMYWSJGYVZEXYVIJSVXLI
FIVIWXVMGXIH[MXLMREGIVXEMRHMWXERGISJXLI[E]WMHITS[IV TEVEFSPMGGYVZIWTVSZMHMRKEZIVXMGEPEGGIPIVEXMSRXLEXWLSYPH
VEMPWSVVIMRJSVGMRKWXIIP be less than the maximum specified by the design criteria for
8LIXVERWMXWYTTPMIVWLSYPHEPWSTVSZMHIXLIIRKMRIIV[MXL XLIKMZIRTVSNIGX
HIXEMPWERHTIVJSVQERGIVIUYMVIQIRXWSJWTIGMEPIUYMTQIRX  7YTIVIPIZEXMSR{7YTIVIPIZEXMSR MW ETTPMIH XS LSVM
WEXMWJ]MRK JSVGIW ERH JEXMKYI VIUYMVIQIRXW WS XLEX TVSTIV ^SRXEP GYVZIW XS TEVXMEPP] SJJWIX XLI IJJIGX SJ PEXIVEP EGGIP
GSRRIGXMSRWXSXLIWXVYGXYVIGERFIHIWMKRIHERHMRWXEPPIH IVEXMSR SR TEWWIRKIVW 8S EGLMIZI XLI VIUYMVIH WYTIVIP
%R I\EQTPI SJ GSRRIGXMSR VIUYMVIQIRXW [SYPH FI PMRIEV IZEXMSRXLIVYRRMRKWYVJEGIE[E]JVSQXLIGYVZIGIRXIVMW
MRHYGXMSRQSXSV 0-1 VIEGXMSRVEMPEXXEGLQIRXW VEMWIHMRGVIEWMRKP]VIPEXMZIXSXLIVYRRMRKWYVJEGIGPSWIVXS
;LIRRSW]WXIQWYTTPMIVLEWFIIRWIPIGXIHXLIIRKMRIIV XLIGYVZIGIRXIV8LMWVIWYPXWMRXLISYXIVVEMPSV[LIIPXVEGO
WLSYPH HIWMKR JSV ERXMGMTEXIH WIVZMGIW ERH IUYMTQIRX % FIMRKVEMWIH[LMPIXLIMRRIVVEMPSV[LIIPXVEGOMWOITXEXXLI
survey of potential supplier needs for the specific applica profile elevation. The amount of superelevation is a func
XMSRQE]FIVIUYMVIHFIJSVIHIWMKR XMSRSJXLIZILMGPIWTIIHERHXLIHIKVIISJGYVZEXYVI-X MW
YWYEPP]PMQMXIHXSEQE\MQYQZEPYISJTIVGIRX*YVXLIV
{+ISQIXVMIW MRJSVQEXMSR SR WYTIVIPIZEXMSRW GER FI JSYRH EX XLI 8VERW
 +IRIVEP{+ISQIXVMG EPMKRQIRX SJ XLI XVERWMX PMRI TSVXEXMSR6IWIEVGL&SEVHvW8'646ITSVX 8VERWTSVXEXMSR
GERLEZIEWYFWXERXMEPMQTEGXSRXLIW]WXIQGSWX7XERHEVH 6IWIEVGL&SEVH 
M^EXMSR SJ KYMHI[E] GSQTSRIRXW GER PIEH XS GSWX WEZMRKW
(YVMRKXLITPERRMRKERHHIWMKRWXEKIWSJXLIXVERWMXW]WXIQ {'SRWXVYGXMSRGSRWMHIVEXMSRW
the benefits of standardizing the structural elements, in terms  +IRIVEPzz+YMHI[E]GSRWXVYGXMSRMRERYVFERIRZM
SJIEWIERHXMQISJGSRWXVYGXMSRERHQEMRXIRERGIWLSYPHFI ronment has an impact on residents, pedestrians, road traffic,
I\EQMRIH[MXLIJJIGXMZISTXMSRWFIMRKMQTPIQIRXIH*MKYVI ERH QIVGLERXW EPSRK XLI VSYXI 'SRWMHIVEXMSR WLSYPH FI
MPPYWXVEXIWI\EQTPIWIGXMSRWSJFVMHKIWGEVV]MRKXVERWMX KMZIRXSXLIGSWXERHPIRKXLSJHMWVYTXMSRMRXIVQWSJWXVIIX
PMRIXVEGOW closures, traffic detours, and construction details.
 7XERHEVHM^EXMSR{7XVEMKLX KYMHI[E]W GER FI  7XVIIX GPSWYVIW ERH HMWVYTXMSRW{8LI EQSYRX SJ
TVSHYGIHEXEPS[IVGSWXXLERGYVZIHSRIW+ISQIXVMGEPMKR XMQI WXVIIXW EVI GPSWIH ERH RIMKLFSVLSSHW EVI HMWVYTXIH
QIRXW ERH GSPYQR PSGEXMSRW XLEX ]MIPH E PEVKI RYQFIV SJ should be kept to a minimum. A traffic detour or alternate
WXVEMKLXFIEQWXIRHXSFIGSWXIJJIGXMZI2SXIXLEXTL]WMGEP VSYXIWLSYPHFITVSZMHIHJSVTYFPMGERHTVMZEXIYWIHYVMRK
constraints at the ground can influence column locations. WXVIIX GPSWYVIW 'SSVHMREXMSR [MXL XLI TYFPMG WLSYPH FIKMR
*MKYVI  WLS[W E WXVEMKLX EPMKRQIRX [MXL VITIXMXMZI EXXLITPERRMRKWXEKI*MKYVIMPPYWXVEXIWERI\EQTPISJ
WYFWXVYGXYVIYRMXWERHWTERPIRKXLWXLEXVIWYPXMRGSWXVIHYG WXEKIHGSRWXVYGXMSR
XMSRW2SXIEPWSXLIPMQMXEXMSRWSRGSPYQRPSGEXMSRW 8LIWIPIGXMSRSJTVIGEWXSVGEWXMRTPEGIGSRGVIXIGSQTS
RIRXWERHQIXLSHWSJGSRWXVYGXMSRHITIRHSRXLIEZEMPEFMPMX]

%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6

*MK{)\EQTPIWIGXMSRWSJFVMHKIWGEVV]MRKXVERWMXPMRIXVEGOW

SJGSRWXVYGXMSRXMQIERHIEWISJWXSGOTMPMRKIUYMTQIRXERH %PXLSYKL GEWXMRTPEGI GSRWXVYGXMSR SJJIVW GSRWMHIVEFPI

finished products at the site proximity. Construction systems design and construction flexibility, it also requires a greater
XLEXEPPS[JSVVETMHTPEGIQIRXSJJSSXMRKWERHGSPYQRWERH EQSYRX SJWYTTSVXIUYMTQIRX SR XLIWMXI8LMW IUYMTQIRX
JSVVISTIRMRKSJXLIWXVIIXFIJSVIXLIMRWXEPPEXMSRSJFIEQW IWTIGMEPP] WLSVMRK ERH JEPWI[SVO LEW XS VIQEMR MR TPEGI
may have an advantage in the maintenance of local traffic. [LMPIXLIGSRGVIXIGYVIW
 +YMHI[E] FIEQ GSRWXVYGXMSR{+YMHI[E] FIEQW 4VIGEWXGSRGVIXIFIEQGSRWXVYGXMSRSJJIVWXLITSXIRXMEPJSV
QE]FIGEWXMRTPEGISVTVIGEWX8SHIXIVQMRIXLITVIJIVVIH VIHYGIHGSRWXVYGXMSRXMQISRWMXIERHEPPS[WFIXXIVUYEPMX]
GSRWXVYGXMSR XIGLRMUYI XLI JSPPS[MRK MXIQW WLSYPH FI GSRXVSP ERH EWWYVERGI%HZERXEKIW SJ TVIGEWX GSRGVIXI EVI
GSRWMHIVIHIEVP]MRXLIHIWMKRTVSGIWWX]TMGEPWIGXMSRERH FIWXVIEPM^IH[LIRXLIKISQIXV]ERHXLITVSHYGXMSRQIXLSHW
EPMKRQIRX WTER GSQTSWMXMSR YRMJSVQ SV ZEVMEFPI  WXVYG EVI WXERHEVHM^IH MJ TVIGEWX GSRGVIXI WIKQIRXEP IUYMTQIRX
XYVIX]TIW WMQTPIWTERSVGSRXMRYSYW-KMVHIVFS\KMVHIVSV QE]FIRIIHIHXSXVERWTSVXERHPMJXXLIWIKQIRXWMRXSTPEGI
WTPMGIHKMVHIVGSRWXERXSVZEVMEFPIHITXL WTERHITXLVEXMSW
ERHQENSVWMXIGSRWXVEMRXW

%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6 

*MK zz,SVM^SRXEP ERH ZIVXMGEP KISQIXV] GSYVXIW] SJ

4'% 
*MKzz7XVEMKLXVITIXMXMZIKISQIXV] GSYVXIW]SJ4'% 

8[S X]TIW SJ KYMHI[E] FIEQ WXERHEVHM^EXMSR ETTIEV XS

offer substantial cost benefits: modular construction and
EHNYWXEFPIJSVQGSRWXVYGXMSR
1SHYPEVGSRWXVYGXMSRYWIWEPMQMXIHRYQFIVSJFIEQERH
GSPYQR X]TIW XS QEOI YT KYMHI[E]W 8LYW PMOI E QSHIP
XVEMRWIXXLIWIFIEQWEVIMRXIV[SZIRXSTVSZMHIEGSQTPIXI
XVERWMX KYMHI[E] *MREP TPEGIQIRX SJ WXIIVMRK WYVJEGIW ERH
SXLIVW]WXIQLEVH[EVISRXLIQSHYPEVIPIQIRXWTVSZMHIWXLI
TVIGMWI KISQIXV] RIGIWWEV] JSV XVERWMX STIVEXMSR 1SHYPIW
QE]FIGSQTPIXIFIEQWWIKQIRXEPGSRWXVYGXMSREPWSX]TM
fies this construction technique.
%HNYWXEFPI JSVQ GSRWXVYGXMSR EPPS[W XLI JEFVMGEXMSR SJ
GYVZIHFIEQWXSTVIGMWIP]QEXGLKISQIXVMGVIUYMVIQIRXWEX
XLIWMXI*SVEPMKRQIRXW[LIVIEWYFWXERXMEPEQSYRXSJZEVME
XMSRMRKISQIXV]MWHMGXEXIHF]XLIWMXIXLMWWSPYXMSRTVSZMHIW
*MK zz7XEKIH GSRWXVYGXMSR EPSRK FYW] XLSVSYKLJEVI
ELMKLHIKVIISJTVSHYGXMZMX]EXEVIEWSREFPIGSWX
GSYVXIW]SJ4'% 
 7LMTTMRKERHHIPMZIV]—Before completing the final
HIWMKRXLIIRKMRIIVWLSYPHFIE[EVISJPMQMXEXMSRWXLEXQE]
FITPEGIHSRXLIHIPMZIV]SJPEVKITVIGEWXIPIQIRXW;IMKLX should show all dimensions of the finished structure in suffi
PMQMXEXMSRWMQTSWIHF]PSGEPHITEVXQIRXWSJXVERWTSVXEXMSR GMIRXHIXEMPXSJEGMPMXEXIXLITVITEVEXMSRSJEREGGYVEXIIWXM
EW [IPP EW HMQIRWMSREP PMQMXEXMSRW SR XYVRSJJ VEHMM [MHXL QEXISJXLIUYERXMXMIWSJQEXIVMEPWERHGSWXWERHTIVQMXXLI
ERH PIRKXL SJ FIEQ IPIQIRXW QE] TPE] ER MQTSVXERX VSPI JYPPVIEPM^EXMSRSJHIWMKR
in final guideway design. The deployment of large cranes Contract documents should define test methods, inspec
ERH SXLIV GSRWXVYGXMSR IUYMTQIRX EPSRK XLI WMXI MW EPWS E XMSRQIXLSHWERHXLIEPPS[EFPITVSGIHYVIWERHXSPIVERGIW
GSRWMHIVEXMSR XSIRWYVIKSSH[SVOQERWLMTUYEPMX]GSRXVSPERHETTPMGE
 %TTVSZEP GSRWMHIVEXMSRW{8LIWI VIGSQQIRHE XMSRSJYRMXGSWXW[LIRVIUYMVIH8LIGSRXVEGXSVvWVIWTSRWM
XMSRW JSV XVERWMX KYMHI[E]W EVI MRXIRHIH XS TVSZMHI TVSGI bilities should be clearly defined. Where new or innovative
HYVIWFEWIHSRXLIPEXIWXHIZIPSTQIRXWMRWIVZMGIEFMPMX]ERH WXVYGXYVIWEVIIQTPS]IHWYKKIWXIHGSRWXVYGXMSRTVSGIHYVIW
WXVIRKXLHIWMKR3XLIVTIVXMRIRXVIKYPEXMSRWMWWYIHF]WXEXI XS GPEVMJ] XLI IRKMRIIVvW MRXIRX WLSYPH EPWS FI TVSZMHIH
federal, and local agencies should be followed. Specific 'SQTYXIVKVETLMGWSVMRXIKVEXIHHEXEFEWIWGEREWWMWXMRXLMW
GSRWMHIVEXMSRWLSYPHFIKMZIRXSXLIJSPPS[MRK definition. Where the concrete finish is critical to accep
E %PXIVREXMZIHIWMKRW XERGIXLIGSRXVEGXHSGYQIRXW SVWTIGMEPTVSZMWMSRW WLSYPH
F )RZMVSRQIRXEPMQTEGXWXEXIQIRXW GEPPJSVHIQSRWXVEXMSRTERIPWXSFITVITEVIHJSVVIZMI[ERH
G %MVRSMWIERH[EXIVTSPPYXMSRWXEXYXIW approval to establish the acceptable finish for the production
H ,MWXSVMGERHTEVOTVIWIVZEXMSRVIUYMVIQIRXW QIQFIVW
I 4IVQMXW
J 0MJIWEJIX]VIUYMVIQIRXW {6EMPWERHXVEGO[SVO
K 'SRWXVYGXMSRWEJIX]VIUYMVIQIRXW  +IRIVEP{+YMHI[E]W JSV XVERWMX W]WXIQW XLEX YWI
 )RKMRIIVMRK HSGYQIRXW{8LI IRKMRIIVMRK HSGY ZILMGPIW [MXL WXIIP [LIIPW STIVEXMRK SR WXIIP VEMPW VIUYMVI
ments should clearly define the work. Project drawings TEVXMGYPEVHIWMKRERHGSRWXVYGXMSRGSRWMHIVEXMSRWMRGPYHMRK

%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6

VEMPWXVMRKEWWIQFP]YWISJGSRXMRYSYWWXVYGXYVIWERHEXXEGL F  6EHMEP JSVGIW VIWYPXMRK JVSQ XLIVQEP GLERKIW MR XLI

QIRXSJXLIVEMPWXSXLIWXVYGXYVI VEMPWSRLSVM^SRXEPSVZIVXMGEPGYVZIW
8LIVI EVI X[S STXMSRW JSV EWWIQFPMRK VEMPW XLI] QE] G )RHERGLSVEKIJSVGIW
FI NSMRXIH [MXL FSPXIH GSRRIGXMSRW MR WXERHEVH  JX   6EMP FVIEOW{';6 [MPP SGGEWMSREPP] JEMP MR
Q  PIRKXLW SV [IPHIH MRXS GSRXMRYSYW WXVMRKW 6EMPW XIRWMSRFIGEYWISJVEMP[IEVPS[XIQTIVEXYVIHIJIGXWMRXLI
QE] FI JEWXIRIH HMVIGXP] XS XLI WXVYGXYVI SV MRWXEPPIH SR VEMPHIJIGXWMRE[IPHIHNSMRXJEXMKYISVWSQIGSQFMREXMSR
XMIERHFEPPEWX SJXLIWIIJJIGXW8LIWXVYGXYVIWLSYPHFIHIWMKRIHXSEGGSQ
 .SMRXIHVEMP{8LIXVEHMXMSREPQIXLSHSJNSMRMRKVEMP QSHEXILSVM^SRXEPXLVYWXEWWSGMEXIH[MXLXLIFVIEO
MW F] FSPXIH GSRRIGXMSRW 0SRKMXYHMREP VEMP QSZIQIRX GER  6EMP[IPHMRK{';6MWEGGSQTPMWLIHF]XLIVQMXI
HIZIPST MR XLIWI GSRRIGXMSRWTVIZIRXMRK XLI EGGYQYPEXMSR welding process or electric flash butt-welding process (AWS
SJXLIVQEPWXVIWWIWEPSRKXLIVEMPPIRKXL ( 4VSTIV[VMXXIR[IPHTVSGIHYVIWWLSYPHIRWYVIXLEX
7TEGI FIX[IIR XLI VEMP IRHW TVIWIRXW E HMWGSRXMRYMX] XS E %HNEGIRXVEMPLIEHWEVIEGGYVEXIP]EPMKRIH
XLI ZILMGPI WYTTSVX ERH WXIIVMRK W]WXIQW :ILMGPI [LIIPW F 6EMPNSMRXMWGPIERSJHIFVMW
LMXXMRKXLMWHMWGSRXMRYMX]GEYWIWTVSKVIWWMZIHIXIVMSVEXMSRSJ c) The finished weld is free of intrusions
XLI NSMRXW KIRIVEXIW PSYH RSMWI VIHYGIW VMHI GSQJSVX ERH H  8LI [IPH MW EPPS[IH XS GSSP FIJSVI XMKLXIRMRK XLI
MRGVIEWIWH]REQMGJSVGIWSRXLIWXVYGXYVI JEWXIRIVW
&IGEYWI SJ XLIWI HMWEHZERXEKIW QSWX QSHIVR XVERWMX 9PXVEWSRMG SV <VE] MRWTIGXMSR EX VERHSQ PSGEXMSRW
W]WXIQWYWIGSRXMRYSYWP][IPHIHVEMP.SMRXIHVEMPGSRHMXMSRW GLSWIRF]XLIIRKMRIIVMWLMKLP]VIGSQQIRHIH8LIEKIRG]
[MPPI\MWXMRW[MXGLEVIEWQEMRXIRERGI]EVHWERHSXLIVPSGE performing these inspections should be qualified to ASTM
XMSRW [LIVI TL]WMGEP HMWGSRXMRYMXMIW EVI VIUYMVIH )ZIR MR )
XLIWIEVIEWLS[IZIVHMWGSRXMRYMXMIWGERFIVIHYGIHKVIEXP]  6EMPMRWXEPPEXMSR
F]XLIYWISJFSRHIHVEMPNSMRXW  +IRIVEP{6EMPWEVIEXXEGLIHXSIMXLIVGVSWWXMIWSR
 'SRXMRYSYWP][IPHIHVEMP FEPPEWXSVHMVIGXP] XS XLI KYMHI[E]WXVYGXYVI4VIJIVIRGIMR
 +IRIVEP{8SMQTVSZIVMHIUYEPMX]ERHHIGVIEWI recent years has become direct rail fixation as a means of
XVEGOQEMRXIRERGIMRHMZMHYEPVEMPWEVI[IPHIHMRXSGSRXMR MQTVSZMRKVMHIUYEPMX]QEMRXEMRMRKVEMPXSPIVERGIWVIHYGMRK
YSYW WXVMRKW8LIVI MW RS XLISVIXMGEP PMQMX XS XLI PIRKXL SJ QEMRXIRERGIGSWXWERHVIHYGMRKWXVYGXYVIWM^I
GSRXMRYSYWP][IPHIHVEMPMJQMRMQYQVIWXVEMRXMWTVSZMHIH  8MI ERH FEPPEWX{8MI ERH FEPPEWX GSRWXVYGXMSR
1MRMQYQ VEMP VIWXVEMRX GSRWMWXW SJ TVIZIRXMRK LSVM^SRXEP MW XLI GSRZIRXMSREP QIXLSH SJ MRWXEPPMRK VEMPW EX KVEHI ERH
SV ZIVXMGEP FYGOPMRKSJVEMPW ERH ERGLSVEKI EX XLIIRH SJ E SGGEWMSREPP] SR IPIZEXIH WXVYGXYVIW 8MIW EVI YWIH XS EPMKR
GSRXMRYSYW VEMP 8LMW TVIZIRXW I\GIWWMZI VEMP KETW JVSQ ERH ERGLSV XLI VEMPW &EPPEWX TVSZMHIW ER MRXIVQIHMEXI
JSVQMRKEXPS[XIQTIVEXYVIWMJEGGMHIRXEPFVIEOWMRXLIVEMP GYWLMSRFIX[IIRXLIVEMPWERHWXVYGXYVIWXEFMPM^IWXLIXVEGOW
WLSYPHSGGYV ERH TVIZIRXW XVERWQMWWMSR SJ XLIVQEP JSVGIW JVSQ VEMPW XS
'SRXMRYSYWP][IPHIHVEMP ';6 LEWFIGSQIXLIXVERWMX WXVYGXYVI
MRHYWXV] WXERHEVH SZIV XLI TEWX WIZIVEP HIGEHIW ';6 &EPPEWX WYFWXERXMEPP] MRGVIEWIW XLI WXVYGXYVI HIEH PSEH
VIUYMVIWTEVXMGYPEVEXXIRXMSRXSWIZIVEPHIWMKRHIXEMPW[LMGL 8MIERHFEPPEWXMRWXEPPEXMSRWQEOIGSRXVSPSJVEMPFVIEOKETW
MRGPYHIXLIVQEPJSVGIWMRXLIVEMPWVEMPFVIEOKETERHJSVGIW difficult because ties are not directly fastened to the primary
[IPHMRK SJ ';6 ERH JEWXIRMRK SJ ';6 XS XLI WXVYGXYVI WXVYGXYVI 6EMPFVIEOWGER HIZIPST LSVM^SRXEP ZIVXMGEPERH
%;7 (  8LI TVMRGMTEP ZEVMEFPIW YWIH MR XLI IZEPYE ERKYPEVHMWTPEGIQIRXWSJXLIVEMPVIPEXMZIXSXLIWXVYGXYVI
XMSRSJVEMPJSVGIWEVIVEMPWM^IMRXIVQWSJMXWGVSWWWIGXMSREP  Direct fixation—Direct fixation of the rail to the
EVIEXLIGLEVEGXIVMWXMGWSJXLIVEMPJEWXIRIVXLIWXMJJRIWWSJ WXVYGXYVIMWEGGSQTPMWLIHF]EQIGLERMGEPVEMPJEWXIRIV)PEW
XLIWXVYGXYVEPIPIQIRXWVEMPKISQIXV]ERHSTIVEXMSREPIRZM XSQIVMGTEHWEVIMRGSVTSVEXIHMRXLIJEWXIRIVXSTVSZMHIXLI
VSRQIRXMRXIVQWSJXIQTIVEXYVIVERKI required vertical and horizontal flexibilities and provisions
-R GEWIW [LIVI EGGYQYPEXMSR SJ XLIVQEP IJJIGXW [SYPH JSVEHNYWXQIRXFIX[IIREHNEGIRXJEWXIRIVWERHXLIWXVYGXYVI
TVSHYGI GSRHMXMSRW XSS WIZIVI JSV XLI WXVYGXYVI WPMT NSMRXW 8LIIPEWXSQIVMG TEHW EPWS EWWMWXMRXLI VIHYGXMSR SJRSMWI
GERFIYWIH7PMTNSMRXWEPPS[PMQMXIHQSZIQIRXFIX[IIRVEMP ZMFVEXMSR ERH MQTEGX -QTSVXERX HIWMKR ERH GSRWXVYGXMSR
WXVMRKW 8LI] KIRIVEPP] GEYWI EHHMXMSREP RSMWI ERH VIUYMVI considerations for the direct fixation fasteners include:
MRGVIEWIHQEMRXIRERGI8LIMVYWIXLIVIJSVIMWRSXHIWMVEFPI E 1IXLSHSJEXXEGLQIRXXSXLIWXVYGXYVI
0SGEXMSRSJVEMPERGLSVWERHVEMPI\TERWMSRNSMRXW[MPPEJJIGX F :IVXMGEPWXMJJRIWW
XLIHIWMKRSJXLIWXVYGXYVI G %PPS[ERGIJSVLSVM^SRXEPERHZIVXMGEPEHNYWXQIRX
 8LIVQEPJSVGIW{'LERKIWMRXLIXIQTIVEXYVISJ H %FMPMX]XSVIWXVEMRXLIVEMPEKEMRWXVSPPSZIV
';6[MPPGEYWIWXVIWWIWMRXLIVEMPERHWXVYGXYVI6EMPWEVI I 0SRKMXYHMREPVIWXVEMRX
X]TMGEPP]MRWXEPPIHEXEHIWMKRWXVIWWJVIIEQFMIRXXIQTIV Direct fixation fasteners are one of the most important
EXYVI XS VIHYGI XLI VMWO SJ VEMP FYGOPMRK EX LMKL XIQTIVE IPIQIRXWMRXVEGO[SVOHIWMKR8LI]EVIWYFNIGXIHXSELMKL
XYVIW ERH VEMP FVIEOW EX PS[ XIQTIVEXYVIW (ITIRHMRK SR RYQFIVSJG]GPMGPSEHWERHXLSYWERHWSJXLIQEVIMRTPEGI
XLIQIXLSHSJVEMPEXXEGLQIRXXSXLIWXVYGXYVIXLIWXVYGXYVI 4VSKVIWWMZI JEMPYVI HSIW RSX KIRIVEPP] GVIEXI GEXEWXVSTLMG
WLSYPHFIHIWMKRIHJSV VIWYPXWFYXMXPIEHWXSEWYFWXERXMEPQEMRXIRERGIIJJSVXERH
E ,SVM^SRXEPJSVGIWVIWYPXMRKJVSQEVEMPFVIEO TSWWMFPISTIVEXMSREPHMWVYTXMSRW

%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6 

No industry-wide specifications exist for the definition or 8EFPI{1MRMQYQH]REQMGPSEH MQTEGX

procurement of direct fixation fasteners. A thorough exami 6YFFIVXMVIHERH
REXMSRSJXLIGLEVEGXIVMWXMGWERHTEWXTIVJSVQERGISJEZEMP GSRXMRYSYWP][IPHIH
EFPIJEWXIRIVWERHXLIGLEVEGXIVMWXMGWSJXLITVSTSWIHXVERWMX 7XVYGXYVIX]TIW VEMP .SMRXIHVEMP
ZILMGPI WLSYPH FI HSRI FIJSVI JEWXIRIV WIPIGXMSR JSV ER] 7MQTPIWTER
WXVYGXYVIW
specific installation (Transportation Research Board 2000)
-1  -1 
 'SRXMRYSYWWXVYGXYVI—Direct fixation of contin
YSYW VEMP XS E GSRXMRYSYW WXVYGXYVI GVIEXIW E WXVEMR HMWGSR
XMRYMX]EXIEGL WXVYGXYVEP I\TERWMSR NSMRX*EWXIRIVW WLSYPH 'SRXMRYSYWWTER
FI HIWMKRIH XS TVSZMHI EHIUYEXI WPMT EX XLIWI NSMRXW [LMPI WXVYGXYVIW
PMQMXMRKXLIVEMPKETWM^IMRXLIIZIRXSJEFVIEO-RGPMQEXIW -1  -1 
[MXLI\XVIQIVERKIWMRXIQTIVEXYVI zXS”*?zXS
”'A  WXVYGXYVEP GSRXMRYMX] MW KIRIVEPP] PMQMXIH XS 
XSJX XSQ PIRKXLW-RQSVIQSHIVEXIGPMQEXIW
PSRKIV VYRW SJ GSRXMRYSYW WXVYGXYVI QE] FI TSWWMFPI *SV {7YWXEMRIHPSEHW
more information on rail installation and site-specific neutral  (IEH PSEHW ('  (; {8LI JSPPS[MRK GSQTS
VEMPXIQTIVEXYVIVIJIVXS%6)1%   RIRXWSJHIEHPSEHWLSYPHFIGSRWMHIVIH
E ;IMKLXSJJEGXSV]QERYJEGXYVIHIPIQIRXW
',%48)6{03%(7 F ;IMKLXSJGEWXMRTPEGIIPIQIRXW
G  ;IMKLX SJ XVEGO[SVO ERH ETTYVXIRERGIW MRGPYHMRK
{+IRIVEP VYRRMRKERHTS[IVVEMPWWIGSRHTSYVTPMRXLWERHJEWXIRIVW
8LIIRKMRIIVWLSYPHMRZIWXMKEXIEPPWTIGMEPYRYWYEPERH FEVVMIV[EPPWERHRSMWIWYTTVIWWMSRTERIPW
WXERHEVHPSEHMRKWXLEXQE]SGGYVMRXLIKYMHI[E]GSRWXVYG H  ;IMKLX SJ SXLIV ERGMPPEV] GSQTSRIRXW WYGL EW [EPO
XMSR ERH STIVEXMSR 7TIGMEP SV YRYWYEP PSEHW QE] MRGPYHI HIGOWWXEMV[E]WPMKLXWXERHEVHWERHWMKREKI
IQIVKIRG]QEMRXIRERGISVIZEGYEXMSRIUYMTQIRXSVGSRHM  3XLIV WYWXEMRIH PSEHW{0SEHW JVSQ HMJJIVIRXMEP
XMSRW8LIJSPPS[MRKPSEHWGSQQSRP]SGGYVERHWLSYPHFI WIXXPIQIRX 7)  IEVXL TVIWWYVI ),  IJJIGXW SJ TVIWXVIWW
GSRWMHIVIH[LIREWWIWWMRKPSEHIJJIGXWSRIPIZEXIHKYMHI[E] JSVGIW 47 SVI\XIVREPWXVYGXYVEPVIWXVEMRXW )6 WLSYPHFI
WXVYGXYVIW 'EPKEV] 8VERWMX   [MXL RSXEXMSR JSPPS[MRK included in the design as they occur. The beneficial effects
%%7,8306*(EFFVIZMEXMSRW[LIVIZIVETTPMGEFPI SJ FYS]ERG] &  QE] SRP] FI MRGPYHIH [LIR MXW I\MWXIRGI
 7YWXEMRIHPSEHW is ensured. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
E (IEHPSEH (' (; %%7,83   QE] FI YWIH EW E KYMHI XS IZEPYEXI XLI
F )EVXLTVIWWYVI ), IJJIGXWSJXLIWIWYWXEMRIHPSEHW
G )\XIVREPVIWXVEMRXJSVGIW )6
H (MJJIVIRXMEPWIXXPIQIRXIJJIGXW 7) {8VERWMIRXPSEHW
I 4VIWXVIWWJSVGIW 47 0MZIPSEHERHMXWHIVMZEXMZIW
J &YS]ERG] &  :IVXMGEPWXERHEVHZILMGPIPSEHW 00 {8LIZIVXMGEP
 8VERWMIRXPSEHW PMZIPSEHWLSYPHGSRWMWXSJXLI[IMKLXSJSRISVQSVIWXERHEVH
E 0MZIPSEHERHMXWHIVMZEXMZIW 00 07 40 ZILMGPIWTSWMXMSRIHXSTVSHYGIEQE\MQYQPSEHIJJIGXMRXLI
F -QTEGXJEGXSV -1 element under consideration. The weight and configuration of
G ;MRHPSEHERHMXWHIVMZEXMZIW ;7 ;0 XLIQEMRXIRERGIZILMGPIWLSYPHFIGSRWMHIVIHMRXLIHIWMKR
H 0SEHWHYIXSMGI -' 8LI [IMKLXSJTEWWIRKIVW WLSYPH FI GSQTYXIHSRXLI FEWMW
I 0SEHWHYIXSWXVIEQGYVVIRX ;% SJPF 2 IEGLERHWLSYPHGSQTVMWIXLSWISGGYT]MRK
 0SEHWHYIXSZSPYQIXVMGGLERKIW EPPWIEXW WIEXIH ERHXLSWI[LSEVIWXERHMRK WXERHIIW MRXLI
E 8IQTIVEXYVI 89 8+ VIQEMRMRKWTEGI RSWIEXW 8LIRYQFIVSJWXERHIIWWLSYPHFI
F 6EMPWXVYGXYVIMRXIVEGXMSR 67 FEWIHSRSRITEWWIRKIVTIVJX Q 
G 7LVMROEKI 7, *SV XSVWMSRWIRWMXMZI WXVYGXYVIW WYGL EW QSRSVEMPW XLI
H 'VIIT '6 TSWWMFMPMX]SJTEWWIRKIVWFIMRKGVS[HIHSRSRIWMHISJXLI
 )\GITXMSREPPSEHW ZILMGPIWLSYPHFIGSRWMHIVIHMRXLIHIWMKR
E )EVXLUYEOI )5  -QTEGX JEGXSV -1 {8LI QMRMQYQ H]REQMG
F (IVEMPQIRXGVEWL (6 PSEH +SZIVRQIRXSJ3RXEVMS WLS[RMR8EFPI
G &VSOIRVEMP &6 WLSYPHFIETTPMIHXSXLIZIVXMGEPZILMGPIPSEHWYRPIWWEPXIVRE
H -QTEGXPSEHWEXWXVIIXPIZIP -078 XMZIZEPYIWFEWIHSRXIWXWSVH]REQMGEREP]WMWEVIETTVSZIH
 'SRWXVYGXMSRPSEHW The vehicle crossing frequency (VCF) is defined as
E (IEHPSEHW (' (; )0
F 0MZIPSEHW 00 07 40 ZILMGPIWTIIHJXW QW
:'* E
WTER PIRKXL JX Q

%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6

8EFPI{1MRMQYQLYRXMRKJSVGISR 8EFPI{0SRKMXYHMREPJSVGIETTPMIH
KYMHI[E]EWJVEGXMSRSJWXERHEVHZILMGPIPSEH )QIVKIRG]FVEOMRK 0*I!00
&SKMIX]TI ,YRXMRKJSVGI 2SVQEPFVEOMRK 0*R!00
2SRWXIIVEFPI 00
7XIIVEFPI 00
 7IVZMGI[EPO[E]PSEH 4 {0MZIPSEHSRWIVZMGISV
2SXI:ILMGPIWYTTPMIVQE]LEZIQSVIWIZIVIVIUYMVIQIRXW
IQIVKIRG][EPO[E]WWLSYPHFIFEWIHSREQMRMQYQSJ
PFJX O4E SJEVIE8LMWPSEHWLSYPHFIYWIHXSKIXLIV
The first mode flexural (natural) frequency, J &MPPMRK  [MXLIQTX]ZILMGPIWSRXLIKYMHI[E]FIGEYWIXLI[EPO[E]
MWI\TVIWWIHEW PSEHMWXLIVIWYPXSJZILMGPIWFIMRKIZEGYEXIH
 0SEHW SR WEJIX] VEMPMRK 06 {8LI PEXIVEP PSEH
from pedestrian traffic on railings should be a minimum of

,^ F
l  PFJX O2Q HMWXVMFYXIHPSEHSVPF O2 
GSRGIRXVEXIHPSEH[LMGLIZIVTVSHYGIWXLIKVIEXIWXIJJIGX
ETTPMIH EX XLI XST VEMP EX E LIMKLX FIX[IIR  ERH  MR
8LI H]REQMG PSEH GSQTSRIRX WLSYPH RSX FI ETTPMIH XS
ERHQ 
JSSXMRKWERHTMPIW
;MRHPSEH ;0
 'IRXVMJYKEP JSVGI ') {8LI ') EGXMRK VEHMEPP]
+IRIVEP{(IWMKR[MRH PSEHWJSV IPIZEXIHKYMHI
XLVSYKLXLIZILMGPIvWGIRXIVSJKVEZMX]EXEGYVZIHXVEGOQE]
[E]W ERH WTIGMEP WXVYGXYVIW EVI TVSZMHIH MR  ;MRH
FIGSQTYXIHJVSQ
PSEHWFEWIHSRXLIVIJIVIRGI[MRHTVIWWYVIWLSYPHFIXVIEXIH
as equivalent static loads as defined in 
: ;MRHJSVGIWEVIETTPMIHXSXLIWXVYGXYVIERHXSZILMGPIWMR
') 00 PF 2 
6 K EGGSVHERGI [MXL PSEH GSQFMREXMSRW MR 'LETXIV  8LI ;0
EFFVIZMEXMSR MW YWIH XS HIWMKREXI [MRH PSEHW ETTPMIH XS E
8LI GIRXVMJYKEP JSVGI ') WLSYPH FI ETTPMIH WMQYPXERI ZILMGPI[LMPI;7MRHMGEXIW[MRHPSEHWETTPMIHXSXLIWXVYG
SYWP][MXLSXLIVPSEHGSQFMREXMSRW VIJIVXS 'LETXIV XS XYVISRP]
TVSHYGIXLIQE\MQYQJSVGIIJJIGXSRXLIWXVYGXYVI The net exposed area is defined as the net area of a body,
 ,YRXMRK JSVGI ,* {8LI ,* MW GEYWIH F] XLI QIQFIV SV GSQFMREXMSR SJ QIQFIVWEW WIIR MR IPIZEXMSR
PEXIVEPMRXIVEGXMSRSJXLIZILMGPIERHXLIKYMHI[E]-XWLSYPH *SVEWXVEMKLXWYTIVWXVYGXYVIXLII\TSWIHJVSRXEPEVIEMWXLI
FIETTPMIHPEXIVEPP]SRXLIKYMHI[E]EXXLITSMRXSJ[LIIP WYQSJXLIEVIEWSJEPPQIQFIVWMRGPYHMRKVEMPMRKWERHHIGO
VEMP GSRXEGX EW E JVEGXMSR SJ XLI WXERHEVH ZILMGPI PSEH 00 W]WXIQWEWWIIRMRIPIZEXMSRTIVTIRHMGYPEVXSXLIEWWYQIH
8EFPI  [MRHHMVIGXMSR*SVEWXVYGXYVIGYVZIHMRTPERXLII\TSWIH
;LIRGIRXVMJYKEPERHLYRXMRKJSVGIWEGXWMQYPXERISYWP] JVSRXEP EVIE MW XEOIR RSVQEP XS XLI FIEQ GIRXIVPMRI ERH
SRP]XLIPEVKIVJSVGIRIIHWFIGSRWMHIVIH GSQTYXIHMREWMQMPEVQERRIVXSWXVEMKLXWXVYGXYVIW
*SV VEMP ERH WXVYGXYVI HIWMKR XLI LYRXMRK JSVGI [MPP FI The exposed plan area is defined as the net area of an
ETTPMIHPEXIVEPP]F]EWXIIP[LIIPXSXLIXSTSJXLIVEMPEXXLI IPIQIRXEWWIIRMRTPERJVSQEFSZISVFIPS[-RXLIGEWISJ
PIEH E\PI SJ E XVERWMX XVEMR -X HSIW RSX RIIH XS FI ETTPMIH EWYTIVWXVYGXYVIXLII\TSWIHTPEREVIEMWXLITPEREVIESJXLI
JSV VYFFIVXMVIH W]WXIQW 8]TMGEPP] PMRIEV MRHYGXMSR QSXSV HIGOERHXLEXSJER]PEXIVEPP]TVSXVYHMRKVEMPMRKWQIQFIVW
0-1 TVSTIPPIH ZILMGPIW VYR SR WXIIP [LIIP ERH VEMP ERH SVEXXEGLQIRXW
VIUYMVIGSRWMHIVEXMSRSJLYRXMRKIJJIGXW The gust effect coefficient is defined as the ratio of the peak
 0SRKMXYHMREP JSVGI 0* {8LI 0* EGXW WMQYPXE [MRHMRHYGIHVIWTSRWISJEWXVYGXYVIMRGPYHMRKFSXLWXEXMG
RISYWP] [MXL XLI ZIVXMGEP WXERHEVH ZILMGPI PMZI PSEH SR EPP ERHH]REQMGEGXMSRWXSXLIWXEXMG[MRHMRHYGIHVIWTSRWI
[LIIPW -X QE] FI ETTPMIH MR IMXLIV HMVIGXMSR JSV[EVH MR &YMPHMRKWERHSXLIVEHNEGIRXWXVYGXYVIWGEREJJIGXXLI[MRH
FVEOMRK SV HIGIPIVEXMSR SV VIZIVWI MR EGGIPIVEXMSR8LI 0* JSVGIW ;MRH XYRRIP XIWXW QE] FI GSRWMHIVIH EW E QIXLSH
WLSYPHFIETTPMIHEWMRHMGXIHMR8EFPI XS MQTVSZI [MRH JSVGI TVIHMGXMSRW SV XS ZEPMHEXI HIWMKR
'SRXMRYSYWP][IPHIHVEMPXVEGO[SVOGERHMWXVMFYXIPSRKM coefficients in the alternative design approach provided in
XYHMREP JSVGIW XS EHNEGIRX GSQTSRIRXW SJ KYMHI[E] WXVYG ;MRHXYRRIPXIWXMRKMW[IPPFI]SRHXLIWGSTISJXLMW
XYVIW 8LMW HMWXVMFYXMSR QE] FI GSRWMHIVIH MR HIWMKR 8LI HSGYQIRXXLSYKLXLIVIEHIVQE]FIVIJIVVIHXSw%%7,83
YWI SJ WPMT NSMRXW QE] TVIZIRX XVERWJIV ERH HMWXVMFYXMSR SJ LRFD Bridge Design Specifications” (AASHTO 2012),
PSRKMXYHMREPJSVGIW 7IGXMSR
The specified emergency braking force of 0*I!00  (IWMKR JSV [MRH{8LI KYMHI[E] WYTIVWXVYG
should be reviewed on a project-specific basis derived from XYVIQYWX FI HIWMKRIH JSV [MRHMRHYGIH LSVM^SRXEP *LERH
XLI X]TI SJ FVEOMRK W]WXIQ XLEX [MPP FI HITPS]IH HYVMRK ZIVXMGEP*ZHVEKPSEHWEGXMRKWMQYPXERISYWP]*SVEWXVYGXYVI
IQIVKIRG] FVEOMRK 3XLIV JEGXSVW MRXLIEWWIWWQIRX SJXLI XLEXMWGYVZIHMRTPERXLI[MRHWLSYPHFIGSRWMHIVIHXSEGX
QEKRMXYHISJ0*IMRGPYHIVEMPJEWXIRIVWXMJJRIWWGSPYQRWXMJJ MREHMVIGXMSRWYGLXLEXXLIVIWYPXMRKJSVGIIJJIGXWEVIQE\M
RIWWERHWXVYGXYVIEVXMGYPEXMSR QM^IH*SVEWXVYGXYVIXLEXMWWXVEMKLXMRTPERXLI[MRHHMVIG
XMSRWLSYPHFIXEOIRTIVTIRHMGYPEVXSXLIPSRKMXYHMREPE\MW
SJXLIWXVYGXYVI

%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6 

8EFPI{9RMJSVQP]HMWXVMFYXIHPSEH -R XLI ETTPMGEXMSR SJ *Z EW E YRMJSVQP] HMWXVMFYXIH PSEH
MRXIRWMXMIW SZIVXLITPEREVIESJXLIWXVYGXYVIXLIIJJIGXWSJETSWWMFPI
;MRHMRHYGIHLSVM^SRXEPHVEKPSEH*L IGGIRXVMGMX]WLSYPHFIGSRWMHIVIH*SVXLMWTYVTSWIXLIWEQI
7YTIVWXVYGXYVI ;MRH[EVHPSEH 0II[EVHPSEH
XSXEP PSEH WLSYPH FI ETTPMIH EW ER IUYMZEPIRX ZIVXMGEP PMRI
GSQTSRIRXW PFJX O4E PFJX O4E PSEH EX XLI [MRH[EVH UYEVXIV TSMRX SJ XLI WYTIVWXVYGXYVI
8VYWWIWGSPYQRWERH [MHXLMRGSRNYRGXMSR[MXLXLILSVM^SRXEP[MRHPSEHW
     6IJIVIRGI [MRH TVIWWYVI{8LI VIJIVIRGI [MRH
EVGLIW
&IEQW   2% pressures at a specific site should be based on the hourly
Large flat surfaces   2% QIER [MRH ZIPSGMX] SJ E ]IEV VIXYVR TIVMSH% ]IEV
VIXYVRTIVMSHQE]FIYWIHJSVWXVYGXYVIWYRHIVGSRWXVYGXMSR
8LIVIJIVIRGI[MRHTVIWWYVI4(QE]FIHIVMZIHJVSQXLI
In the absence of more stringent specifications, the
JSPPS[MRKI\TVIWWMSR
YRMJSVQP]HMWXVMFYXIHPSEHMRXIRWMXMIWWLS[RMR8EFPI
QE]FIYWIHJSVHIWMKR
8LI XSXEP [MRH PSEHMRK WLSYPH RSX FI PIWW XLER  ERH :
4(!  PFJX 14E E
PFJX ERHO2Q MRXLITPERIWSJ[MRH[EVHERH K
PII[EVH GLSVHW VIWTIGXMZIP] SR XVYWW ERH EVGL GSQTSRIRXW
ERHRSXPIWWXLERPFJX O2Q SRFIEQSVKMVHIVWTERW *SV WXVYGXYVIW RSX WIRWMXMZI XS [MRHMRHYGIH H]REQMGW
8LIZIVXMGEPHVEKPSEH*ZWLSYPHFIXEOIRIUYEPXSPFJX [LMGLMRGPYHIIPIZEXIHKYMHI[E]WERHWTIGMEPWXVYGXYVIWYT
O4E XMQIWXLI[MHXLSJXLIHIGOMRGPYHMRKTEVETIXW to a span length of 400 ft (122 m), the gust effect coefficient
ERH WMHI[EPOW 8LMW JSVGI QE] FI ETTPMIH SRP] JSV PMQMX 'K QE] ZEV]FIX[IIR ERH  *SV HIWMKRTYVTSWIW
WXEXIWXLEXHSRSXMRZSPZI[MRHSRPMZIPSEH EJEGXSVSJQE]FIYWIHJSV'K*SVWXVYGXYVIWXLEXEVI
8LI[MRHPSEHW*LERH*ZWLSYPHFIETTPMIHXSXLII\TSWIH WIRWMXMZI XS [MRH EGXMSR 'K WLSYPH FI HIXIVQMRIH F] ER
EVIEWSJXLIWXVYGXYVIERHZILMGPI VIJIVXSERH 8LIWI ETTVSZIHQIXLSHSJ H]REQMGEREP]WMWSVF]QSHIP XIWXMRK
PSEHW ERH TVSZMWMSRW EVI GSRWMWXIRX [MXL VIGSQQIRHEXMSRW MRE[MRHXYRRIP*SVKYMHI[E]ETTYVXIRERGIWWYGLEWWMKR
SJ XLI PEXIWX IHMXMSR SJ w%%7,83 06*( &VMHKI (IWMKR posts, lighting poles, and flexible noise barriers, 'KQE]FI
Specifications” (AASHTO 2012) that are derived from base XEOIREW
[MRHZIPSGMXMIWSJQTL OQL ;MRHPSEHWQE]FI The exposure coefficient or height factor 'I QE] FI
VIHYGIHSVMRGVIEWIHF]XLIVEXMSSJXLIWUYEVISJXLIHIWMKR GSQTYXIHJVSQ
[MRHZIPSGMX]XSXLIWUYEVISJXLIFEWI[MRHZIPSGMX]TVSZMHIH
XLIQE\MQYQTVSFEFPI[MRHZIPSGMX]GERFIEWGIVXEMRIH[MXL
'I    JSV, MRJX
VIEWSREFPI EGGYVEG] SV XLIVI EVI TIVQERIRX JIEXYVIW SJ XLI
XIVVEMRXLEXQEOIWYGLGLERKIWWEJIERHZMEFPI F
8LI WYFWXVYGXYVI WLSYPH FI HIWMKRIH JSV [MRHMRHYGIH  
 JSV, MRQ
PSEHW XVERWQMXXIH JVSQ XLI WYTIVWXVYGXYVI ERH [MRH PSEHW
EGXMRK HMVIGXP] SR XLI WYFWXVYGXYVI 0SEHW JSV [MRH HMVIG
[LIVI ,WLSYPHFIQIEWYVIHJVSQXLIJSSXSJGPMJJWLMPPWSV
XMSRWFSXLRSVQEPXSERHWOI[IHXSXLIPSRKMXYHMREPGIRXIV
IWGEVTQIRXW[LIRXLIWXVYGXYVIMWPSGEXIHSRYRIZIRXIVVEMR
PMRISJXLIWYTIVWXVYGXYVIWLSYPHFIMRGPYHIH
SV JVSQ XLI PS[ [EXIV PIZIP [LIR XLI WXVYGXYVI MW PSGEXIH
 %PXIVREXMZI[MRHPSEH{8LIEPXIVREXMZI[MRHPSEH
SZIVFSHMIWSJ[EXIV;LIVIJYRRIPMRKQE]FIGEYWIHF]XLI
QIXLSH QE] FI YWIH MR TPEGI SJ %PXIVREXMZI [MRH
XSTSKVETL]EXXLIWMXI'IWLSYPHFIMRGVIEWIHF]TIVGIRX
PSEHW EVI WYKKIWXIH JSV TVSNIGXW MRZSPZMRK YRYWYEP LIMKLX
The drag coefficient or shape factor 'H MW E JYRGXMSR SJ
KYMHI[E]WERHKYWXGSRHMXMSRWSVKYMHI[E]WXVYGXYVIWXLEX
QER]ZEVMEFPIWXLIQSWXMQTSVXERX SJ[LMGLEVIXLIWOI[
EVINYHKIHF]XLIIRKMRIIVEWQSVIWXVIEQPMRIHXLERLMKL[E]
ERKPI LSVM^SRXEP ERKPI SJ [MRH  ERH EWTIGX VEXMS VEXMS SJ
WXVYGXYVIW '7% 
PIRKXL XS [MHXL SJ WXVYGXYVI  *SV FS\ KMVHIV SV -KMVHIV
8LI[MRHPSEHTIVYRMXI\TSWIHJVSRXEPEVIESJXLIWYTIV
WYTIVWXVYGXYVIWERHWSPMHWLEJXTMIVW[MXL[MRHEGXMRKEX^IVS
WXVYGXYVI ;7ERHSJXLIZILMGPI;0ETTPMIHLSVM^SRXEPP]
WOI['HQE]ZEV]FIX[IIRERH%JEGXSVSJJSV
QE]FIXEOIREW
'HQE]FIYWIHJSVHIWMKRTYVTSWIW*SVYRYWYEPI\TSWYVI
shapes, the drag coefficient 'HWLSYPHFIHIXIVQMRIHJVSQ
*L!4('I'K'H E
[MRHXYRRIPXIWXW
;LIVI [MRH IJJIGXWEVI GSRWMHIVIHEXE WOI[ERKPI  MR
7MQMPEVP] XLI [MRH PSEH TIV YRMX I\TSWIH TPER HIGO SV
HIKVIIW QIEWYVIH JVSQ E PMRI TIVTIRHMGYPEV XS XLI PSRKM
soffit area applied vertically, upward, or downward, should
XYHMREP E\MW SJ E WXVYGXYVI 'H WLSYPH FI QYPXMTPMIH F]
FIXEOIREW
 JSVXLIPSRKMXYHMREP[MRHPSEHGSQTSRIRXERHF] 
z  JSVXLIXVERWZIVWISVTIVTIRHMGYPEV[MRHPSEH
*Z!4('I'K'H F
GSQTSRIRX
 ;MRH PSEH SR WPIRHIV IPIQIRXW ERH ETTYVXI
[LIVI 'H!JSVXLI[MRHPSEHETTPMIHZIVXMGEPP]8LIQE\MQYQ
RERGIW{7PIRHIVIPIQIRXWWYGLEWPMKLXERHWMKRWYTTSVXW
ZIVXMGEP[MRHZIPSGMX]QE]FIPMQMXIHXSQTL OQL 
ERH GEFPI XVE]W WLSYPH FI HIWMKRIH JSV LSVM^SRXEP [MRH

%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6

PSEHWTVSZMHIHJSVMRERHEW[IPPEWPEXIVEP ERSRKSMRKFEWMW)JJIGXWHYIXSXLIVQEPKVEHMIRXW[MXLMRXLI
ERHGVSWW[MRHPSEHIJJIGXWGEYWIHF]ZSVXI\WLIHHMRK&SXL WIGXMSRWLSYPHEPWSFIGSRWMHIVIH 4VMIWXPI] 
WIVZMGIEFMPMX] ERH WXVIRKXL GSRWMHIVEXMSRW WLSYPHFI MRZIW  0SEHWHYIXSXIQTIVEXYVI 898+
XMKEXIH(IXEMPWXLEXQE]GEYWIWXVIWWGSRGIRXVEXMSRWHYIXS  8IQTIVEXYVIVERKI{8LIQMRMQYQERHQE\MQYQ
JEXMKYISVVIWSRERGIWLSYPHFIEZSMHIH QIER HEMP] XIQTIVEXYVIW WLSYPH FI FEWIH SR PSGEP QIXIS
The wind drag coefficient 'HJSVWMKRERHFEVVMIVTERIPW VSPSKMGEP HEXE JSV E ]IEV VIXYVR TIVMSH 8LI VERKI SJ
[MXLEWTIGXVEXMSWSJYTXSFIX[IIRXSERHQSVI IJJIGXMZI XIQTIVEXYVI JSV GSQTYXMRK XLIVQEP QSZIQIRXW
XLERWLSYPHFIERHVIWTIGXMZIP] SJ XLI GSRGVIXIWXVYGXYVIWLSYPHFIXLI HMJJIVIRGI FIX[IIR
For light fixtures and sign supports with rounded surfaces, XLI [EVQIWX QE\MQYQ ERH XLIGSPHIWX QMRMQYQ IJJIGXMZI
octagonal sections with sharp corners, or rectangular flat XIQTIVEXYVIW [LMGL QE] FI GSRWMHIVIH XS FI ”* ”' 
WYVJEGIWXLIZEPYIWSJ'HWLSYPHFISVVIWTIG EFSZIXLIQIERHEMP]QE\MQYQXIQTIVEXYVIERHFIPS[XLI
XMZIP]%ZEPYISJJSV 'HWLSYPHFIYWIHJSVWYWTIRHIH QIER HEMP] QMRMQYQ XIQTIVEXYVIW VIWTIGXMZIP] -J PSGEP
WMKREPYRMXW XIQTIVEXYVI HEXE EVI RSX EZEMPEFPI XLI WXVYGXYVI QE] FI
;LIR MGI EGGYQYPEXMSR MW I\TIGXIH SR XLI WYVJEGI SJ HIWMKRIH JSV E QMRMQYQ XIQTIVEXYVI VMWI SJ ”* ”' 
WPIRHIVGSQTSRIRXWXLIXSXEPJVSRXEPEVIEWLSYPHMRGPYHIXLI ERHEQMRMQYQXIQTIVEXYVIHVSTSJ”* ”' JVSQXLI
XLMGORIWWSJMGI MRWXEPPEXMSRXIQTIVEXYVI
8LIH]REQMGIJJIGXWSJZSVXI\WLIHHMRKWLSYPHFIEREP]^IH  )JJIGXMZI GSRWXVYGXMSR XIQTIVEXYVI{-J XLI
ERH XLI WXVIWW PMQMXW JSV E QMRMQYQ SJ  »  G]GPIW SJ KYMHI[E]RIIHWXSEGGSQQSHEXIGSRXMRYSYWP][IPHIHVEMPW
PSEHMRKQE]FIETTPMIH ER IJJIGXMZI GSRWXVYGXMSR XIQTIVEXYVI WLSYPH FI WIPIGXIH
 0SEHWHYIXSMGITVIWWYVI -' {*PSEXMRKMGIJSVGIW 8LMWXIQTIVEXYVI[LMGLWLSYPHFIFEWIHSRXLIQIERHEMP]
SRTMIVWERHI\TSWIHTMIVGETWWLSYPHFIIZEPYEXIHEGGSVHMRK XIQTIVEXYVI TVIZEPIRX JSV XLI WMXI YRHIV GSRWMHIVEXMSR ERH
XSXLIPSGEPGSRHMXMSRWEX XLIWMXI'SRWMHIVEXMSRWLSYPHFI XMQISJ]IEVMWYWIHXSIWXEFPMWLXLIFEWIPMRIJSVVEMPJSVGI
KMZIRXSXLIJSPPS[MRKX]TIWSJMGIEGXMSRSRTMIVWIVIGXIHMR  8LIVQEP KVEHMIRX IJJIGXW{'YVZEXYVI GEYWIH F]
FSHMIWSJ[EXIV E XIQTIVEXYVI KVEHMIRX WLSYPH FI GSRWMHIVIH MR XLI HIWMKR
a) Dynamic ice pressure due to ice sheets and ice floes in SJ XLI WXVYGXYVI 8LI XIQTIVEXYVI HMJJIVIRXMEP FIX[IIR XLI
motion caused by stream or current flow and enhanced by XST ERH FSXXSQ WYVJEGIW ZEVMIW RSRPMRIEVP] EGGSVHMRK XS
[MRHEGXMSR XLIHITXLERHI\TSWYVISJXLIWXVYGXYVEPIPIQIRXWERHXLIMV
F 7XEXMGMGITVIWWYVIGEYWIHF]XLIVQEPEGXMSRSRGSRXMR locality. “AASHTO-LFRD Bridge Design Specifications”
YSYWWXEXMSREV]MGIWLIIXWSZIVPEVKIFSHMIWSJ[EXIV %%7,83 QE]FIYWIHEWEKYMHIMRXLMWVIKEVH
G 7XEXMGTVIWWYVIVIWYPXMRKJVSQMGINEQWEXEKYMHI[E]WMXI  Coefficient of thermal expansion{-R TPEGI SJ E
H 7XEXMGYTPMJXSVZIVXMGEPPSEHWHYIXSMGIWLIIXWMR[EXIV more precise value, the coefficient of linear thermal expan
bodies of fluctuating level WMSRJSVRSVQEP[IMKLXGSRGVIXIQE]FIXEOIREW»z”*
-GIPSEHWVIWYPXMRKJVSQJVII^MRKVEMRSVGSRWSPMHEXMSRSJ »z”' 
GSQTEGX WRS[SRXLIKYMHI[E] WYTIVWXVYGXYVIERH ZILMGPI  6EMPWXVYGXYVI MRXIVEGXMSR *6 *V {'SRXMRYSYWP]
WLSYPHFIMRGPYHIHEWETTVSTVMEXI [IPHIHVEMP ';6 HMVIGXP]JEWXIRIHXSXLIKYMHI[E]MRHYGIW
 0SEHWHYIXSWXVIEQGYVVIRX ;% ERE\MEPJSVGIMRXLIWXVYGXYVIXLVSYKLXLIJEWXIRIVVIWXVEMRX
 0SRKMXYHMREPPSEHW{8LIPSEHEGXMRKSRXLIPSRKM [LIRXLIWXVYGXYVII\TERHWSVGSRXVEGXWHYIXSZEVMEXMSRWMR
tudinal axis of a pier due to flowing water may be computed XIQTIVEXYVI';6WLSYPHFIMRWXEPPIHMRE^IVSWXVIWWGSRHM
F]XLIJSPPS[MRKI\TVIWWMSR &YGOPIERH4VMIWXPI] XMSREXERIJJIGXMZIMRWXEPPEXMSRXIQTIVEXYVI8-JXLI';6MW
MRWXEPPIHEXEXIQTIVEXYVIXLEXMWHMJJIVIRXJVSQXLIIJJIGXMZI
;%!'(%:  MRWXEPPEXMSR XIQTIVEXYVI XLIR XLIVEMP WLSYPH FI TL]WMGEPP]
WXVIWWIHXSFIGSQTEXMFPI[MXLXLI^IVSWXVIWWGSRHMXMSRJSV
 8VERWZIVWIPSEHW{8LIPEXIVEPPSEHSRETMIVWLEJX [LMGLMXMWHIWMKRIHEXXLIMRWXEPPEXMSRXIQTIVEXYVI +VSYRM
due to stream flow and drift should be resolved from the ERH7EHPIV 
main direction of flow. The appropriate component should  8LIVQEPVEMPJSVGIW{%\MEPVEMPWXVIWWJVVMR';6
FI ETTPMIH EW E YRMJSVQP] HMWXVMFYXIH PSEH SR XLI I\TSWIH HYI XS E GLERKI MR XLI XIQTIVEXYVI EJXIV MRWXEPPEXMSR MW
EVIESJXLITMIVFIPS[XLILMKL[EXIVPIZIPMRXLIHMVIGXMSR I\TVIWWIHF]
YRHIVGSRWMHIVEXMSR
JVV!)V 8z8 E
{0SEHWHYIXSZSPYQIXVMGGLERKIW
 +IRIVEP{4VSZMWMSRWWLSYPHFIQEHIJSVEPPQSZI -JXLIFVMHKIERHXLIVEMPMRGVIEWISVHIGVIEWIMRXIQTIVE
QIRXWERHJSVGIWXLEXGERSGGYVMRXLIWXVYGXYVIEWEVIWYPX XYVI F] XLI WEQI EQSYRX XLIR XLI] [MPP FSXL I\TERH SV
SJ WLVMROEKI GVIIT ERH ZEVMEXMSRW MR XIQTIVEXYVI 0SEH GSRXVEGXXSKIXLIVMREVIPEXMZIP]WXVIWWJVIIWXEXIFIGEYWIXLI
IJJIGXW XLEX QE] FI MRHYGIH F] E VIWXVEMRX XS XLIWI QSZI coefficient of expansion is almost identical between concrete
QIRXW WLSYPH FI MRGPYHIH MR XLI EREP]WMW8LIWI VIWXVEMRXW ERHWXIIP*SVEXIQTIVEXYVIHIGVIEWI8QE]FIXEOIREWXLI
MRGPYHI XLSWI MQTSWIHHYVMRKGSRWXVYGXMSRSRE XIQTSVEV] QMRMQYQ IJJIGXMZIXIQTIVEXYVIHIWGVMFIHMR *SVE
FEWMWERHXLSWIMQTSWIHF]XLIVEMPJEWXIRIVMRXIVEGXMSRSR XIQTIVEXYVIVMWI8QE]FIXEOIREWXLIQE\MQYQIJJIGXMZI

%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6 

XIQTIVEXYVITPYW”* ”' 8LIGSVVIWTSRHMRKVEMPJSVGI I %QFMIRXXIQTIVEXYVI

*VMWI\TVIWWIHF] J 6IPEXMZILYQMHMX]EXXLIXMQISJTPEGMRKXLIGSRGVIXI
*SVEQENSVXVERWMXTVSNIGXWLVMROEKIERHGVIITFILEZMSV
*V! %VJV! %V)V 8 z8 F SJ XLI GSRGVIXI QM\XYVI WLSYPH FI XIWXIH ERH ZEPMHEXIH EW
TEVX SJ XLI HIWMKR TVSGIWW%781 XIWX TVSGIHYVIW I\MWX XS
[LIVI MQTPMIWXLEXXLIJSVGIWMREPPVEMPWQYWXFIWYQQIH XIWXJSVWLVMROEKIMRZEVMSYWEKKVIKEXIGIQIRXERHEHQM\
8LI QSZIQIRX SJ XLI WXVYGXYVI XLVSYKL XLI JEWXIRIVW XYVIGSQFMREXMSRW*SVTVIGEWXQIQFIVWSRP]XLITSVXMSRSJ
MRHYGIW IMXLIV E XIRWMPI SV GSQTVIWWMZI E\MEP JSVGI SR XLI WLVMROEKISVGVIITVIQEMRMRKEJXIVXLIIPIQIRXMWMRXIKVEXIH
VEMP HITIRHMRK SR [LIXLIV XLI XIQTIVEXYVI VMWIW SV HVSTW MRXSXLIWXVYGXYVIRIIHWXSFIGSRWMHIVIH
VIWTIGXMZIP]JVSQMRWXEPPEXMSR -RXLIEFWIRGISJQSVIEGGYVEXIHEXESVQIXLSHSJEREP
%ZIVXMGEPP]SVLSVM^SRXEPP]GYVZIHWXVYGXYVII\TIVMIRGIW ]WMW WLVMROEKI WXVEMR X HE]W EJXIV GEWXMRK SJ RSVQEP[IMKLX
E VEHMEP JSVGI VIWYPXMRK JVSQ XLI XLIVQEP VEMP JSVGIW 8LMW GSRGVIXI QE] FI GSQTYXIH F] JSPPS[MRK XLI QIXLSHW
VEHMEPJSVGITIVYRMXPIRKXLSJVEMPMWI\TVIWWIHEW HIWGVMFIHMR%'-6
 'VIIT MR GSRGVIXI '6 {'VIIT MW E JYRGXMSR SJ
*V VIPEXMZI LYQMHMX] ZSPYQIXSWYVJEGI VEXMS ERH XMQI X EJXIV
*6 G
6 ETTPMGEXMSR SJ PSEH 'VIIT MW EPWS EJJIGXIH F] XLI EQSYRX
SJVIMRJSVGIQIRXMRXLIWIGXMSRXLIQEKRMXYHISJWYWXEMRIH
2SXIXLEX*6EP[E]WSGGYVWMRGSQFMREXMSR[MXL*V TVIWXVIWWPSEH 47 XLIEKISJXLIGSRGVIXI[LIRXLIJSVGI
8LITVIGIHMRKI\TVIWWMSRWETTP][LIVIXLIVIMWRSQSXMSR MWETTPMIHERHXLITVSTIVXMIWSJXLIGSRGVIXIQM\XYVI-JXLI
SJXLIVEMPVIPEXMZIXSXLIWXVYGXYVI;LIVIVEMPQSXMSRQE] HIWMKR MW WIRWMXMZI XS ZSPYQIXVMG GLERKI XLIR ER I\TIVM
SGGYVXLIVIPE\EXMSRSJXLIVEMPWLSYPHFIEREP]^IHXSHIXIV QIRXEPZEPMHEXMSRSJGVIITFILEZMSVFEWIHSRXLIMRKVIHMIRXW
QMRIMXWIJJIGXSRXLIWXVYGXYVI6EMPQSXMSRQE]SGGYV[LIR XSFIYWIHQE]FIRIGIWWEV]
E 6EMPI\TERWMSRNSMRXWEVITVIWIRX -RXLIEFWIRGISJQSVIEGGYVEXIHEXEERHTVSGIHYVIGVIIT
F  6EHMEPSV XERKIRXMEPQSZIQIRXWSJVEMP ERH KYMHI[E] EX XHE]WEJXIVETTPMGEXMSRSJPSEHQE]FIJSYRHF]JSPPS[MRK
WXVYGXYVIEXGYVZIWSGGYV XLIQIXLSHWHIWGVMFIHMR%'-6
G %VEMPFVIEOXEOIWTPEGI
H 'SRXMRYSYWVEMPWGVSWWWXVYGXYVEPNSMRXW {)\GITXMSREPPSEHW
 )EVXLUYEOI IJJIGXW )5 {7XVYGXYVIW WLSYPH FI
I  'VIIT ERH WLVMROEKI WXVEMRW MR TVIWXVIWWIH GSRGVIXI
HIWMKRIHXSVIWMWXWIMWQMGQSXMSRWF]GSRWMHIVMRKXLIVIPEXMSR
IPIQIRXWGSRXMRYIXSXEOITPEGI
WLMTSJXLIWMXIXSEGXMZIJEYPXPSGEXMSRWXLIWIMWQMGVIWTSRWISJ
 &VSOIRVEMPJSVGIW{%XZIV]PS[XIQTIVEXYVIWXLI
XLIWSMPWEXXLIWMXIERHXLIH]REQMGVIWTSRWIGLEVEGXIVMWXMGW
TVSFEFMPMX]SJEVEMPFVIEOMRGVIEWIW8LIQSWXPMOIP]TPEGI
SJXLIXSXEPWXVYGXYVIMREGGSVHERGI[MXLXLIPEXIWXIHMXMSRSJ
JSVEVEMPFVIEOXSXEOITPEGIMWEXERI\TERWMSRNSMRXMRXLI
“AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications” (AASHTO
WXVYGXYVI%VEMPFVIEOEXXLMWPSGEXMSRKIRIVEPP]GVIEXIWXLI
  'IVXEMR PSGEP NYVMWHMGXMSRW QE] LEZI LMKLIV WIMWQMG
PEVKIWXJSVGIWMRXLIWXVYGXYVI
^SRIVMWOVIUYMVIQIRXWJSVEREP]WMWERHHIWMKR
;LIRXLIVEMPFVIEOWMXWPMTWXLVSYKLXLIJEWXIRIVWSRFSXL
 (IVEMPQIRX PSEH (6 {(IVEMPQIRX QE] SGGYV
WMHIWSJXLIFVIEOYRXMPXLIXIRWMPIJSVGIMRXLIVEMP FIJSVIXLI
[LIR XLI ZILMGPI WXIIVMRK QIGLERMWQ JEMPW XS VIWTSRH SR
FVIEO MWGSYRXIVEGXIHF]XLIVIZIVWIHJEWXIRIVVIWXVEMRXJSVGIW
GYVZIWSV[LIRXLI[LIIPWNYQTXLIVEMPWEXXSSPEVKIETYPP
8LIYRFEPERGIHJSVGIJVSQXLIFVSOIRVEMPMWVIWMWXIHF]FSXL
ETEVXKET[LMGLQE]FIXLIVIWYPXSJEFVIEOMREGSRXMRYSYW
XLIYRFVSOIRVEMPWERHXLIKYMHI[E]WYTTSVXW]WXIQMRTVSTSV
[IPHIHVEMP ';6  'EPKEV]8VERWMX (IVEMPQIRXQE]
XMSRXSXLIMVVIPEXMZIWXMJJRIWWIW8LITVSFEFMPMX]XLEXQSVIXLER
EPWSFIGEYWIHF]MRXIVZILMGPIGSPPMWMSR*SVXLIHIWMKRSJ
SRIVEMP[MPPFVIEOEXXLIWEQIXMQIMWWQEPPERHMWKIRIVEPP]
XLIXSTWPEFERHXLIFEVVMIV[EPPSJXLIKYMHI[E]FSXLXLI
RSXGSRWMHIVIHMRXLIHIWMKR%PPS[ERGIWJSVIGGIRXVMGPSEHMRK
ZIVXMGEPERHLSVM^SRXEPHIVEMPQIRXPSEHWRIIHXSFIGSRWMH
GER FI JSYRH MR XLI 8VERWTSVXEXMSR 6IWIEVGL &SEVH 8'64
IVIHWMQYPXERISYWP]
6ITSVX 8VERWTSVXEXMSR6IWIEVGL&SEVH 
8LI JSVGI IJJIGXW GEYWIH F] E WMRKPI HIVEMPIH WXERHEVH
 6EMP KET{8LI VIPEXMZI W]WXIQ WXMJJRIWW WLSYPH
ZILMGPIWLSYPHFIGSRWMHIVIHMRXLIHIWMKRSJXLIKYMHI[E]
FI TVSTSVXMSRIH WS XLEX XLI QEKRMXYHI SJ XLIKET FIX[IIR
WXVYGXYVI GSQTSRIRXW 8LIWI IJJIGXW [LIXLIV PSGEP SV
FVSOIR VEMP IRHW MW IUYEP XS XLI QE\MQYQ EPPS[EFPI XS
global, should include flexure, shear, torsion, axial tension
TVIZIRX ZILMGPI HIVEMPQIRX 8]TMGEPP] EGGITXEFPI VEMP KETW
SVGSQTVIWWMSRERHTYRGLMRKWLIEVXLVSYKLXLIHIGO8LI
EVIMRXLIVERKISJMR QQ JSVEMR QQ HMEQ
HIVEMPIHZILMGPIWLSYPHFIEWWYQIHXSGSQIXSVIWXEWGPSWI
IXIV[LIIPERHYTXSMR QQ JSVPEVKIV[LIIPW6EMP
XS XLI FEVVMIV [EPP EW TL]WMGEPP] TSWWMFPI XS TVSHYGI XLI
KETMWGSRXVSPPIHF]XLIWTEGMRKERHWXMJJRIWWSJXLIJEWXIRIVW
PEVKIWXJSVGIIJJIGX-RXLIHIWMKRSJXLIHIGOWPEFEH]REQMG
 7LVMROEKIMRGSRGVIXI 7, {7LVMROEKIMWEJYRGXMSR
PSEHIJJIGX »[LIIPPSEH WLSYPHFIEHHIHXSXLI[LIIP
of a number of variables, the most significant of which are:
PSEHW8LMWVIWYPXWMREPSEHSJ[LIIPPSEHH]REQMGPSEH!
E 'LEVEGXIVMWXMGWSJXLIEKKVIKEXIW
 [LIIPPSEH SVH]REQMGPSEH!TIVGIRX [LIIPPSEH 
F ;EXIVGIQIRXMXMSYWQEXIVMEPVEXMS [GQ SJXLIQM\XYVI
8LIQEKRMXYHIERHPMRI SJEGXMSRSJELSVM^SRXEPHIVEMP
G 8]TIERHXLIHYVEXMSRSJGYVMRK
QIRX PSEH SR E FEVVMIV [EPP MW E JYRGXMSR SJ E RYQFIV SJ
H :SPYQIXSWYVJEGIVEXMSSJXLIQIQFIV
ZEVMEFPIW8LIWIMRGPYHIXLIHMWXERGISJXLIXVEGOWJVSQXLI

%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6

FEVVMIV[EPPXLIZILMGPI[IMKLXERHWTIIHEXHIVEMPQIRXXLI )MXLIVXLIHIVEMPQIRXPSEHSVXLIGSPPMWMSRPSEHWLSYPHFI
flexibility of the wall, and the frictional resistance between GSRWMHIVIH
XLI ZILMGPI ERH XLI [EPP -R TPEGI SJ E HIXEMPIH EREP]WMW  &VSOIR VEMP JSVGIW &6 {*SVGIW SR XLI KYMHI[E]
XLIFEVVMIV[EPPWLSYPHFIHIWMKRIHXSVIWMWXEPEXIVEPJSVGI WYTTSVXIPIQIRXWHYIXSEFVSOIRVEMPEVIHMWGYWWIHMR
IUYMZEPIRXXSTIVGIRXSJEWXERHEVHZILMGPI[IMKLXHMWXVMF  'SPPMWMSR PSEH '8 {&EWIH SR %%7,83 06*(
YXIHSZIVEPIRKXLSJJX Q EPSRKXLI[EPPERHEGXMRK %%7,83 VIGSQQIRHEXMSRWTMIVWSVSXLIVKYMHI[E]
EXXLIE\PILIMKLX'SPPMWMSRJSVGIWFIX[IIRZILMGPIWVIWYPX WYTTSVXIPIQIRXWXLEXEVIPSGEXIHPIWWXLERJX Q XSXLI
JVSQXLIHIVEMPQIRXSJEZILMGPIERHMXWWYFWIUYIRXVIWXMRK IHKISJEREHNEGIRXWXVIIXSVLMKL[E]SVPIWWXLERJX 
TSWMXMSREKEMRWXXLIKYMHI[E]WMHI[EPP8LMWIGGIRXVMGPSEH Q  XS XLI GIRXIVPMRI SJ E VEMP[E] XVEGO WLSYPH FI HIWMKRIH
SR XLI KYMHI[E] GEYWIW XSVWMSREP IJJIGXW XLEX WLSYPH FI XS [MXLWXERH EQMRMQYQ LSVM^SRXEP WXEXMG JSVGI SJ OMTW
EGGSYRXIHJSVMRXLIHIWMKR8LIQEKRMXYHIERHIGGIRXVMGMX] O2 YRPIWWTVSXIGXIHF]EWYMXEFPIFEVVMIV8LIJSVGIMW
SJXLMWZIVXMGEPGSPPMWMSRPSEHEVIJYRGXMSRWSJXLIHMWXERGISJ XSFIETTPMIHSRXLIWYTTSVXIPIQIRXSVXLITVSXIGXMSRFEVVMIV
XLIKYMHI[E]GIRXIVPMRIJVSQXLIWMHI[EPPXLIE\PI[MHXL at an angle of 10 degrees from the direction of the road traffic
ERH XLI VIPEXMZI TSWMXMSR SJ XLI GIRXIVPMRIW SJ XLI ZILMGPI ERHEXELIMKLXSJJX Q EFSZIKVSYRHPIZIP7YMXEFPI
FSH]ERHXLIXVYGOEJXIVXLIGSPPMWMSR TVSXIGXMSRXSTMIVWERHSXLIVWYTTSVXIPIQIRXWEVIEWJSPPS[W
(YIXSGSPPMWMSRSJEQSZMRKXVEMR[MXLEWXEXMSREV]XVEMR E %RIQFEROQIRX
SREKYMHI[E]SRISVFSXLXVEMRWQE]FIXSTTPIHERHGSPPMHI F  7XVYGXYVEPP] MRHITIRHIRX GVEWL[SVXL] KVSYRH
[MXL XLI FEVVMIV [EPP 8LI QMRMQYQ LIMKLX SJ XLI FEVVMIV QSYRXIHMR Q LMKLFEVVMIVPSGEXIH[MXLMRJX 
WLSYPH FI  MR  QQ  EFSZI XLI XST SJ XLI VEMP 8LI Q SJXLIGSQTSRIRXFIMRKTVSXIGXIH
GSPPMWMSRPSEHWLEZIELSVM^SRXEPGSQTSRIRX '30*, ERH G %MR Q LMKLFEVVMIVPSGEXIHQSVIXLERJX 
ZIVXMGEPGSQTSRIRX '30*: &SXLPSEHWEVIETTPMIHWMQYP Q JVSQXLIGSQTSRIRXFIMRKTVSXIGXIH
XERISYWP]XSXLIKYMHI[E]WXVYGXYVIEXXLIXSTSJXLIFEVVMIV 8S UYEPMJ] JSV XLIWI I\GITXMSRW WYGL FEVVMIVW WLSYPH FI
[EPP8LIQENSVEWWYQTXMSRWYWIHMRGEPGYPEXMRKXLIEJSVI WXVYGXYVEPP] ERH KISQIXVMGEPP] GETEFPI SJ WYVZMZMRK XLI
mentioned forces (defined in the following) are: crash test for Performance Level 5, as specified in AASHTO
E 8LIQSZMRKXVEMRMWXVEZIPPMRKEXQTL OQL  06*( %%7,83 7IGXMSR
[LIRMXWXVMOIWXLIWXEXMSREV]XVEMR8LMWZIPSGMX]MWORS[RXS 8LITSWWMFMPMX]SJ SZIVLIMKLXZILMGPIW GSPPMHMRK[MXLXLI
be consistent with the two-red system of LRT traffic control KYMHI[E] FIEQ WLSYPH FI GSRWMHIVIH JSV KYMHI[E]W [MXL
YWIHMRQENSVGMXMIWMR2SVXL%QIVMGE PIWWXLERJX Q GPIEVERGISZIVI\MWXMRKVSEH[E]W
F 8[SXLMVHWSJXLIOMRIXMGIRIVK]MWGSRZIVXIHMRXSTSXIR
XMEPIRIVK]SJYT[EVHXMPX {'SRWXVYGXMSRPSEHW
8LIQSWXWIZIVIIJJIGXSJER]SJXLIJSPPS[MRKXLVIIGEWIW 'SRWXVYGXMSR PSEHW WLSYPH FI GSRWMHIVIH MR EGGSVHERGI
QE]FIGSRWMHIVIH 'EPKEV]8VERWMX  [MXL7)-%7')
 +IRIVEP{0SEHW HYI XS GSRWXVYGXMSR IUYMTQIRX
'EWI ERHQEXIVMEPWXLEXQE]FIMQTSWIHSRXLIKYMHI[E]WXVYG
'EWIETTPMIWXSEFEVVMIVLIMKLXSJMR QQ SV XYVIWLSYPHFIEGGSYRXIHJSV HYVMRK GSRWXVYGXMSR 6IJIVXS
QSVIEFSZIXLIXSTSJXLIVEMP *MKYVIWEERHFJSVI\EQTPIWSJHMJJIVIRXGSRWXVYG
,SVM^SRXEPGSPPMWMSRPSEH '30*, MWTIVGIRXSJXLIWXER XMSR PSEHMRK GSRHMXMSRW XS FI EGGSQQSHEXIH MR HIWMKR
HEVHZILMGPI[IMKLXHMWXVMFYXIHSZIVEPIRKXLSJJX Q  %HHMXMSREPP] XVERWMIRX PSEH IJJIGXW HYVMRK GSRWXVYGXMSR
:IVXMGEPGSPPMWMSRPSEH '30*: MWTIVGIRXSJXLIWXER due to wind, ice, stream flow, and earthquakes should be
HEVHZILMGPI[IMKLXHMWXVMFYXIHSZIVEPIRKXLSJJX Q  GSRWMHIVIH [MXL VIXYVR TIVMSHW ERH TVSFEFMPMXMIW SJ WMRKPI
SV QYPXMTPI SGGYVVIRGIW GSQQIRWYVEXI [MXL XLI I\TIGXIH
'EWI PMJISJXLIXIQTSVEV]WXVYGXYVISVXLIHYVEXMSRSJETEVXMGYPEV
'EWIETTPMIWXSEFEVVMIVLIMKLXSJMR QQ SV GSRWXVYGXMSRWXEKI
PIWWEFSZIXLIXSTSJXLIVEMP  (IEHPSEHW ('(; {(IEHPSEHWSRXLIWXVYGXYVI
'30*, MW  TIVGIRX SJ XLI WXERHEVH ZILMGPI [IMKLX HYVMRKGSRWXVYGXMSRWLSYPHMRGPYHIXLI[IMKLXSJJSVQ[SVO
HMWXVMFYXIHSZIVEPIRKXLSJJX Q  falsework, fixed appendages, and stored materials. The dead
'30*: MW  TIVGIRX SJ XLI WXERHEVH ZILMGPI [IMKLX weight of mobile equipment that may be fixed at a stationary
HMWXVMFYXIHSZIVEPIRKXLSJJX Q  PSGEXMSRSRXLIKYMHI[E]JSVPSRKHYVEXMSRWWLSYPHEPWSFI
GSRWMHIVIH7YGLIUYMTQIRXMRGPYHIWPMJXMRKERHPEYRGLMRK
'EWI HIZMGIW
'EWIETTPMIWXSEZILMGPI VIWXMRKSRXLIFEVVMIVEJXIVE  0MZIPSEHW 0 {0MZIPSEHWSRXLIWXVYGXYVIHYVMRK
GSPPMWMSR GSRWXVYGXMSR WLSYPH MRGPYHI XLI [IMKLX SJ [SVOIVW ERH EPP
'30*,MW QSFMPI IUYMTQIRX WYGL EW ZILMGPIW LSMWXW GVERIW ERH
'30*:MWXLI[IMKLXSJSRIZILMGPIHMWXVMFYXIHSZIVXLI WXVYGXYVEPGSQTSRIRXWYWIHHYVMRKXLITVSGIWWSJIVIGXMSR
PIRKXLSJXLIZILMGPI Construction live load limits should be identified on the
% PMRIEV MRXIVTSPEXMSR JSV XLI PSEHW GER FI YWIH JSV E GSRXVEGXHSGYQIRXW
FEVVMIVLIMKLXEFSZIXLIXSTSJXLIVEMPFIX[IIRMR 
QQ  'EWI ERHMR QQ  'EWI 

%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6 

QIRXWJSVFSXLWIVZMGIEFMPMX]ERHWXVIRKXLHIWMKR7IVZMGI
EFMPMX] HIWMKR GVMXIVME EVI HIVMZIH F] IPEWXMG EREP]WMW ERH
WXVIWWIWERHWIGXMSRVIWMWXERGIEVIHIVMZIHJVSQXLEXEREP]WMW
7XVIRKXLHIWMKRGVMXIVMEEVIEPWSHIXIVQMRIHF]IPEWXMGEREP
]WMW;LIVIEWWXVIWWIWEVIHIZIPSTIHJVSQIPEWXMGEREP]WMW
WIGXMSRVIWMWXERGIMWHIXIVQMRIHFEWIHSRMRIPEWXMGFILEZMSV
8LI PSEH ERH VIWMWXERGI QSHIPW YWIH MR XLMW WXYH] [IVI
FEWIH SR EZEMPEFPI XIWX HEXE EREP]XMGEP VIWYPXW ERH IRKM
RIIVMRK NYHKQIRX 2S[EO ERH +VSYRM  2S[EO ERH
0MRH 
Live load is defined by a fully loaded standard vehicle. The
[IMKLX SJZILMGPIW WLSYPH MRGPYHI ER EPPS[ERGIJSV TSXIR
XMEP[IMKLXKVS[XL6IWMWXERGIQSHIPWXEOIMRXSEGGSYRXXLI
HIKVIISJUYEPMX]GSRXVSPHYVMRKGEWXMRK8LITVSTIVXMIWSJ
*MKEzz'ERXMPIZIVGSRWXVYGXMSR GSYVXIW]SJ4'%  JEGXSV]TVSHYGIH QIQFIVW EVI XLIVIJSVI GSRWMHIVIH QSVI
VIPMEFPIXLERXLSWISJGEWXMRTPEGIQIQFIVW%'-WTIGM
fications are assumed in this document for requirements of
GSRGVIXIWXVIRKXLGSRXVSP
7EJIX]MWQIEWYVIHMRXIVQWSJXLIXEVKIXVIPMEFMPMX]MRHI\
A higher target reliability index reflects a lower probability
SJ JEMPYVI % XEVKIX VIPMEFMPMX] MRHI\ SJ  MW EHSTXIH JSV
WXVIRKXL HIWMKR 8LI XEVKIX VIPMEFMPMX] MRHI\ EHSTXIH JSV
WIVZMGIEFMPMX]HIWMKRMWJSVGVEGOMRKERHJSVJEXMKYI
8LISFNIGXMZIMRHIVMZMRKVIPMEFMPMX]FEWIHPSEHJEGXSVWMWXS
TVSZMHIEYRMJSVQWEJIX]PIZIPXSPSEHGEVV]MRKGSQTSRIRXW
8LI YRGIVXEMRXMIW MR QIXLSHW SJ EREP]WMW QEXIVMEP TVSTIV
XMIW ERH HMQIRWMSREP EGGYVEGMIW EVI XEOIR MRXS EGGSYRX MR
XLI HIVMZEXMSR SJ WXVIRKXL VIHYGXMSR JEGXSVW 9RGIVXEMRXMIW
VIKEVHMRKXLIQEKRMXYHISJMQTSWIHPSEHWERHXLIMVQIER
XSRSQMREPVEXMSWEVIEGGSYRXIHJSVMRXLIHIVMZEXMSRSJPSEH
JEGXSVW&IGEYWISJXLILMKLRYQFIVERHJVIUYIRG]SJXVEMR
*MKFzz7TERF]WTERGSRWXVYGXMSR GSYVXIW]SJ4'%  PSEHWTEWWMRKSVXVEZIPMRKSREKYMHI[E]WXVYGXYVIIRZMVSR
QIRXEPERHIQIVKIRG]PSEHWEVIGSQFMRIH[MXLQE\MQYQ
',%48)6{03%('31&-2%8-32703%( PMZI PSEH 8LI HIVMZEXMSR SJ PSEH ERH WXVIRKXL VIHYGXMSR
*%'8367%2(786)2+8,6)(9'8-32 JEGXSVWMWFEWIHSRXLMWVIPMEFMPMX]ETTVSEGL
*%'8367
{7IVZMGIPSEHGSQFMREXMSRW
{7GSTI *SYVWIVZMGIPSEHGSQFMREXMSRW{777ERH7{EVI
This chapter specifies load factors, strength reduction PMWXIHMR8EFPI;LIR[EVVERXIHQSVIPSEHGSQFMREXMSRW
JEGXSVWERHPSEHGSQFMREXMSRWXSFIYWIHMRWIVZMGIEFMPMX] may be used on specific projects. Load and strength reduc
ERHWXVIRKXLHIWMKRW7XVYGXYVEPWEJIX]MWYWIHEWXLIEGGIT XMSRJEGXSVWEVIRSXYWIHJSVWIVZMGIEFMPMX]HIWMKR
XERGI GVMXIVMSR8LI HIVMZEXMSR SJ PSEH ERH WXVIRKXL VIHYG
XMSRJEGXSVWMWFEWIHSRTVSFEFMPMWXMGQIXLSHWYWMRKEZEMPEFPI {7XVIRKXLPSEHGSQFMREXMSRW
WXEXMWXMGEPHEXEERHQEOMRKGIVXEMRFEWMGEWWYQTXMSRW  +IRIVEP VIUYMVIQIRXW{*SV WXVIRKXL HIWMKR XLI
Specific projects may use a load modifier for operational JEGXSVIH WXVIRKXL SJ E QIQFIV WLSYPH I\GIIH XLI XSXEP
importance as specified in the “AASHTO LRFD Bridge JEGXSVIHPSEHIJJIGX8LIJEGXSVIHWXVIRKXLSJEQIQFIVSV
Design Specifications” (AASHTO 2012). Such a load modi GVSWW WIGXMSR MW SFXEMRIH F] XEOMRK XLI RSQMREP QIQFIV
fier, however, may only be applied to the strength load WXVIRKXLGEPGYPEXIHMREGGSVHERGI[MXL'LETXIVERHQYPXM
GSQFMREXMSRWTVIWIRXIHMR8LIS[RIVQE]HIGPEVIGPEW TP]MRKMXF]XLIETTVSTVMEXIWXVIRKXLVIHYGXMSRJEGXSV KMZIR
WMJ]XLIKYMHI[E]WXVYGXYVISVER]WMQMPEVWXVYGXYVEPGSQTS MR 8LI XSXEP JEGXSVIH PSEH IJJIGX WLSYPH FI SFXEMRIH
RIRXERHGSRRIGXMSRXSFISJSTIVEXMSREPMQTSVXERGI7YGL JVSQ VIPIZERX WXVIRKXL GSQFMREXMSR 9 MRGSVTSVEXMRK XLI
declaration/classification should be based on social/survival, ETTVSTVMEXIPSEHJEGXSVWKMZIRMR8EFPI
WIGYVMX]HIJIRWIVIUYMVIQIRXWSVFSXL 7MQYPXERISYW SGGYVVIRGI SJ PSEHW MW QSHIPIH F] YWMRK
EZEMPEFPIHEXE*SVXLITYVTSWIWSJVIPMEFMPMX]EREP]WMWPSEHW
{&EWMGEWWYQTXMSRW EVIHMZMHIH MRXS GEXIKSVMIW EGGSVHMRK XS XLIMV HYVEXMSR ERH
8LI HIWMKR IGSRSQMG PMJI SJ E XVERWMX KYMHI[E] MW  XLITVSFEFMPMX]SJXLIMVNSMRXSGGYVVIRGIEWJSPPS[W
]IEVW 0SEH ERH VIWMWXERGI QSHIPW WLSYPH FI HIZIPSTIH E 4IVQERIRXPSEHWHIEHPSEHIEVXLTVIWWYVIERHWXVYG
EGGSVHMRKP]+YMHI[E] WXVYGXYVIWWLSYPHQIIX XLI VIUYMVI XYVEPVIWXVEMRX

%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6

8EFPI{7IVZMGIPSEHGSQFMREXMSRW 8EFPI{(IWMKRPSEHGSQFMREXMSRWERHPSEH
7!('(;00-1470*R ')SV,* JEGXSVW
7!7? ;0;7 SV-'SV;%A 0SEHGSQTSRIRX 9 9 9 9 9
7!7898+7,'6 ('(;     
7!47('(;;7898+7,'6 00 -1ERHIMXLIV;%
   j {
SV ,*
7,ERH'6     {
F +VEHYEPP]ZEV]MRKPSEHWTVIWXVIWWMRKIJJIGXWGVIITERH
47     
WLVMROEKIHMJJIVIRXMEPJSYRHEXMSR WIXXPIQIRXERH XIQTIVE
;0;7     {
XYVIIJJIGXW
-' 898+ ;%SV
G  8VERWMXSV] PSEHW PMZI PSEH WXEXMG ERH H]REQMG  ERH )5
{ {  { {
[MRH
0*I { {  { {
d) Exceptional loads: ice flow, flood, foundation load
&6 *6 *V { { { { 
associated with flood, vessel collision, earthquake, emer
'8 { { { { 
KIRG]FVEOMRKFVSOIRVEMPHIVEMPQIRXERHZILMGPIGSPPMWMSR
(6SV'8 { { {  {
+VEHYEPP] ZEV]MRK PSEHWEGXWMQYPXERISYWP][MXLTIVQE 
9WI[LIRIJJIGXMWQSVIGSRWIVZEXMZI
RIRX PSEHW 8LI JSVQIV EVI XEOIR EX XLIMV QE\MQYQ SV j
9WIXLI[IMKLXSJERIQTX]XVEMRSRP]
QMRMQYQ PIZIP{[LMGLIZIV ]MIPH XLI [SVWXGEWI WGIREVMS
JSVWXVYGXYVEPTIVJSVQERGI{JSVXLIHYVEXMSRGSRWMHIVIH
',%48)6{7)6:-')%&-0-8=()7-+2
8VERWMXSV]ERHI\GITXMSREPPSEHWEVIGSQFMRIHEGGSVHMRK
XS8YVOWXVEvWVYPI 8YVOWXVE [LMGLWXMTYPEXIWXLEXXLI
{+IRIVEP
QE\MQYQXSXEPPSEHSGGYVW[LIRSRIPSEHGSQTSRIRXMWEX
'LETXIVGSZIVWXLITIVJSVQERGISJVIMRJSVGIHGSRGVIXI
MXWQE\MQYQZEPYIWMQYPXERISYWP][MXLXLISXLIVWXEOIREX
KYMHI[E]W FSXL TVIWXVIWWIH ERH RSRTVIWXVIWWIH  YRHIV
XLIMVEZIVEKIZEPYIW%PPTSWWMFPIGSQFMREXMSRWEVIGSRWMH
WIVZMGIPSEHMRKW7IVZMGIEFMPMX]VIUYMVIQIRXWXSFIMRZIWXM
IVIHXSHIXIVQMRIXLIGSQFMREXMSRXLEXQE\MQM^IWXSXEPPSEH
KEXIH MRGPYHI WXVIWWIW JEXMKYIZMFVEXMSRHIJSVQEXMSR ERH
IJJIGX 0SEH JEGXSVW GSVVIWTSRHMRK XS XMQIZEV]MRK PSEH
GVEGOMRK
combinations reflect the reduced likelihood of simultaneous
*EXMKYIMWMRGPYHIHMRWIVZMGIEFMPMX]HIWMKRFIGEYWILMKL
SGGYVVIRGISJXLIWIPSEHW
cyclic loading influences the permissible design stresses.
 0SEHGSQFMREXMSRWERHPSEHJEGXSVW{0SEHGSQFM
0SEHGSQFMREXMSRWJSVWIVZMGIEFMPMX]HIWMKREVIKMZIRMR
REXMSRWXSKIXLIV[MXLXLIGSVVIWTSRHMRKJEGXSVWJSVWXVIRKXL
(YVEFMPMX]GSRWMHIVEXMSRWEVIKMZIRMR
HIWMKREVIPMWXIHMR8EFPI:EPYIWSJPSEHGSQTSRIRXW
are specified in 'LETXIV
{&EWMGEWWYQTXMSRW
 7XVIRKXL VIHYGXMSR JEGXSVW 2S[EO ERH +VSYRM
*SVGI IJJIGXW YRHIV WIVZMGI PSEHW WLSYPH FI HIXIVQMRIH
 {8LI XLISVIXMGEP GETEGMX] SJ E WIGXMSR WLSYPH FI
F] EPMRIEVIPEWXMGEREP]WMW *SVMRZIWXMKEXMSRSJWXVIWWIW EX
VIHYGIHF]EWXVIRKXLVIHYGXMSRJEGXSV EWJSPPS[WJSV
WIVZMGIGSRHMXMSRWXLIJSPPS[MRKEWWYQTXMSRWEVIQEHI
a) Flexure only, or flexure with axial load in prestressed
E  7XVEMRW EVI HMVIGXP] TVSTSVXMSREP XS HMWXERGI JVSQ XLI
GSRGVIXI !
RIYXVEPE\MW
b) Flexure only, or flexure with axial load in reinforced
F %XGVEGOIHWIGXMSRWGSRGVIXIHSIWRSXVIWMWXXIRWMSR
GSRGVIXI !
G 7XVIWWMWHMVIGXP]TVSTSVXMSREPXSWXVEMR
G 7LIEVERHXSVWMSR !
H %\MEPXIRWMSR !
{4IVQMWWMFPIWXVIWWIW
e) Compression in members with spiral confinement rein
 2SRTVIWXVIWWIHQIQFIVW{*EXMKYIERHGVEGOMRKEVI
JSVGIQIRXJSVXLIQEMRPSRKMXYHMREPVIMRJSVGIQIRX !
GSRXVSPPIH F] PMQMXMRKXLI WXVIWW PIZIPW MRXLI GSRGVIXI ERH
J 'SQTVIWWMSRMRSXLIVQIQFIVW !
XLIRSRTVIWXVIWWIHVIMRJSVGIQIRX8LIWXVIWWPMQMXEXMSRWEVI
*SVPS[ZEPYIWSJE\MEPGSQTVIWWMSR QE]FIMRGVIEWIH
HMWGYWWIHMRERH
PMRIEVP]XSSVJSVVIMRJSVGIHSVTVIWXVIWWIHGSRGVIXI
 4VIWXVIWWIHQIQFIVW
VIWTIGXMZIP]EWXLIE\MEPPSEHHIGVIEWIWJVSQPJG %KXS^IVS
 'SRGVIXI{*PI\YVEP WXVIWWIW MR TVIWXVIWWIH
6IJIVXS%'-JSVEHHMXMSREPMRJSVQEXMSR 
GSRGVIXIQIQFIVWWLSYPHRSXI\GIIHXLIJSPPS[MRK
8LI  JEGXSVW [IVI GSQTYXIH [MXL XLI EWWYQTXMSR XLEX
 %XXVERWJIV{7XVIWWIWFIJSVIPSWWIWHYIXSGVIIT
TVIGEWX GSRGVIXI KYMHI[E] GSQTSRIRXW [MXL FSRHIH TSWX
WLVMROEKIERHVIPE\EXMSRERHFIJSVIVIHMWXVMFYXMSRSJJSVGI
XIRWMSRMRK XIRHSRW EVI YWIH 2SRFSRHIH XIRHSRW EVI PIWW
IJJIGXXEOITPEGIWLSYPHRSXI\GIIH
VIPMEFPIFIGEYWISJXLILMKLIVTVSFEFMPMX]SJGSVVSWMSRERH
'SQTVIWWMSR
SXLIVJSVQWSJHIXIVMSVEXMSR[LMGL[SYPHVIWYPXMREPEVKIV
E 4VIXIRWMSRIHQIQFIVWJGM
coefficient of variation. For this reason, it is suggested to
F 4SWXXIRWMSRIHQIQFIVWJGM
VIHYGI XLI  ZEPYI F]  JSV XLI GEWI SJ IPIQIRXW [MXL
8IRWMSR
RSRFSRHIHTSWXXIRWMSRMRKXIRHSRW
E 8IRWMSRMRQIQFIVW[MXLSYXFSRHIHRSRTVIWXVIWWIH
VIMRJSVGIQIRX MR XLI XIRWMSR ^SRI JGVM 8IRWMSR MR

%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6 

QIQFIVW[MXLFSRHIHRSRTVIWXVIWWIHVIMRJSVGIQIRXMR YWMRKGPEWWMGEPFIEQXLISV]ERH1SLVvWGMVGPI8LIEPPS[EFPI
XLIXIRWMSR^SRIJGVM XIRWMPI WXVIWW PMQMX GER FI XEOIR EW  JG  TWM  JG
F ;LIVIXLIGEPGYPEXIHXIRWMPIWXVIWWMWFIX[IIRJGVM 14E  *PSVMHE(383OIMP 
ERH JGVM VIMRJSVGIQIRX WLSYPH FI TVSZMHIH XS VIWMWX  4VIWXVIWWMRKWXIIP{8LIWXVIWWMRTVIWXVIWWMRKWXIIP
XLIXSXEPXIRWMPIJSVGIMRXLIGSRGVIXIGSQTYXIHSRXLI WLSYPHRSXI\GIIHXLIZEPYIWKMZIRMR8EFPI'YVZIH
FEWMW SJ ER YRGVEGOIH WIGXMSR 8LI WXVIWW MR XLI VIMR WXVYGXYVIWEVIGSQQSRMRKYMHI[E]WXVYGXYVIW0SGEPWXVIWWIW
JSVGIQIRX WLSYPH RSX I\GIIH J] SV  OWM  MRXLI[IFMRHYGIHF]TSWXXIRWMSRMRKHYIXSXLILSVM^SRXEP
14E [LMGLIZIVMWWQEPPIV GYVZEXYVIRIIHXSFIGSRWMHIVIH8LIWIWXVIWWIWRIIHXSFI
G 8IRWMSREXNSMRXWMRWIKQIRXEPQIQFIVW combined with the stresses induced by global shear, flexure,
M ;MXLSYX FSRHIH RSRTVIWXVIWWIH VIMRJSVGIQIRX SVXSVWMSR-RXLIGYVZIHWXVYGXYVIW[MXLTSWXXIRWMSRMRKMXMW
TEWWMRKXLVSYKLXLINSMRXMRXLIXIRWMSR^SRI RSXYRYWYEPXLEXXLIGSQFMRIHWXVIWWIWMRXLI[IFGERI\GIIH
MM;MXLFSRHIHRSRTVIWXVIWWIHVIMRJSVGIQIRXTEWWMRK
XLI  JG TWM  JG 14E 
XLVSYKLXLINSMRXMRXLIXIRWMSR^SRIJGVM
 4EVXMEPTVIWXVIWWMRK{8LITVIGIHMRKXIRWMPIWXVIRKXL
-RXLIEFWIRGISJQSVITVIGMWIHEXEJGVMQE]FIXEOIREW
PMQMXEXMSRWJSVGSRGVIXIQE]FI[EMZIHMJGEPGYPEXMSRWFEWIH
 JGM  TWM   JGM ?14EA  on approved or experimentally verified rational procedures,
;LIVI XLI GEPGYPEXIH XIRWMPI WXVIWW MW FIX[IIR ^IVS ERH demonstrate adequate deflection, cracking, and fatigue
JGVMVIMRJSVGIQIRXWLSYPHFITVSZMHIHXSVIWMWXXLIXSXEP control under specified loading combinations.
XIRWMPIJSVGIMRXLIGSRGVIXIGSQTYXIHFEWIHSRYRGVEGOIH
WIGXMSR8LIWXVIWW MRXLI VIMRJSVGIQIRXWLSYPH RSX I\GIIH {0SWWSJTVIWXVIWW
J]SVOWM 14E [LMGLIZIVMWWQEPPIV -RHIXIVQMRMRKXLIIJJIGXMZITVIWXVIWWEPPS[ERGIWLSYPHFI
 7IVZMGI PSEHW{'SRGVIXI WXVIWWIW EJXIV EPPS[ QEHIJSVSJXLIJSPPS[MRKTVIWXVIWWPSWW
ERGI JSV EPP PSWWIW HYI XS GVIIT WLVMROEKI ERH VIPE\EXMSR E 7PMTEXXLIERGLSVEKI
ERHVIHMWXVMFYXMSRSJJSVGIIJJIGXWWLSYPHRSXI\GIIH F *VMGXMSRPSWWIWHYIXSMRXIRHIHERHYRMRXIRHIH [SFFPI 
E 'SQTVIWWMSR GYVZEXYVIMRXLIXIRHSRW
M0SEHGSQFMREXMSR7SV7 G )PEWXMGWLSVXIRMRKSJGSRGVIXI
4VIGEWXQIQFIVWJG H 'VIITSJGSRGVIXI
'EWXMRTPEGIQIQFIVWJG I 7LVMROEKISJGSRGVIXI
MM0SEHGSQFMREXMSR7SV7 J 6IPE\EXMSRSJWXIIP
4VIGEWXQIQFIVWJG 8LIEQSYRX SJ TVIWXVIWW PSWWHYIXS XLI EJSVIQIRXMSRIH
'EWXMRTPEGIQIQFIVWJG HITIRHW SR E RYQFIV SJ JEGXSVW XLEX MRGPYHI TVSTIVXMIW SJ
F 8IRWMSR XLIQEXIVMEPWYWIHMRXLIWXVYGXYVIXLIIRZMVSRQIRXERHXLI
M8IRWMSRMRTVIGSQTVIWWIHXIRWMPI^SRIW WXVIWWPIZIPWEXZEVMSYWPSEHMRKWXEKIW8LITVIWXVIWWPSWWHYI
*SV WIZIVI I\TSWYVI GSRHMXMSRW WYGL EWGSEWXEPEVIEW XSGVIITHITIRHWSRXLIQEKRMXYHISJWXVIWWSRXLIGSRGVIXI
QIQFIVWMRE\MEPXIRWMSRERHPSEHGSQFMREXMSR7 (YIXSWLVMROEKIERHXIRHSRWvVIPE\EXMSRXLIQEKRMXYHISJ
*SVQSHIVEXII\TSWYVIGSRHMXMSRWSVJSVPSEHGSQFMRE WXVIWWSRXLIGSRGVIXIZEVMIW[MXLXMQIXLYWGVIITMWHITIR
XMSR77SV7JV HIRXSRWLVMROEKIERHVIPE\EXMSR8LIVIPE\EXMSRSJEXIRHSR
3XLIV GEWIW ERH I\XVIQI STIVEXMRK GSRHMXMSRW YRHIV MWQIEWYVIHF]EXIWXSRXLIXIRHSRWXVIXGLIHFIX[IIRX[S
PSEHGSQFMREXMSRW7ERH7JV fixed points and the relaxation is dependent on the magni
*SV WIKQIRXEP QIQFIVW [MXLSYX FSRHIH TVIWXVIWWIH XYHISJXLIMRMXMEPP]ETTPMIHXIRWMSR8LIVIJSVIXLILMKLIVXLI
VIMRJSVGIQIRXTEWWMRKXLVSYKLXLINSMRXW MRMXMEPXIRWMSRXLILMKLIVXLIVIPE\EXMSR8LIVIPE\EXMSRXIWX
*SVHIWMKREKEMRWXJEXMKYI KMZIWXLIMRXVMRWMGVIPE\EXMSR-RETVIWXVIWWIHQIQFIVXLI
8IRWMSR MR SXLIV EVIEW WLSYPHFI PMQMXIH F] EPPS[EFPI XIRHSRMWWXVIXGLIHFIX[IIRXLIIRHERGLSVWERHXLIWITSMRXW
WXVIWWIWEXXVERWJIV QSZIXS[EVHIEGLSXLIVHYIXSXLIGVIITERHXLIWLVMROEKISJ
-RXLIEFWIRGISJQSVITVIGMWIHEXEXLIGVEGOMRKWXVIWWSJ GSRGVIXI8LYWXLIVIPE\EXMSRSJXLIXIRHSRMRETVIWXVIWWIH
GSRGVIXI JVQE]FIXEOIREW JG TWM  JG 14E  QIQFIVMWWQEPPIVXLERXLIMRXVMRWMGVIPE\EXMSR{XLIHMJJIV
 %HHMXMSREP GSRWMHIVEXMSRW{-X MW VIGSQQIRHIH IRGIMWHITIRHIRXSRGVIITERHWLVMROEKI8LIMRXIVHITIR
XLEX XLI TVMRGMTEP XIRWMPI WXVIWW MR [IFW SJ TSWXXIRWMSRIH HIRGISJXLIHMJJIVIRXWSYVGIWWLSYPHFIXEOIRMRXSEGGSYRX
GSRGVIXIKMVHIVWFIGLIGOIHEKEMRWXEPPS[EFPIXIRWMPIWXVIWW when the deflection is critical (Ghali et al. 2012).
PMQMXW XLEX GSRWMHIV XLI GSQTPI\ WXEXI SJ WXVIWW GEYWIH F] When the deflection is not critical, the prestress losses
shear, flexure, torsional straining actions, or combinations of QE]FIIWXMQEXIHYWMRKXLIQIXLSHWSYXPMRIHF]%'-6
XLIWI8LIGLIGOMWMRXIRHIHXSIRWYVIXLIEHIUYEG]SJ[IFW %'-6%%7,83  4'-'SQQMXXIISR4VIWXVIWW
JSV PSRKMXYHMREP WLIEV YRHIV WIVZMGI GSRHMXMSRW ;LIVIEW 0SWWIW  2',646ITSVX 2',64 >MEIX
WIZIVEP WIGXMSRW WLSYPH FI GLIGOIH EGVSWW XLI LIMKLX SJ XLI EP  ERH,YERK  
GVSWW WIGXMSR E WMRKPI GLIGO EX XLI RIYXVEP E\MW MW VIGSQ *SVTVIPMQMREV]HIWMKRSJWXVYGXYVIWYWMRKRSVQEPHIRWMX]
QIRHIHEWEQMRMQYQTVSGIHYVI8LITVMRGMTEPWXVIWWGLIGO GSRGVIXI XLI PYQT WYQ PSWWIW WLS[R MR 8EFPI  QE] FI
WLSYPHSRP]FIGEVVMIHSYXEXWIGXMSRWE[E]JVSQER]HMWGSR YWIH0YQTWYQPSWWIWHSRSXMRGPYHIERGLSVEKIERHJVMGXMSR
XMRYMXMIWGEYWIHF]FIEVMRKWHMETLVEKQWWEHHPIWERHFPMWXIVW PSWWIWMRTSWXXIRWMSRIHXIRHSRW8LIPSWWIWHYIXSXLILMKLIV

%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6

NEGOMRKWXVIWWIWEVILMKLIVXLERXLSWIMRXLIw%%7,8306*(  'SRGVIXI{9RHIV WIVZMGI PSEH GSQFMREXMSR XLI

Bridge Design Specifications” (AASHTO 2012). flexural compressive stress in concrete should not exceed
*SV QIQFIVW GSRWXVYGXIH ERH TVIWXVIWWIH MR QYPXMTPI JG  EX WIGXMSRW WYFNIGX XS G]GPMG PSEHMRK ERH RS XIRWMPI
WXEKIWSVJSVWIKQIRXEPGSRWXVYGXMSRXLIWXVIWWPIZIPEXXLI WXVIWWIWEVIEPPS[IH
GSQQIRGIQIRX ERH XIVQMREXMSR SJ IEGL WXEKI WLSYPH FI  2SRTVIWXVIWWIHVIMRJSVGIQIRX{9RHIVWIVZMGIPSEH
GSRWMHIVIH condition, the stress range in straight and bent flexural rein
JSVGMRK FEVW{JJ ERH JWV VIWTIGXMZIP]{MR EGGSVHERGI [MXL
{*EXMKYI %%7,8306*( %%7,83 WLSYPHRSXI\GIIH
 +IRIVEP{%XVERWMXKYMHI[E]QE]YRHIVKSQMPPMSR *SVWXVEMKLXFEVW
SVQSVIZILMGPITEWWIWEXZEVMSYWPSEHPIZIPWHYVMRKMXWPMJI
XMQI 2',64?2',64A 8LMWQE]FIIUYMZEPIRX JJ   JQMR OWM
XS  XS  QMPPMSR G]GPIW EX QE\MQYQ PMZI PSEHPIZIP 7YGL
 E
LMKL PIZIPW SJ G]GPMG PSEHMRK VIRHIV KYMHI[E]W TVSRI XS
JEXMKYIJEMPYVI JJ   JQMR 14E
%VIEW SJGSRGIVREVIXLITVIWXVIWWMRK WXIIP ERHXLIVIMR
JSVGMRK FEVW PSGEXIH EX GVEGOIH WIGXMSRW [LIVI E PEVKI For bent flexural bars, stirrups and bars containing welds
RYQFIVSJWXVIWWG]GPIWQE]SGGYV GSRJSVQMRKXSVIUYMVIQIRXWSJ%;7(

JWV!JJOWM 14E F

8EFPI{1E\MQYQWXVIWWMRTVIWXVIWWMRK
WXIIP &IRHWERH[IPHWMRTVMRGMTEPVIMRJSVGIQIRXWLSYPHRSXFI
8IRHSRX]TI YWIHMRVIKMSRWSJLMKLWXVIWWZEVMEXMSR
*SVWLIEVVIMRJSVGIQIRXXLIGLERKIMRWXVIWWJWZQE]FI
7XVIWWVIPMIZIH
WXVERHERHTPEMR (IJSVQIH GSQTYXIHEWJSPPS[W
LMKLWXVIRKXL 0S[VIPE\EXMSR LMKL
'SRHMXMSR FEVW WXVERH WXVIRKXLFEVW :W
JWZ G
4VIXIRWMSRMRK %Z NH
-QQIHMEXITVMSV
JTY JTY {
XSXVERWJIV JTFX
%XWIVZMGIPMQMX *SV XSVWMSR VIMRJSVGIQIRX XLI GLERKI MR WXVIWW JWX QE]
WXEXIEJXIVEPP JT] JT] JT] FIGSQTYXIHJSVFS\WIGXMSRWSVWIGXMSRW[LIVI EF 
PSWWIW JTI EWJSPPS[W
4SWXXIRWMSRMRK
4VMSVXS 8W
WIEXMRK{WLSVX JWX H
XIVQ JTFX QE]FI
JT] JT] JT]  %SL %X
EPPS[IH
%XERGLSVEKIW *SVGSQFMRIHIJJIGXWSJWLIEVERHXSVWMSR
ERHGSYTPIVW
JTY JTY JTY
MQQIHMEXIP]
EJXIVERGLSVWIX JWZJWX JJ I
)PWI[LIVI
EPSRKPIRKXL  4VIWXVIWWIH VIMRJSVGIQIRX{8LI WXVIWW VERKI MR
SJQIQFIV TVIWXVIWWMRKXIRHSRWWLSYPHRSXI\GIIH
E[E]JVSQ E OWM 14E JSVVEHMMSJGYVZEXYVIMRI\GIWW
JTY JTY JTY
ERGLSVEKIWERH
SJJX Q
GSYTPIVWMQQI
HMEXIP]EJXIV F OWM 14E JSVVEHMMSJGYVZEXYVIRSXI\GIIHMRK
ERGLSVWIX JX Q
%XWIVZMGI %PMRIEVMRXIVTSPEXMSRQE]FIYWIHJSVVEHMMFIX[IIR
PMQMXWXEXIEJXIV JT] JT] JT] ERHJX ERHQ 
PSWWIW JTI

8EFPI{0YQTWYQPSWWIWJSVTVIPMQMREV]HIWMKR '%2'7%7
4VIXIRWMSRIHTWM 14E 4SWXXIRWMSRIHTWM 14E
7XVIWWVIPMIZIH 0S[VIPE\EXMSR 7XVIWWVIPMIZIH 0S[VIPE\EXMSR
%XXVERWJIV        
%JXIVXVERWJIV        
8SXEP        

%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6 

{:MFVEXMSRERHH]REQMGVIWTSRWI
 +IRIVEP{+YMHI[E] ZMFVEXMSR HYVMRK TEWWEKI SJ Span/deflection
E XVERWMX ZILMGPI MRHYGIWEQSXMSR XLEX VIWYPXW MR TSSV VMHI 3RISVX[SEHNEGIRX Three to five adjacent
UYEPMX]+YMHI[E]WWLSYPHXLIVIJSVIFIHIWMKRIHXSTVSZMHI WTERW WTERW
ER EGGITXEFPI PIZIP SJ TEWWIRKIV GSQJSVX 8LMW IRXEMPW 7TERWYT 7TERW 7TERWYT 7TERW
GSRWMHIVEXMSRSJXLIZILMGPIKYMHI[E]MRXIVEGXMSR XSJX EFSZIJX XSJX EFSZIJX
7TIIHVERKI Q j Q j Q j Q j
The most significant factor affecting ride quality is the
EGGIPIVEXMSRPIZIPI\TIVMIRGIHF]XLITEWWIRKIV%WEVIWYPX QTL
   
OQLV
GSQJSVXGVMXIVMEEVIYWYEPP]I\TVIWWIHMRXIVQWSJEGGIPIVE
XSQTL
XMSRPMQMXW     
-RXLIHIWMKRSJKYMHI[E]WXVYGXYVIWETTVSTVMEXIQIEWYVIW XSOQLV
WLSYPH FI XEOIR XS TVIZIRX VIWSRERXX]TI FYMPHYTSJ WXVYG "QTL
   
XYVEP ZMFVEXMSRW GEYWIH F] XLI QSZMRK XVEMR [LIIP PSEHW "OQLV
-J RSX LERHPIH F] TVSTIV HIWMKR ZMFVEXMSRW GER IRHERKIV 
7MQTP]WYTTSVXIHSVGSRXMRYSYWHIGOW
WEJIX] VIHYGI XLI WXVYGXYVIvWWIVZMGI PMJI MQTSWI YRRIGIW j
9WIPMRIEVMRXIVTSPEXMSRJSVWTERWFIX[IIRERHJX ERHQ 
WEV] GSRWXVEMRXW SR XVEMR STIVEXMSRW ERH GEYWI HMWGSQJSVX 2SXI1SVIWXVMRKIRXVEXMSWQE]FIVIUYMVIHEXXLIS[RIVvWHMWGVIXMSR
XSTEWWIRKIVW(MWGSQJSVXGEYWIHF]ZIVXMGEPZMFVEXMSRWMWE
JYRGXMSRSJXLIZMFVEXMSRJVIUYIRG]EQTPMXYHIERHHYVEXMSR
*SV E GSRZIRXMSREP PMRI [MXL WPS[IVQSZMRK XVEMRW E Span/deflection
TVSTIV HIWMKR GER FI EXXEMRIH F] WXMJJIRMRK XLI KYMHI[E] 3RISVX[SEHNEGIRX Three to five adjacent
structural system sufficiently enough to raise the critical WTERW WTERW
ZILMGPI WTIIHW EX [LMGL E UYEWMVIWSRERXX]TI WXVYGXYVEP 7TERWYT 7TERW 7TERWYT 7TERW
ZMFVEXMSRSGGYVWEFSZIXLIQE\MQYQSTIVEXMRKWTIIH XSJX EFSZIJX XSJX EFSZIJX
7TIIHVERKI Q j Q j Q j Q j
%QSZMRKZILMGPIVIEGLIWXLIGVMXMGEPWTIIH[LIRZMFVEXMSRW
QTL
induced by a rough track profile are produced with a frequency OQL
   
XLEXQEXGLIWSRISJXLIREXYVEPJVIUYIRGMIWSJXLIWXVYGXYVI-JE XSQTL
rough track profile can be approximated with a sine wave with     
E[EZIPIRKXL0XLIGSVVIWTSRHMRKGVMXMGEPWTIIH:GVMW XSOQL
"QTL
   
[R "OQL
:GV 0  
7MQTP]WYTTSVXIHSVGSRXMRYSYWHIGOW
 j
9WIPMRIEVMRXIVTSPEXMSRJSVWTERWFIX[IIRERHJX ERHQ 
2SXI1SVIWXVMRKIRXVEXMSWQE]FIVIUYMVIHEXXLIS[RIVvWHMWGVIXMSR
*SV PMRIW [MXL ZILMGPIW STIVEXMRK EX LMKL WTIIH XLMW MW
RSX IEWMP] EGGSQTPMWLIH FIGEYWI MX MW IGSRSQMGEPP] YREG
GITXEFPI XS LEZI XSS QER] GVMXMGEP WTIIHW I\MWXMRK FIPS[ Span/deflection
XLIQE\MQYQSTIVEXMRKWTIIH7S[LIREUYEWMVIWSRERGI 3RISVX[SEHNEGIRX Three to five adjacent
GSRHMXMSR GERRSX FI EZSMHIH H]REQMG EREP]WMW WLSYPH WTERW WTERW
FI GSRHYGXIH XS TVIHMGX XLI ZMFVEXMSR EQTPMXYHIW SJ XLI 7TERWYTXS 7TERW 7TERWYTXS 7TERW
KYMHI[E] WXVYGXYVI ERH XLI ZILMGPI 8LI VIWYPXW WLSYPH FI JX EFSZIJX JX EFSZIJX
GSQTEVIH[MXL TVIWGVMFIH PIZIPW SJ TIVJSVQERGI 6IUYMVI 7TIIHVERKI Q j Q j Q j Q j
QIRXW SR EGGITXEFPI PIZIPW SJ TIVJSVQERGI JSV WXVYGXYVEP QTL
   
WEJIX] EVI FEWIH SR WXVYGXYVEP WXVIRKXL VIUYMVIQIRXW 8LI OQL
QE\MQYQ H]REQMG WXVIWWIW MRHYGIH MR XLI WXVYGXYVIW QE] XSQTL
    
be limited to the values specified in ERHSVETTPM XSOQL
GEFPIGSHIWWYGLEWw%%7,8306*(&VMHKI(IWMKR7TIGM "QTL
fications” (AASHTO 2012). OQL
   
 Deflections—Excessive structural deflections can 
7MQTP]WYTTSVXIHSVGSRXMRYSYWHIGOW
endanger traffic by causing unacceptable changes in track j
9WIPMRIEVMRXIVTSPEXMSRJSVWTERWFIX[IIRERHJX ERHQ 
KISQIXV] )\GIWWMZIZMFVEXMSRW MRKYMHI[E]WXVYGXYVIW ERH 2SXI1SVIWXVMRKIRXVEXMSWQE]FIVIUYMVIHEXXLIS[RIVvWHMWGVIXMSR
MRZILMGPIWTEWWMRKSZIVXLIKYMHI[E]WXVYGXYVIQE]PIEHXS
TEWWIRKIVHMWGSQJSVX8LI-RXIVREXMSREP9RMSRSJ6EMP[E]W  2EXYVEP JVIUYIRG]{8LI I\TVIWWMSR JSV XLI JYRHE
UIC Code 776-3 recommends limitations on bridge deflec mental flexural frequency of a simply supported beam is given
tion to avoid traffic risk and reduce passenger discomfort. MR 8LIJYRHEQIRXEPJVIUYIRG]SJEGSRXMRYSYWFIEQ
Several span/deflection ratios have been tabulated to identify LEZMRKEWIVMIWSJIUYEPWTERWMWXLIWEQIEWXLEXSJEWMQTP]
HIKVII SJ TEWWIRKIV GSQJSVX 9-'   VIJIV XS 8EFPIW WYTTSVXIHFIEQSJXLIWEQIWTERPIRKXL*SVEGSRXMRYSYW
EXLVSYKLG  FIEQ[LIVIXLIWTERWEVIYRIUYEPEVIEWSREFPIIWXMQEXISJ
XLIJYRHEQIRXEPJVIUYIRG]QE]FISFXEMRIHF]EWWYQMRKXLI
PSRKIWXWTERXSFIWMQTP]WYTTSVXIH%QSVIEGGYVEXIZEPYI
%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6

X]TMGEPQIQFIVW 4'-
;MXLSYXGSQTSWMXIXSTTMRK ;MXLGSQTSWMXIXSTTMRK
%XIVIGXMSR
Deflection (downward) component—apply to the elastic deflection due to the member weight at
 
VIPIEWISJTVIWXVIWW
'EQFIV YT[EVH GSQTSRIRX{ETTP]XSXLIIPEWXMGGEQFIVHYIXSTVIWXVIWWEXXLIXMQISJ
 
VIPIEWISJTVIWXVIWW
*MREP
Deflection (downward) component—Apply to the elastic deflection due to the member weight
 
EXVIPIEWISJTVIWXVIWW
'EQFIV YT[EVH GSQTSRIRX{%TTP]XSXLIIPEWXMGGEQFIVHYIXSTVIWXVIWWEXXLIXMQISJ
 
VIPIEWISJTVIWXVIWW
Deflection (downward) component—Apply to elastic deflection due to superimposed dead load
 
SRP]
Deflection (downward) component—Apply to elastic deflection caused by the composite
{ 
XSTTMRK

SJXLIJYRHEQIRXEPJVIUYIRG]QE]FISFXEMRIHYWMRKZEVMSYW  2SRTVIWXVIWWIHQIQFIVW

ETTVSEGLIW &MPPMRK  'WEKSP] IX EP   )JJIGXW SJ  Immediate deflection{*SVWMQTPIWTERWXLIIJJIG
XLI LSVM^SRXEPGYVZEXYVI GER FI EGGSYRXIHJSVEW WLS[R MR XMZIQSQIRXSJMRIVXME-IWLSYPHFIXEOIREW
'EQTFIPP  
Frequencies of higher flexural modes for continuous 1 GV

1 GV 
FIEQWEVIGPSWIVXSXLIJYRHEQIRXEPJVIUYIRG]XLERXLSWIJSV -I -K  - GV -K 
1E 1E
WMQTP]WYTTSVXIHFIEQW8LIVIJSVIGEVIWLSYPHFIXEOIRXS
IRWYVIXLEXSRISJXLIWILMKLIVJVIUYIRGMIWJSVEGSRXMRYSYW
FIEQHSIWRSXGSMRGMHI[MXLZILMGPIJVIUYIRG] *SV GSRXMRYSYW WTERW XLI IJJIGXMZI QSQIRX SJ MRIVXME
%XXIRXMSRWLSYPHFIKMZIRXSXSVWMSREPJVIUYIRGMIWSJXLI QE] FI XEOIR EW XLI EZIVEKI SJ XLI ZEPYIW SFXEMRIH YWMRK
KYMHI[E] ERH XLI ZILMGPI MR XLI KYMHI[E] [LIVI RSX EPP XLITVIGIHMRKIUYEXMSRJSVXLIGVMXMGEPTSWMXMZIERHRIKEXMZI
WYTTSVXWGERVIWMWXXSVWMSREPIJJIGXW1IXLSHWJSVGSQTYXMRK QSQIRXWIGXMSRW
XSVWMSREPJVIUYIRGMIWGERFIJSYRHMRWXERHEVHXI\XFSSOWSR  Long-term deflection{-R TPEGI SJ E HIXEMPIH
ZMFVEXMSRWSJWXVYGXYVIW 8LSQTWSR  analysis, the additional long-term deflection resulting from
 1SHYPYW SJ IPEWXMGMX]{8LI QSHYPYW SJ IPEW GVIITERHWLVMROEKIJSVFSXLRSVQEP[IMKLXERHPMKLX[IMKLX

XMGMX] )G JSV GSRGVIXI QE] FI XEOIR EW [G  JG  TWM concrete flexural members may be estimated by multiplying
[G  JG 14E JSVZEPYIWSJ[GFIX[IIRERH the immediate deflection, caused by the sustained load being
PFJX ERHOKQ *SVRSVQEP[IMKLXGSRGVIXI)G GSRWMHIVIHF]XLIJEGXSV

QE]FIXEOIREW JG TWM  JG 14E 

8LIQSHYPYWSJIPEWXMGMX])WJSVRSRTVIWXVIWWIHVIMRJSVGI 
QIRXQE]FIXEOIREWTWM 14E 8LI
QSHYPYW SJ IPEWXMGMX] )W JSV TVIWXVIWWMRK XIRHSRW QE] FI
XEOIR EW TWM  14E  YRPIWW HIXIVQMRIH  4VIWXVIWWIH QIQFIVW{8LI IJJIGXW MRHYGIH F]
F]XIWXWSVWYTTPMIHF]XLIQERYJEGXYVIV TVIWXVIWWWLSYPHFIMRGPYHIHMRXLIGSQTYXEXMSRSJHIJSVQEXMSR
 Immediate camber/deflection{8LI QSQIRX SJ
{(IJSVQEXMSRWERHVSXEXMSRW MRIVXMEWLSYPHFIXEOIREWXLEXSJXLIKVSWWGSRGVIXIWIGXMSR
 +IRIVEP{(IJSVQEXMSRWERHVSXEXMSRWHYIXSI\XIVREP  Long-term camber/deflection{-R TPEGI SJ E
PSEHMRKTVIWXVIWWERHZSPYQIGLERKIWHYIXSXIQTIVEXYVI detailed analysis, long-term camber and deflection, as a func
GVIIT ERH WLVMROEKI WLSYPH FI GSRWMHIVIH MR XLI HIWMKR tion of instantaneous camber and deflection for members
I\GIWWMZIHIJSVQEXMSRWGEREJJIGXXLIWXVYGXYVIERHXLIVMHI GSRWXVYGXIH ERH TVIWXVIWWIH MR E WMRKPIWXEKI QE] FIIWXM
UYEPMX]8LIVIJSVIXLIHIJSVQEXMSREXXLIERKYPEVHMWGSRXM mated by multiplying the initial camber or deflection by the
RYMX]SRKYMHI[E]WYVJEGIW JSVI\EQTPII\TERWMSRNSMRXWEX JEGXSVWWLS[RMR8EFPISJXLI4'-(IWMKR,ERHFSSO
FIEQIRHW MWSJTEVXMGYPEVMQTSVXERGI 4'- 
(IJSVQEXMSRMRQIQFIVWYRHIVWYWXEMRIHPSEHMRKWLSYPH 8LIWIJEGXSVWETTP]XSWMQTPIWTERW*SVGSRXMRYSYWWTERW
FI GEPGYPEXIH EW XLI WYQ SJ FSXLXLI MQQIHMEXI ERH PSRK in the absence of a detailed analysis, long-term deflections
term deformations. Deflections that occur immediately upon QE]FIIWXMQEXIHF]ETTP]MRKX[SXLMVHWSJXLIJEGXSVWKMZIR
application of load should be computed as elastic deflections MR8EFPI
F]XLIYWYEPQIXLSHW

%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6 

{'VEGOGSRXVSP of ACI 318 and “AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifica

'VEGOMRKWLSYPHFIGSRXVSPPIHMRRSRTVIWXVIWWIHVIMRJSVGIH XMSRWx %%7,83 
QIQFIVW F] WYMXEFPI HIXEMPMRK ERH WM^MRK SJ XLI VIMRJSVGI *SVKYMHI[E]WQEHIGSRXMRYSYWF]TSWXXIRWMSRMRKSZIV
QIRX %'-74?%'-'SQQMXXIIA 4VIWXVIWWIH X[S SV QSVI WTERW XLI IJJIGXW SJWIGSRHEV] QSQIRXW HYI
GSRGVIXIQIQFIVWWLSYPHGSRXEMRRSRTVIWXVIWWIHVIMRJSVGI XSXLIVIEGXMSRWMRHYGIHF]TVIWXVIWWMRKWLSYPHFIMRGPYHIH
QIRXMRXLITVIGSQTVIWWIHXIRWMPI^SRI %R]VIEWSREFPIEWWYQTXMSRQE]FIEHSTXIHJSVGSQTYXMRK
4VSZMWMSRW WLSYPH FI QEHI MR XLI HIWMKR JSV QSQIRX the relative flexural and torsional stiffness of members in a
VIZIVWEPW HYIXSEZEVMIX]SJJEGXSVWXLEXQE]MRGPYHIGVIIT WXEXMGEPP] MRHIXIVQMREXI W]WXIQ 8LI QSQIRXW SJ MRIVXME
WLVMROEKI ERH XIQTIVEXYVI KVEHMIRX  XLEX QE] HIZIPST MR YWIHXSSFXEMRXLIVIPEXMZIWXMJJRIWWSJXLIZEVMSYWQIQFIVW
TVIGEWXTVIWXVIWWIHYRMXWIVIGXIHEWWMQTPIWTERERHQEHI QE]FIHIXIVQMRIHJVSQIMXLIVXLIYRGVEGOIHGSRGVIXIGVSWW
GSRXMRYSYWJSVPMZIPSEHW8LIIJJIGXWSJPSEHMRKMRVIQSXI WIGXMSR RIKPIGXMRK XLI VIMRJSVGIQIRX SV JVSQ XLI XVERW
WTERWEW[IPPEWWLVMROEKIGVIITERHIPEWXMGWLSVXIRMRKSJ JSVQIHGVEGOIHWIGXMSRTVSZMHIHXLIWEQIQIXLSHMWYWIH
XLITMIVWWLSYPHEPWSFIGSRWMHIVIHMRXLIHIWMKR XLVSYKLSYXXLIEREP]WMW8LIIJJIGXSJZEVMEFPIGVSWWWIGXMSRW
 2SRTVIWXVIWWIH QIQFIVW{8S GSRXVSP GVEGOMRK F] WLSYPHFIGSRWMHIVIHMREREP]WMWERHHIWMKR
HMWXVMFYXMSR SJ VIMRJSVGIQIRX XLI WTEGMRK SJ VIMRJSVGIQIRX 8LIWTERPIRKXLSJQIQFIVWXLEXEVIRSXFYMPXMRXIKVEPP]
GPSWIWXXSEWYVJEGIMRXIRWMSRWLSYPHRSXI\GIIHXLEXKMZIRF] [MXLXLIMVWYTTSVXWWLSYPHFIXLIGPIEVWTERTPYWXLIHITXL
SJ XLI QIQFIV -X RIIH RSX I\GIIH XLI HMWXERGI FIX[IIR
    GIRXIVW SJ WYTTSVXW -R EREP]WMW SJ WXEXMGEPP] MRHIXIVQMREXI
W  G  MR QIQFIVWGIRXIVXSGIRXIVHMWXERGIWWLSYPHFIYWIHXSHIXIV
JW JW
QMRIQSQIRXW1SQIRXWEXJEGIWSJWYTTSVXWQE]FIYWIH
 JSVHIWMKRSJQIQFIVW
  8LI TSWWMFPI MRWXEFMPMX] SV SZIVWXVIWWMRK SJ E WPIRHIV
W  G  QQ QIQFIVHYVMRKXVERWTSVXEXMSRGSRWXVYGXMSRERHMRWIVZMGI
JW JW
GSRHMXMSRWWLSYPHFIGSRWMHIVIH 1EWX 

 4VIWXVIWWIHQIQFIVW{8LIERGLSVEKI^SRIMRTSWX
XIRWMSRIHQIQFIVWMWX]TMGEPP]HMZMHIHMRXSX[S^SRIW XLI +YMHI[E]W WLSYPH FI HIWMKRIH XS LEZI XLI VIUYMVIH
PSGEP ^SRIMQQIHMEXIP]WYVVSYRHMRK XLIERGLSVEKIHIZMGI WXVIRKXLW EX EPP WIGXMSRW F] XLI JEGXSVIH PSEHW ERH JSVGIW
 ERHXLIKIRIVEP^SRI[LMGLMRGPYHIWXLIPSGEP^SRI%'- MR WYGL GSQFMREXMSRW EW WXMTYPEXIH MR 'LETXIV  (IWMKR
'LETXIVERH%%7,83  7IGXMSRGSRXEMR WXVIRKXL SJ E QIQFIV SV GVSWW WIGXMSR WLSYPH FI XEOIR EW
VIGSQQIRHEXMSRWJSVXLIHIWMKRSJVIMRJSVGIQIRXXSGSRXVSP XLIRSQMREPWXVIRKXLGEPGYPEXIHMREGGSVHERGI[MXLVIUYMVI
GVEGOMRKMRXLIWIEVIEW8LITSWXXIRWMSRMRKWYTTPMIVWLSYPH QIRXWERHEWWYQTXMSRWSJ'LETXIVQYPXMTPMIHF]EWXVIRKXL
WTIGMJ]TVSTIVERGLSVEKIVIUYMVIQIRXWJSVPSGEP^SRIW VIHYGXMSR JEGXSV as defined in 'LETXIV  8LI WXVIRKXL
design procedures for members subjected to flexure and
',%48)6{786)2+8,()7-+2 E\MEPPSEHWWLSYPHFIFEWIHSRXLITVSZMWMSRWSJ%%7,83
06*( %%7,83 
{+IRIVEPHIWMKRERHEREP]WMWGSRWMHIVEXMSRW
6IGSQQIRHEXMSRWMRXLMWGLETXIVEVIMRXIRHIHJSVVIMRJSVGIH {7LIEVERHXSVWMSR
GSRGVIXIKYMHI[E]WMRGPYHMRKRSRTVIWXVIWWIHERHTVIWXVIWWIH  -RXVSHYGXMSR{-R XVERWMX KYMHI[E]W WLIEV JSVGIW
WXVYGXYVIWTVSTSVXMSRIHJSVEHIUYEXIWXVIRKXLYWMRKPSEHGSQFM EVIMRHYGIHF]XLIZIVXMGEPPSEHWSJZILMGPIWERHWXVYGXYVIW
nations, load factors, and strength reduction factors as specified 8SVWMSREPQSQIRXWEVIMQTSWIHF][MRHPSEHSRXLIZILM
MR 'LETXIV8LI VIGSQQIRHEXMSRWEVITVMRGMTEPP]FEWIHSR GPIW ERH SR XLI WXVYGXYVIW LSVM^SRXEP RSWMRK EGXMSR SJ XLI
%'-  ERH QE]EPWS FI ETTPMIHXSRSRTVIWXVIWWIH GSQTS ZILMGPIW ZIVXMGEP PSEHW SJ ZILMGPIW [LIR HIVEMPIH GYVZIH
RIRXWSJEKYMHI[E]WXVYGXYVI[LIVIETTPMGEFPI EPMKRQIRX ERH WYFWXVYGXYVI KISQIXV] 8LIWI WLIEV JSVGIW
%PPQIQFIVWSJWXEXMGEPP]MRHIXIVQMREXIWXVYGXYVIWWLSYPH ERHXSVWMSREPQSQIRXWWLSYPHFIGSRWMHIVIHMRGSQFMREXMSR
be designed for the maximum effects of the specified loads [MXLXLIFIRHMRKQSQIRXWMRXLIVIMRJSVGIQIRXHIWMKR
EWHIXIVQMRIHF]IPEWXMGEREP]WMWSVER]EGGITXEFPIQIXLSH +YMHI[E]WXVYGXYVIWEVISJXIRFYMPXMREGSRXMRYSYWJEWLMSR
XLEXGSRWMHIVWXLIRSRPMRIEVFILEZMSVSJVIMRJSVGIHGSRGVIXI XSFIXXIVVIWMWXXSVWMSREPIJJIGXWERHEPPS[JSVQSVIWPIRHIV
QIQFIVWRSRTVIWXVIWWIHSVTVIWXVIWWIH[LIRWYFNIGXIHXS WXVYGXYVIW 'SRXMRYMX] MR WXVYGXYVIW TEVXMGYPEVP]XLSWI [MXL
FIRHMRKQSQIRXWETTVSEGLMRKXLIWXVIRKXLSJXLIQIQFIV LSVM^SRXEPGYVZEXYVIGERGVIEXIEWLIEVERHXSVWMSRGSRHMXMSR
%REP]WMW WLSYPH WEXMWJ] XLI GSRHMXMSRW SJ IUYMPMFVMYQ XLEXMWGSQTPI\ 0EWOEVIXEP,WYIXEP 
GSQTEXMFMPMX]ERHWXEFMPMX]EXEPPTSMRXWMRXLIWXVYGXYVIERH %GSQTVILIRWMZIXVIEXQIRXSJWLIEVERHXSVWMSRMRVIMR
EPPQEKRMXYHIWSJPSEHMRKYTXSYPXMQEXIGSRHMXMSR JSVGIHGSRGVIXIWXVYGXYVIWMWTVSZMHIHMR%'-6ERH,WY
2IKEXMZI QSQIRXW GEPGYPEXIH F] IPEWXMG EREP]WMW EX XLI ERH1S  
supports of continuous prestressed and nonprestressed flex 7IGXMSRWXLVSYKLWYQQEVM^IXLIFEWMGGSRGITXW
YVEPQIQFIVW JSVER]EWWYQIH PSEHMRK EVVERKIQIRX QE] SJWLIEVERHXSVWMSRXLEXEVIVIPIZERXXSXLIHIWMKRSJKYMHI[E]W
FIMRGVIEWIHSVHIGVIEWIHMREGGSVHERGI[MXLXLITVSZMWMSRW  7LIEV WXVIRKXL SJ VIMRJSVGIHGSRGVIXI FIEQW{8LI
first theory for shear developed by Ritter (1899) and Mörsch

%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6

 [EWEXVYWWQSHIP8LIWIMRZIWXMKEXSVWXVIEXIHEVIMR WMZIERHXIRWMPIWXVIWWWXVEMRGYVZIWSJGSRGVIXI9WMRKXLMW

JSVGIH GSRGVIXI FIEQ EW E TPERI XVYWW [LIVI FIRHMRK [EW WMQTPI WLIEV QSHYPYW XLI WSPYXMSR EPKSVMXLQ SJ *%781
VIWMWXIHF]XLIXSTERHFSXXSQGLSVHWERHWLIEV[EWVIWMWXIH became greatly simplified.
F]XLIMRGPMRIHGSRGVIXIWXVYXWERHZIVXMGEPWXIIPXMIWMRXLI 9WMRKEYRMZIVWEPTERIPXIWXIV[MXLEWIVZSGSRXVSPW]WXIQ
[IF 8LIWI WXVYXW ERH XMIW [IVI MHIEPM^IH EW PMRIW [MXLSYX ,WYIXEPEF XSTIVJSVQWXVEMRGSRXVSPPIHXIWXW>LY
GVSWWWIGXMSREPHMQIRWMSRW et al. (2001) and Zhu and Hsu (2002) quantified the Poisson
-R XLI W XLI VIMRJSVGIH GSRGVIXI QIQFIVW [MXL IJJIGX ERH GLEVEGXIVM^IH XLMW TVSTIVX] F] X[S ,WY>LY
HMQIRWMSRPIWWPMRIEVIPIQIRXWXSVIWMWXWLIEV[IVIVITPEGIH VEXMSW'SRWMHIVMRKXLI4SMWWSRIJJIGX,WYERH>LY  
F] QIQFIVW QEHI YT SJ QSVI VIEPMWXMG X[SHMQIRWMSREP HIZIPSTIH XLI WSJXIRIH QIQFVERI QSHIP 711  XLEX GER
QIQFVERI IPIQIRXW &] XVIEXMRK E QIQFVERI IPIQIRX WEXMWJEGXSVMP] TVIHMGX XLI IRXMVI QSRSXSRMG VIWTSRWI SJ XLI
EJXIVGVEGOMRKEWEXVYWWQEHIYTSJGSQTVIWWMSRGSRGVIXI VIMRJSVGIHGSRGVIXIQIQFVERIIPIQIRXWMRGPYHMRKFSXLXLI
WXVYXW ERH XIRWMPI WXIIP XMIW 2MIPWIR   ERH 0EQTIVX EWGIRHMRKERHXLIHIWGIRHMRKFVERGLIWEW[IPPEWFSXLXLI
ERH8LYVPMQERR  HIVMZIHXLVIIIUYMPMFVMYQIUYEXMSRW TVIGVEGOMRKERHTSWXGVEGOMRKVIWTSRWIW
for a membrane element that satisfied Mohr’s stress circle. 8S HIWMKR XLI WXIIP VIMRJSVGIQIRX MR E WLIEV IPIQIRX
8LMWEHZERGI[EWJSPPS[IHF]XLIHIVMZEXMSRSJXLVIIWXVEMR LS[IZIV MX MW TSWWMFPI XS YWI SRP] XLI XLVII IUYMPMFVMYQ
GSQTEXMFMPMX] IUYEXMSRW F] &EYQERR   ERH 'SPPMRW IUYEXMSRW MJ FSXL XLI XVERWZIVWI WXIIP ERH XLI PSRKMXYHMREP
(1973) that satisfied Mohr’s strain circle. WXIIPEVIEWWYQIHXSVIEGL]MIPHMRKFIJSVIGSRGVIXIGVYWLMRK
;LIR ER VIMRJSVGIH GSRGVIXI QIQFVERI IPIQIRX MW 8LIXLVIIIUYEXMSRWGSRWIUYIRXP]GERFIGSQFMRIHXSKMZI
WYFNIGXIH XS WLIEV MX GVIEXIW E X[SHMQIRWMSREP TVSFPIQ XLIIUYEXMSR
WLIEV WXVIWW GER FI VIWSPZIH MRXS E TVMRGMTEP XIRWMPI WXVIWW
ERHETVMRGMTEPGSQTVIWWMZIWXVIWWMRXLIHIKVIIHMVIGXMSR :Y %X J ] %l J ]
6SFMRWSR ERH (IQSVMIY\    JSYRH XLI TVMRGMTEP U] 
HZ WX Wl
GSQTVIWWMZIWXVIWW[EWVIHYGIHSVWSJXIRIHF]XLITVMRGMTEP
XIRWMPIWXVIWWMRXLITIVTIRHMGYPEVHMVIGXMSRVIWYPXMRKMREWSJX
IRIHWXVIWWWXVEMRGYVZIMRGSRGVIXIGSQTVIWWMSRWXVYXW8LMW  8SVWMSREP WXVIRKXL SJ VIMRJSVGIH GSRGVIXI FIEQW{
SFWIVZEXMSRI\TPEMRIH[L]EPPWLIEVXLISVMIWXSXLMWTSMRXLEH According to St. Venant’s circulatory shear flow pattern, the
SZIVIWXMQEXIH XLI I\TIVMQIRXEP VIWYPXW FIGEYWI E RSRWSJX PEVKIWXWLIEVWXVIWWIWSGGYVEXXLISYXIVTIVMTLIV]SJEGVSWW
IRIHWXVIWWWXVEMRGYVZISJGSRGVIXI[EWYWIHMRXLIEREP]WMW section, and the most efficient cross section to resist torsion
9WMRKEFME\MEPXIWXJEGMPMX]GEPPIHEWLIEVVMK:IGGLMSERH MWXYFIWLETIH-RVIMRJSVGIHGSRGVIXIFIEQWXLIFIWX[E]
Collins (1981) showed that the softening coefficient in the XS VIWMWX XSVWMSR MW XS TVSZMHI LSST WXIIP EPSRK XLI SYXIV
WXVIWWWXVEMR GYVZI SJ GSRGVIXI [EW E JYRGXMSR SJ XLI TVMR TIVMTLIV] MR EHHMXMSR XS PSRKMXYHMREP WXIIP8LI EQSYRX SJ
GMTEP XIRWMPI WXVEMR VEXLIV XLER XLI TVMRGMTEP XIRWMPI WXVIWW hoop steel required in the tube depends on the shear flow
-RGSVTSVEXMRKIUYMPMFVMYQIUYEXMSRWXLIGSQTEXMFMPMX]IUYE U [LMGL GER FI HIXIVQMRIH JVSQ &VIHXvW   IUYMPMF
XMSRWERHYWMRKXLIWSJXIRIHWXVIWWWXVEMRGYVZISJGSRGVIXI VMYQIUYEXMSRSJEGVSWWWIGXMSR U]!8Y% 7YFWXMXYXMRK
Collins and Mitchell (1980) developed a compression field &VIHXvWIUYEXMSRMRXS)U  VIWYPXWMR
XLISV] '*8 XLEXGSYPHTVIHMGXXLIRSRPMRIEVWLIEVFILEZMSV
SJ ER IPIQIRX MR XLI TSWXGVEGOMRK VIKMSR YT XS XLI TIEO %X J ] %l J ]
VIWTSRWI 0EXIV :IGGLMS ERH 'SPPMRW   TVSTSWIH XLI 8Y  % E
modified compression field theory (MCFT) that included WX Wl
E GSRWXMXYXMZI VIPEXMSRWLMT JSV GSRGVIXI MR XIRWMSR XS FIXXIV
QSHIPXLITSWXGVEGOMRKWLIEVWXMJJRIWW )UYEXMSR E  VITVIWIRXW XLI FEWMW SJ XSVWMSR TVSZM
-REVSXEXMRKERKPIWSJXIRIHXVYWWQSHIP 6%781  WMSRW WMRGI XLI %'- 'SHI 8LI PIZIV EVQ EVIE % MR
[EW HIZIPSTIH EX XLI 9RMZIVWMX] SJ ,SYWXSR 9,  4ERK )U E  MW JSVQIH F] W[IITMRK XLI PIZIV EVQ SJ XLI
ERH,WY&IPEVFMERH,WY 8LI6%781 centerline of shear flow one full circle around the axis of
QEHIX[SMQTVSZIQIRXWSZIVXLI'*8 twist. Prior to 1995, the centerline of shear flow was taken by
8LIXIRWMPIWXVIWWSJGSRGVIXI[EWXEOIRMRXSEGGSYRXWS 6EYWGL  XSFIXLIGIRXIVPMRISJXLILSSTWXIIPFEVERH
XLEXXLIHIJSVQEXMSRWGSYPHFIGSVVIGXP]TVIHMGXIH XLIGSVVIWTSRHMRKPIZIVEVQEVIEMWHIRSXIHEW%L. This defi
 8LI WQIEVIH SV EZIVEKI  WXVIWWWXVEMR GYVZI SJ WXIIP RMXMSRSJEVIE%LLS[IZIV[EWJSYRHXSSZIVIWXMQEXIXLI
FEVWIQFIHHIHMRGSRGVIXI[EWHIVMZIHSRXLIWQIEVIHGVEGO XSVWMSREPWXVIRKXLF]YTXSTIVGIRX%WEVIWYPXIQTMVMGEP
PIZIP WS XLEX MX GSYPH FI GSVVIGXP] YWIH MR XLI IUYMPMFVMYQ IUYEXMSRW[IVIHIVMZIHFEWIHSRXLII\TIVMQIRXEPVIWYPXWSJ
ERH GSQTEXMFMPMX] IUYEXMSRW XLEX EVI FEWIH SR GSRXMRYSYW ,WY  ERHYWIHMRXLI%'-'SHIJVSQXS
QEXIVMEPW )UYEXMSR E  WLS[W X[S FEWMG GLEVEGXIVMWXMGW SJ
In 1996, the UH group reported that the fixed-angle soft XSVWMSR*MVWXFSXLXLILSSTWXIIPERHXLIPSRKMXYHMREPWXIIP
IRIHXVYWWQSHIP *%781  4ERKERH,WY,WYERH EVIVIUYMVIHXSVIWMWXXSVWMSR8LMWMWMPPYWXVEXIHF]6EYWGLvW
>LERK MWGETEFPISJTVIHMGXMRKXLIGSRGVIXIGSRXVMFY  WTEGIXVYWWQSHIP[LMGLMWQEHIYTSJFSXLX]TIW
XMSR :G) by assuming the cracks to be oriented at the fixed SJ WXIIP FEVW 7IGSRH )U E  MW ETTPMGEFPI XS LSPPS[
ERKPIVEXLIVXLERXLIVSXEXMRKERKPI>LYIXEP  HIVMZIH WIGXMSRW ERH FIEQW [MXL WSPMH WIGXMSRW 8IWXW ,WY  
EVEXMSREPWLIEVQSHYPYWXLEXMWEJYRGXMSRSJXLIGSQTVIW

%QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXI'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEP{[[[GSRGVIXISVK
 %2%0=7-7%2(()7-+23*6)-2*36')(%2(46)786)77)('32'6)8)+9-();%=7869'896)7 %'-6 

LEZI WLS[R XLEX XLI GSRGVIXI GSVI MRWMHI E XYFI HSIW RSX WMQTP]WYTTSVXIH-XWGVSWWWIGXMSR[EWJXMR Q HIIT
GSRXVMFYXIXSXLIYPXMQEXIXSVWMSREPWXVIRKXLSJEWSPMHFIEQ and 12 ft (3.6 m) wide with overhanging flanges.
;LIREVIMRJSVGIHGSRGVIXIXYFIMWYRHIVXSVWMSRIPIQIRXW -R EHHMXMSR XS%'-  HIWMKR TVSZMWMSRW JSV GSQFMRIH
MWSPEXIH JVSQ MXW [EPPW EVI WLS[R XS FI WYFNIGXIH XS TYVI WLIEVERHXSVWMSREVIEZEMPEFPIMRSXLIVHIWMKRGSHIWWYGL
WLIEV9RHIVWYGLEFME\MEPWXVIWWGSRHMXMSRXLIGSQTVIWWMZI EW'%2'7%7ERH)YVSGSHI ')2 %PXLSYKL
WXVIWWWXVEMRGYVZIYWIHMRXLITVMRGMTEPGSQTVIWWMZIHMVIG XLIWIGSHIWLEZIRSXFIIRETTPMIHXSKYMHI[E]WXLI]GSYPH
tion should be multiplied by a softening coefficient. This TVSZMHI EHHMXMSREP KYMHERGI % FS\ WIGXMSR WYFNIGXIH XS
softening coefficient is a function of the principal tensile WLIEVERHXSVWMSR[EWHIWMKRIHF]EQIXLSHMR'SPPMRWERH
WXVEMRERHXLIGSQTVIWWMZIWXVIRKXLSJGSRGVIXI >LERKERH Mitchell (1991) that was later modified and adopted for use
,WY ERHZEVMIWJVSQETTVS\MQEXIP]XS MR%%7,83  
%TTP]MRK XLMW WSJXIRIH WXVIWWWXVEMR GYVZI SJ GSRGVIXIXS  ;EVTMRKXSVWMSRzz-RXLIHIWMKRSJFIEQW[MXLGPSWIH
XLIWXYH]SJEVIMRJSVGIHGSRGVIXIXYFIYRHIVXSVWMSR ,WY WIGXMSRW MX MW WEJI XS RIKPIGX [EVTMRK XSVWMSREP VIWMWXERGI
ERH1S XLIXLMGORIWW XH of the shear flow zone can 8LMW MW FIGEYWI 7X :IRERX XSVWMSREP VIWMWXERGIW SJ GPSWIH
FIHIXIVQMRIHERHXLIPIZIVEVQEVIE%GERFIGEPGYPEXIH WIGXMSRWEVIPEVKI[LIVIEWXLI[EVTMRKXSVWMSREPVIWMWXERGI
from the centerline of the shear flow zone. The thickness XH MWWQEPP MR GSQTEVMWSR -R XLI HIWMKRSJ FIEQW [MXL STIR
MRGVIEWIWEWXLI YPXMQEXI XSVUYI 8Y MRGVIEWIW ERH XLI VIPE WIGXMSRW LS[IZIV [EVTMRK XSVWMSR VIWMWXERGI RIIHW XS FI
XMSRWLMT[EWHIVMZIH ,WY XSFIXH!8Y%GTJG  GSRWMHIVIHFIGEYWIMXGSYPHLEZIEQEKRMXYHIGSQTEVEFPIXS
8LIGSVVIWTSRHMRK%FIGSQIW XLEXSJ7X:IRERXXSVWMSRVIWMWXERGI8LIJSPPS[MRKI\EQTPI
MPPYWXVEXIWEHIWMKRJSV[EVTMRKXSVWMSR
X H TGT 8Y TGT 8LIQM OQ EIVMEPKYMHI[E]WSJXLI(EHI'SYRX]
%S %GT %GT F 6ETMH 8VERWMX 7]WXIQ [IVI HIWMKRIH YWMRK E WXERHEVH 
 %GT JG
JX Q PSRKTVIWXVIWWIHHSYFPI8KMVHIV[MXLERSTIR
GVSWW WIGXMSR SJ JX  Q  HIIT ERH JX  Q [MHI
;LIR XLI PIZIV EVQ EVIE % MR )U F  MW YWIH MR 8LI WLIEV ERH XSVWMSR HIWMKR SJ XLMW HSYFPI8 KMVHIV [EW
GSRNYRGXMSR[MXL)U E XLIEQSYRXSJXLILSSTWXIIP VITSVXIH F] ,WY ERH ,[ERK   ;LIR WYGL ER STIR
%XWX GER FI EGGYVEXIP] HIXIVQMRIH XS VIWMWX XLI YPXMQEXI GVSWW WIGXMSR [EW WYFNIGXIH XS XSVWMSR MX [EW VIWMWXIH
XSVUYI 8Y F] FSXL XLI 7X:IRERX XSVWMSR ERH XLI [EVTMRK XSVWMSR%
4VMSV XS XLI YWI SJ XLI WSJXIRIH WXVIWWWXVEMR GYVZI MR QM\IHXSVWMSREREP]WMWEGGSVHMRKXS,[ERKERH,WY  
XSVWMSRXLIHIXIVQMREXMSRSJXLIXLMGORIWWXH[EWFEWIHSRXLI WLS[IHXLEX[EVTMRKXSVWMSRVIWMWXIHETTVS\MQEXIP]LEPJSJ
RSRWSJXIRIHWXVIWWWXVEMRGYVZISJEWXERHEVHG]PMRHIV{JSV XLIETTPMIHXSVWMSREPQSQIRX8LIXSXEPXSVWMSREPWXVIRKXLSJ
example, taking the softening coefficient as unity. Because the double-T girder was sufficient to resist the most severe
the softened coefficient varies from approximately 0.25 to GEWISJHIVEMPQIRXERHXLIQE\MQYQXSVWMSREPVSXEXMSR[EW
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ERH HMWXVMFYXIW MRJSVQEXMSR SR XLI MQTVSZIQIRX SJ HIWMKR GSRWXVYGXMSR ERH
QEMRXIRERGI SJ GSRGVIXI TVSHYGXW ERH WXVYGXYVIW 8LI [SVO SJ %'- MW GSRHYGXIH F]
MRHMZMHYEP%'-QIQFIVWERHXLVSYKLZSPYRXIIVGSQQMXXIIWGSQTSWIHSJFSXLQIQFIVW
ERHRSRQIQFIVW

8LI GSQQMXXIIW EW [IPP EW %'- EW E [LSPI STIVEXI YRHIV E GSRWIRWYW JSVQEX
[LMGL EWWYVIW EPP TEVXMGMTERXW XLI VMKLX XS LEZI XLIMV ZMI[W GSRWMHIVIH 'SQQMXXII

VIWIEVGL ERH HIZIPSTQIRX VIWYPXW TVIWIRXEXMSR SJ GSRWXVYGXMSR ERH VITEMV

XIGLRMUYIWERHIHYGEXMSR

-RHMZMHYEPW MRXIVIWXIH MR XLI EGXMZMXMIW SJ %'- EVI IRGSYVEKIH XS FIGSQI E QIQFIV
8LIVI EVI RS IHYGEXMSREP SV IQTPS]QIRX VIUYMVIQIRXW %'-vW QIQFIVWLMT MW
GSQTSWIH SJ IRKMRIIVW EVGLMXIGXW WGMIRXMWXW GSRXVEGXSVW IHYGEXSVW ERH
VITVIWIRXEXMZIWJVSQEZEVMIX]SJGSQTERMIWERHSVKERM^EXMSRW

1IQFIVW EVI IRGSYVEKIH XS TEVXMGMTEXI MR GSQQMXXII EGXMZMXMIW XLEX VIPEXI XS XLIMV

[[[GSRGVIXISVK