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DATA STRUCTURES Interview Questions and Answers pdf

300+ TOP DATA STRUCTURES

Interview Questions and
Answers pdf

Engineering
Questions

DATA STRUCTURES Interview Questions :-

1. What is data structure?

A data structure is a way of organizing data that considers not

only the items stored, but also their relationship to each other.
Advance knowledge about the relationship between data items
allows designing of efficient algorithms for the manipulation of
data.
2. List out the areas in which data structures are applied
extensively?

Compiler Design,
Operating System,
Database Management System,
Statistical analysis package,
Numerical Analysis,
Graphics,
Artificial Intelligence,
Simulation

3. Explain What are the major data structures used in the

following areas : RDBMS, Network data model and
Hierarchical data model.

RDBMS = Array (i.e. Array of structures)

Network data model = Graph
Hierarchical data model = Trees

4. If you are using C language to implement the

heterogeneous linked list, Explain What pointer type will
you use?

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The heterogeneous linked list contains different data types in its

nodes and we need a link, pointer to connect them. It is not
possible to use ordinary pointers for this. So we go for void
pointer. Void pointer is capable of storing pointer to any type as
it is a generic pointer type.

5. Minimum number of queues needed to implement the

priority queue?

Two. One queue is used for actual storing of data and another for
storing priorities.

6. Explain What is the data structures used to perform

recursion?

Stack. Because of its LIFO (Last In First Out) property it

remembers its ‘caller’ so knows whom to return when the
function has to return. Recursion makes use of system stack for
storing the return addresses of the function calls.

Every recursive function has its equivalent iterative (non-

recursive) function. Even when such equivalent iterative
procedures are written, explicit stack is to be used.

7. Explain What are the notations used in Evaluation of

Arithmetic Expressions using prefix and postfix forms?

Polish and Reverse Polish notations.

8. Convert the expression ((A + B) * C – (D – E) ^ (F + G)) to

equivalent Prefix and Postfix notations.

Prefix Notation: – * +ABC ^ – DE + FG

Postfix Notation: AB + C * DE – FG + ^ –
9. Sorting is not possible by using which of the following
methods? (Insertion, Selection, Exchange, Deletion)

Sorting is not possible in Deletion. Using insertion we can

perform insertion sort, using selection we can perform selection
sort, using exchange we can perform the bubble sort (and other
similar sorting methods). But no sorting method can be done just
using deletion.

10. Explain What are the methods available in storing

sequential files ?

1. Straight merging,
2. Natural merging,
3. Polyphase sort,
4. Distribution of Initial runs.

11. List out few of the Application of tree data-structure?

The manipulation of Arithmetic expression,

Symbol Table construction,
Syntax analysis.

12. List out few of the applications that make use of

Multilinked Structures?

Sparse matrix,
Index generation.
13. In tree construction which is the suitable efficient data
structure? (Array, Linked list, Stack, Queue)

Linked list is the suitable efficient data structure.

14. Explain What is the type of the algorithm used in solving

the 8 Queens problem?

Backtracking.

15. In an AVL tree, at Explain What condition the balancing

is to be done?

If the ‘pivotal value’ (or the ‘Height factor’) is greater than 1 or

less than -1.

16. Explain What is the bucket size, when the overlapping

and collision occur at same time?

One. If there is only one entry possible in the bucket, when the
collision occurs, there is no way to accommodate the colliding
value. This results in the overlapping of values.

17. Classify the Hashing Functions based on the various

methods by which the key value is found.

Direct method,
Subtraction method,
 Modulo-Division method,
Digit-Extraction method,
Mid-Square method,
Folding method,
Pseudo-random method.

18. Explain What are the types of Collision Resolution

Techniques and the methods used in each of the type?

Open addressing (closed hashing), The methods used include:

Overflow block.
Closed addressing (open hashing), The methods used include:
Linked list, Binary tree.

19. In RDBMS, Explain What is the efficient data structure

used in the internal storage representation?

B+ tree. Because in B+ tree, all the data is stored only in leaf

nodes, that makes searching easier. This corresponds to the
records that shall be stored in leaf nodes.

20. Explain What is a spanning Tree?

A spanning tree is a tree associated with a network. All the nodes

of the graph appear on the tree once. A minimum spanning tree
is a spanning tree organized so that the total edge weight
between nodes is minimized.

21. Does the minimum spanning tree of a graph give the

shortest distance between any 2 specified nodes?

No. The Minimal spanning tree assures that the total weight of
the tree is kept at its minimum. But it doesn’t mean that the
distance between any two nodes involved in the minimum-
spanning tree is minimum.

22. Which is the simplest file structure? (Sequential,

Indexed, Random)
Sequential is the simplest file structure.

23. Whether Linked List is linear or Non-linear data

structure?

According to Access strategies Linked list is a linear one.

According to Storage Linked List is a Non-linear one.

24. Define Double Linked List?

It is a collection of data elements called nodes,

where each node is divided into three parts:

An info field that contains the information stored in the node.

Left field that contain pointer to node on left side.
Right field that contain pointer to node on right side.
Adv Java Interview Questions

25. Is It Necessary To Sort A File Before Searching A

Particular Item ?

1. If less work is involved in searching a element than to sort

and then extract, then we don’t go for sort.
2. If frequent use of the file is required for the purpose of
retrieving specific element, it is more efficient to sort the
file.
3. Thus it depends on situation.

26. What Are The Issues That Hamper The Efficiency In

Sorting A File?

The issues are:

Length of time required by the programmer in coding a

particular sorting program.
Amount of machine time necessary for running the particular
program.
The amount of space necessary for the particular program .
 Object Oriented Analysis and Design Interview Questions

27. Calculate The Efficiency Of Sequential Search?

The number of comparisons depends on where the record with

the argument key appears in the table.

If it appears at first position then one comparison

If it appears at last position then n comparisons
Average=(n+1)/2 comparisons
Unsuccessful search n comparisons
Number of comparisons in any case is O (n).

28. Is Any Implicit Arguments Are Passed To A Function

When It Is Called?

Yes there is a set of implicit arguments that contain information

necessary for the function to execute and return correctly. One of
them is return address which is stored within the function’s data
area, at the time of returning to calling program the address is
retrieved and the function branches to that location.

29. Parenthesis Is Never Required In Postfix Or Prefix

Expressions, Why?

Parenthesis is not required because the order of the operators in

the postfix /prefix expressions determines the actual order of
operations in evaluating the expression.
30. List Out The Areas In Which Data Structures Are Applied
Extensively?

Compiler Design,
Operating System,
Database Management System,
Statistical analysis package,
Numerical Analysis,
Graphics,
Artificial Intelligence,
Simulation.

31. What Are The Major Data Structures Used In The

Following Areas : Network Data Model & Hierarchical Data
Model?

RDBMS – Array (i.e. Array of structures)

Network data model – Graph
Hierarchical data model – Trees

32. If You Are Using C Language To Implement The

Heterogeneous Linked List, What Pointer Type Will You Use?

The heterogeneous linked list contains different data types in its

nodes and we need a link, pointer to connect them. It is not
possible to use ordinary pointers for this. So we go for void
pointer. Void pointer is capable of storing pointer to any type as
it is a generic pointer type.

33. Minimum Number Of Queues Needed To Implement The

Priority Queue?

Two. One queue is used for actual storing of data and another for
storing priorities.

34. What Is The Data Structures Used To Perform Recursion?

Stack. Because of its LIFO (Last In First Out) property it

remembers its ‘caller’ so knows whom to return when the
function has to return. Recursion makes use of system stack for
storing the return addresses of the function calls.

Every recursive function has its equivalent iterative (non-

recursive) function. Even when such equivalent iterative
procedures are written, explicit stack is to be used.

35. What Are The Notations Used In Evaluation Of

Arithmetic Expressions Using Prefix And Postfix Forms?

Polish and Reverse Polish notations.

36. Convert The Expression ((a + B) * C – (d – E) ^ (f + G)) To

Equivalent Prefix And Postfix Notations?

Prefix Notation:

^ – * +ABC – DE + FG

postfix Notation:

AB + C * DE – – FG + ^

37. List Out Few Of The Application Of Tree Data-structure?

The manipulation of Arithmetic expression, Symbol Table

construction & Syntax analysis.

38. List Out Few Of The Applications That Make Use Of

Multilinked Structures?

Sparse matrix, Index generation.

39. What Is The Type Of The Algorithm Used In Solving The 8

Queens Problem?

Backtracking.
40. In An Avl Tree, At What Condition The Balancing Is To Be
Done?

If the ‘pivotal value’ (or the ‘Height factor’) is greater than 1 or

less than –1.

41. There Are 8, 15, 13, 14 Nodes Were There In 4 Different

Trees. Which Of Them Could Have Formed A Full Binary
Tree?

In general: There are 2n-1 nodes in a full binary tree. By the

method of elimination:

Full binary trees contain odd number of nodes. So there cannot

be full binary trees with 8 or 14 nodes, so rejected. With 13 nodes
you can form a complete binary tree but not a full binary tree. So
the correct answer is 15.

42. In Rdbms, What Is The Efficient Data Structure Used In

The Internal Storage Representation?

B+ tree. Because in B+ tree, all the data is stored only in leaf

nodes, that makes searching easier. This corresponds to the
records that shall be stored in leaf nodes.

43. What Is A Spanning Tree?

A spanning tree is a tree associated with a network. All the nodes

of the graph appear on the tree once. A minimum spanning tree
is a spanning tree organized so that the total edge weight
between nodes is minimized.

44. Does The Minimal Spanning Tree Of A Graph Give The

Shortest Distance Between Any 2 Specified Nodes?

No! Minimal spanning tree assures that the total weight of the
tree is kept at its minimum. But it doesn’t mean that the distance
between any two nodes involved in the minimal-spanning tree is
minimum.
45. Difference Between Calloc And Malloc ?

malloc: allocate n bytes.

calloc: allocate m times n bytes initialized to 0.

46. What Are The Major Data Structures Used In The

Following Areas : Rdbms, Network Data Model &
Hierarchical Data Model?

RDBMS Array (i.e. Array of structures)

Network data model Graph
Hierarchical data model Trees.

47. Which File Contains The Definition Of Member

Functions?

Definitions of member functions for the Linked List class are

contained in the LinkedList.cpp file.

48. How Is Any Data Structure Application Is Classified

Among Files?

A linked list application can be organized into a header file,

source file and main application file. The first file is the header
file that contains the definition of the NODE structure and the
LinkedList class definition. The second file is a source code file
containing the implementation of member functions of the
LinkedList class. The last file is the application file that contains
code that creates and uses the LinkedList class.

49. What Member Function Places A New Node At The End Of

The Linked List?

The appendNode() member function places a new node at the

end of the linked list. The appendNode() requires an integer
representing the current data of the node.

50. What Is Linked List ?

Linked List is one of the fundamental data structures. It consists
of a sequence of ? nodes, each containing arbitrary data fields
and one or two (”links”) pointing to the next and/or previous
nodes. A linked list is a self-referential datatype because it
contains a pointer or link to another data of the same type.
Linked lists permit insertion and removal of nodes at any point
in the list in constant time, but do not allow random access.

51. What Does Each Entry In The Link List Called?

Each entry in a linked list is called a node. Think of a node as an

entry that has three sub entries. One sub entry contains the data,
which may be one attribute or many attributes. Another points
to the previous node, and the last points to the next node. When
you enter a new item on a linked list, you allocate the new node
and then set the pointers to previous and next nodes.

52. How Is The Front Of The Queue Calculated ?

The front of the queue is calculated by front = (front+1) % size.

53. Why Is The Isempty() Member Method Called?

The isEmpty() member method is called within the dequeue

process to determine if there is an item in the queue to be
removed i.e. isEmpty() is called to decide whether the queue has
at least one element. This method is called by the dequeue()
method before returning the front element.

54. Which Process Places Data At The Back Of The Queue?

Enqueue is the process that places data at the back of the queue.

55. What Is The Relationship Between A Queue And Its

Underlying Array?

Data stored in a queue is actually stored in an array. Two

indexes, front and end will be used to identify the start and end
of the queue.
When an element is removed front will be incremented by 1. In
case it reaches past the last index available it will be reset to 0.
Then it will be checked with end. If it is greater than end queue
is empty.

When an element is added end will be incremented by 1. In case

it reaches past the last index available it will be reset to 0. After
incrementing it will be checked with front. If they are equal
queue is full.

56. What Is A Queue ?

A Queue is a sequential organization of data. A queue is a first in

first out type of data structure. An element is inserted at the last
position and an element is always taken out from the first
position.

57. What Does Isempty() Member Method Determines?

isEmpty() checks if the stack has at least one element. This

method is called by Pop() before retrieving and returning the top
element.

58. What Method Removes The Value From The Top Of A

Stack?

The pop() member method removes the value from the top of a
stack, which is then returned by the pop() member method to the
statement that calls the pop() member method.

59. What Method Is Used To Place A Value Onto The Top Of A

Stack?

push() method, Push is the direction that data is being added to

the stack. push() member method places a value onto the top of a
stack.

60. Run Time Memory Allocation Is Known As ?

Allocating memory at runtime is called a dynamically allocating
memory. In this, you dynamically allocate memory by using the
new operator when declaring the array.

for example : int grades[] = new int[10];

61. How Do You Assign An Address To An Element Of A

Pointer Array ?

We can assign a memory address to an element of a pointer

array by using the address operator, which is the ampersand (&),
in an assignment statement such as ptemployee[0] =
&projects[2];

62. Why Do We Use A Multidimensional Array?

A multidimensional array can be useful to organize subgroups of

data within an array. In addition to organizing data stored in
elements of an array, a multidimensional array can store
memory addresses of data in a pointer array and an array of
pointers.

Multidimensional arrays are used to store information in a

matrix form.

e.g; a railway timetable, schedule cannot be stored as a single

dimensional array. One can use a 3-D array for storing height,
width and length of each room on each floor of a building.

63. What Is Significance Of ” * ” ?

The symbol “*” tells the computer that you are declaring a
pointer. Actually it depends on context.

In a statement like int *ptr; the ‘*’ tells that you are declaring a
pointer.
In a statement like int i = *ptr; it tells that you want to assign
value pointed to by ptr to variable i.
The symbol “*” is also called as Indirection Operator/
Dereferencing Operator.

64. Is Pointer A Variable?

Yes, a pointer is a variable and can be used as an element of a

structure and as an attribute of a class in some programming
languages such as C++, but not Java. However, the contents of a
pointer is a memory address of another location of memory,
which is usually the memory address of another variable,
element of a structure, or attribute of a class.

65. How Many Parts Are There In A Declaration Statement?

There are two main parts, variable identifier and data type and
the third type is optional which is type qualifier like
signed/unsigned.

66. How Memory Is Reserved Using A Declaration Statement

?

Memory is reserved using data type in the variable declaration.

A programming language implementation has predefined sizes
for its data types.

For example:

in C# the declaration int i; will reserve 32 bits for variable i.

A pointer declaration reserves memory for the address or the
pointer variable, but not for the data that it will point to. The
memory for the data pointed by a pointer has to be allocated
at runtime.
The memory reserved by the compiler for simple variables
and for storing pointer address is allocated on the stack, while
the memory allocated for pointer referenced data at runtime
is allocated on the heap.

67. What Is Impact Of Signed Numbers On The Memory?

Sign of the number is the first bit of the storage allocated for that
number. So you get one bit less for storing the number. For
example if you are storing an 8-bit number, without sign, the
range is 0-255. If you decide to store sign you get 7 bits for the
number plus one bit for the sign. So the range is -128 to +127.

68. What Is Precision?

Precision refers the accuracy of the decimal portion of a value.

Precision is the number of digits allowed after the decimal point.

69. What Is The Difference Between Null And Void Pointer?

NULL can be value for pointer type variables.

VOID is a type identifier which has not size.
NULL and void are not same. Example: void* ptr = NULL;

70. What Is The Difference Between Array And Stack?

STACK follows LIFO. Thus the item that is first entered would be
the last removed.

In array the items can be entered or removed in any order.

Basically each member access is done using index. No strict
order is to be followed here to remove a particular element.

Array may be multidiamensional or onediamensional but stack

should be onediamensional. but both are linear data structure.

71. Tell How To Check Whether A Linked List Is Circular ?

Create two pointers, each set to the start of the list. Update each
as follows:

while (pointer1)
{
pointer1 = pointer1->next;
pointer2 = pointer2->next;
if(pointer2)pointer2=pointer2->next;
if (pointer1 == pointer2)
{
print (”circularn”);
}
}
72. Whether Linked List Is Linear Or Non-linear Data
Structure?

According to Access strategies Linked list is a linear one.

According to Storage Linked List is a Non-linear one.

73. If You Are Using C Language To Implement The

Heterogeneous Linked List, What Pointer Type Will You Use?

The heterogeneous linked list contains different data types in its

nodes and we need a link, pointer to connect them. It is not
possible to use ordinary pointers for this. So we go for void
pointer. Void pointer is capable of storing pointer to any type as
it is a generic pointer type.

74. What Is A Node Class?

A node class is a class that, relies on the base class for services
and implementation, provides a wider interface to users than its
base class, relies primarily on virtual functions in its public
interface depends on all its direct and indirect base class can be
understood only in the context of the base class can be used as
base for further derivation can be used to create objects. A node
class is a class that has added new services or functionality
beyond the services inherited from its base class.

75. When Can You Tell That A Memory Leak Will Occur?

A memory leak occurs when a program loses the ability to free a

block of dynamically allocated memory.

76. How Many Different Trees Are Possible With 10 Nodes ?

1014 – For example, consider a tree with 3 nodes(n=3), it will
have the maximum combination of 5 different (ie, 23 – 3 =? 5)
trees.

77. How Can I Search For Data In A Linked List?

Unfortunately, the only way to search a linked list is with a linear

search, because the only way a linked list’s members can be
accessed is sequentially. Sometimes it is quicker to take the data
from a linked list and store it in a different data structure so that
searches can be more efficient.

78. Define Data Structures?

Data Structures is defined as the way of organizing all data items

that consider not only the elements stored but also stores the
relationship between the elements.

79. Define Primary Data Structures?

Primary data structures are the basic data structures that

directly operate upon the machine instructions. All the basic
constants (integers, floating-point numbers, character constants,
string constants) and pointers are considered as primary data
structures.

80. Define Static Data Structures?

A data structure formed when the number of data items are

known in advance is referred as static data structure or fixed
size data structure.

81. List Some Of The Static Data Structures In C?

Some of the static data structures in C are arrays, pointers,

structures etc.

82. Define Dynamic Data Structures?

A data structure formed when the number of data items are not
known in advance is known as dynamic data structure or
variable size data structure.

83. List Some Of The Dynamic Data Structures In C?

Some of the dynamic data structures in C are linked lists, stacks,

queues, trees etc.

84. Define Linear Data Structures?

Linear data structures are data structures having a linear

relationship between its adjacent elements.

Eg; Linked lists.

85. Define Non-linear Data Structures?

Non-linear data structures are data structures that don’t have a

linear relationship between its adjacent elements but have a
hierarchical relationship between the elements.

Eg; Trees and Graphs.

86. Define Linked Lists?

Linked list consists of a series of structures, which are not

necessarily adjacent in memory. Each structure contains the
element and a pointer to a structure containing its successor. We
call this the Next Pointer. The last cell’s Next pointer points to
NULL.

87. State The Different Types Of Linked Lists?

The different types of linked list include singly linked list, doubly
linked list and circular linked list.

88. List The Basic Operations Carried Out In A Linked List?

The basic operations carried out in a linked list include:

Creation of a list.
Insertion of a node.
Deletion of a node.
Modification of a node.
Traversal of the list.

89. List Out The Advantages Of Using A Linked List?

It is not necessary to specify the number of elements in a linked

list during its declaration.
Linked list can grow and shrink in size depending upon the
insertion and deletion that occurs in the list.
Insertions and deletions at any place in a list can be handled
easily and efficiently.
A linked list does not waste any memory space.

90. List Out The Disadvantages Of Using A Linked List?

Searching a particular element in a list is difficult and time

consuming.
A linked list will use more storage space than an array to store
the same number of elements.

91. List Out The Applications Of A Linked List?

Some of the important applications of linked lists are

manipulation of polynomials, sparse matrices, stacks and
queues.

92. State The Difference Between Arrays And Linked Lists?

Submit

93. Define A Stack?

Stack is an ordered collection of elements in which insertions

and deletions are restricted to one end. The end from which
elements are added and/or removed is referred to as top of the
stack. Stacks are also referred as piles, push-down lists and last-
in-first-out (LIFO) lists.

94. List Out The Basic Operations That Can Be Performed On

A Stack ?

The basic operations that can be performed on a stack are

Push operation.
Pop operation.
Peek operation.
Empty check.
Fully occupied check.

95. State The Different Ways Of Representing Expressions?

The different ways of representing expressions are

Infix Notation.
Prefix Notation.
Postfix Notation.

96. State The Advantages Of Using Infix Notations?

It is the mathematical way of representing the expression.

It is easier to see visually which operation is done from first to
last.

97. State The Advantages Of Using Postfix Notations?

Need not worry about the rules of precedence.

Need not worry about the rules for right to left associativity.
Need not need parenthesis to override the above rules.

98. State The Rules To Be Followed During Infix To Postfix

Conversions?
Fully parenthesize the expression starting from left to right.
During parenthesizing, the operators having higher precedence
are first parenthesized.
Move the operators one by one to their right, such that each
operator replaces their corresponding right parenthesis.
The part of the expression, which has been converted into
postfix is to be treated as single operand.
Once the expression is converted into postfix form, remove all
parenthesis.

99. State The Rules To Be Followed During Infix To Prefix

Conversions?

Fully parenthesize the expression starting from left to right.

During parenthesizing, the operators having higher precedence
are first parenthesized.
Move the operators one by one to their left, such that each
operator replaces their corresponding left parenthesis.
The part of the expression, which has been converted into prefix
is to be treated as single operand.
Once the expression is converted into prefix form, remove all
parenthesis.

100. State The Difference Between Stacks And Linked Lists?

The difference between stacks and linked lists is that insertions

and deletions may occur anywhere in a linked list, but only at
the top of the stack.

101. Mention The Advantages Of Representing Stacks Using

Linked Lists Than Arrays?

It is not necessary to specify the number of elements to be stored

in a stack during its declaration, since memory is allocated
dynamically at run time when an element is added to the stack.
Insertions and deletions can be handled easily and efficiently.
Linked list representation of stacks can grow and shrink in size
without wasting memory space, depending upon the insertion
and deletion that occurs in the list.
Multiple stacks can be represented efficiently using a chain for
each stack.
102. Define A Queue?

Queue is an ordered collection of elements in which insertions

are restricted to one end called the rear end and deletions are
restricted to other end called the front end. Queues are also
referred as First-In-First-Out (FIFO) Lists.

103. Define A Priority Queue?

Priority queue is a collection of elements, each containing a key

referred as the priority for that element. Elements can be
inserted in any order (i.e., of alternating priority), but are
arranged in order of their priority value in the queue. The
elements are deleted from the queue in the order of their
priority (i.e., the elements with the highest priority is deleted
first). The elements with the same priority are given equal
importance and processed accordingly.

104. State The Difference Between Queues And Linked Lists?

The difference between queues and linked lists is that insertions

and deletions may occur anywhere in the linked list, but in
queues insertions can be made only in the rear end and
deletions can be made only in the front end.

105. Define A Deque?

Deque (Double-Ended Queue) is another form of a queue in

which insertions and deletions are made at both the front and
rear ends of the queue. There are two variations of a deque,
namely, input restricted deque and output restricted deque. The
input restricted deque allows insertion at one end (it can be
either front or rear) only. The output restricted deque allows
deletion at one end (it can be either front or rear) only.

106. Why You Need A Data Structure?

A data structure helps you to understand the relationship of one
data element with the other and organize it within the memory.
Sometimes the organization might be simple and can be very
clearly visioned.

Eg; List of names of months in a year –Linear Data Structure, List

of historical places in the world- Non-Linear Data Structure. A
data structure helps you to analyze the data, store it and
organize it in a logical and mathematical manner.

107. What Do You Mean By Shortest Path?

A path having minimum weight between two vertices is known

as shortest path, in which weight is always a positive number.

108. What Do You Mean By Articulation Point?

If a graph is not biconnected, the vertices whose removal would

disconnect the graph are known as articulation points.

109. Define Biconnectivity?

A connected graph G is said to be biconnected, if it remains

connected after removal of any one vertex and the edges that are
incident upon that vertex. A connected graph is biconnected, if it
has no articulation points.

110. What Do You Mean By Back Edge?

If w is the ancestor of v, then vw is called a back edge.

111. What Do You Mean By Tree Edge?

If w is undiscovered at the time vw is explored, then vw is called

a tree edge and v becomes the parent of w.

112. Differentiate Bfs And Dfs?

Submit
113. What Do You Mean By Breadth First Search (bfs)?

BFS performs simultaneous explorations starting from a

common point and spreading out independently.

114. List The Two Important Key Points Of Depth First Search?

i) If path exists from one node to another node, walk across the
edge – exploring the edge.
ii) If path does not exist from one specific node to any other
node, return to the previous node where we have been before –
backtracking.

115. Define Graph Traversals?

Traversing a graph is an efficient way to visit each vertex and

edge exactly once.

116. Name Two Algorithms Two Find Minimum Spanning Tree?

Kruskal’s algorithm.
Prim’s algorithm.
117. What Is A Minimum Spanning Tree?

A minimum spanning tree of an undirected graph G is a tree

formed from graph edges that connects all the vertices of G at the
lowest total cost.

118. What Are The Two Traversal Strategies Used In Traversing A

Graph?

Breadth first search

Depth first search
119. When Is A Graph Said To Be Weakly Connected?

When a directed graph is not strongly connected but the

underlying graph is connected, then the graph is said to be
weakly connected.
120. What Is Meant By Strongly Connected In A Graph?

An undirected graph is connected, if there is a path from every

vertex to every other vertex. A directed graph with this property
is called strongly connected.

121. What Is An Acyclic Graph?

A simple diagram which does not have any cycles is called an

acyclic graph.

122. What Is A Cycle Or A Circuit?

A path which originates and ends in the same node is called a

cycle or circuit.

123. What Is A Simple Path?

A path in a diagram in which the edges are distinct is called a

simple path. It is also called as edge simple.

124. Define Path In A Graph?

The path in a graph is the route taken to reach terminal node

from a starting node.

125. Define Indegree Of A Graph?

In a directed graph, for any node v, the number of edges which

have v as their terminal node is called the indegree of the node v.

126. Define Outdegree Of A Graph?

In a directed graph, for any node v, the number of edges which

have v as their initial node is called the out degree of the node v.

127. What Is A Weighted Graph?

A graph in which weights are assigned to every edge is called a
weighted graph.

128. What Is A Simple Graph?

A simple graph is a graph, which has not more than one edge
between a pair of nodes than such a graph is called a simple
graph.

129. What Is A Loop?

An edge of a graph which connects to itself is called a loop or

sling.

130. What Is A Undirected Graph?

A graph in which every edge is undirected is called a directed

graph.

131. What Is A Directed Graph?

A graph in which every edge is directed is called a directed

graph.

132. Define Adjacent Nodes?

Any two nodes which are connected by an edge in a graph are

called adjacent nodes. For example, if an edge x ε E is associated
with a pair of nodes (u,v) where u, v ε V, then we say that the
edge x connects the nodes u and v.

133. Define Graph?

A graph G consist of a nonempty set V which is a set of nodes of

the graph, a set E which is the set of edges of the graph, and a
mapping from the set for edge E to a set of pairs of elements of V.
It can also be represented as G=(V, E).

134. What Is The Need For Path Compression?

Path compression is performed during a Find operation. Suppose
if we want to perform Find(X), then the effect of path
compression is that every node on the path from X to the root
has its parent changed to the root.

135. What Do You Mean By Union-by-weight?

Keep track of the weight ie; size of each tree and always append
the smaller tree to the larger one when performing UNION.

136. List The Abstract Operations In The Set?

Let S and T be sets and e be an element.

SINGLETON(e) returns {e}.

UNION(S,T) returns S Ụ T.
INTERSECTION(S,T) returns S ∩ T.
FIND returns the name of the set containing a given element.
137. Define A Set?

A set S is an unordered collection of elements from a universe.

An element cannot appear more than once in S. The cardinality
of S is the number of elements in S. An empty set is a set whose
cardinality is zero. A singleton set is a set whose cardinality is
one.

138. What Do You Mean By Disjoint Set Adt?

A collection of non-empty disjoint sets S=S1,S2,….,Sk i.e;each Si is

a non-empty set that has no element in common with any other
Sj. In mathematical notation this is: Si∩Sj=Ф. Each set is
identified by a unique element called its representative.

139. List The Applications Of Set Adt?

Maintaining a set of connected components of a graph.

Maintain list of duplicate copies of web pages.
Constructing a minimum spanning tree for a graph.
140. Define An Equivalence Relation?
An equivalence relation is a relation R that satisfies three
properties:

(Reflexive) aRa, for all a ε S.

(Symmetric) aRb if and only if bRa.
(Transitive) aRb and bRc implies that aRc.
141. Define A Relation?

A relation R is defined on a set S if for every pair of elements

(a,b), a,b ε S, aRb is either true or false. If aRb is true, then we say
that a is related to b.

142. Mention One Advantage And Disadvantage Of Using

Quadratic Probing?

Advantage: The problem of primary clustering is eliminated.

Disadvantage: There is no guarantee of finding an unoccupied
cell once the table is nearly half full.

143. List The Limitations Of Linear Probing?

Time taken for finding the next available cell is large.

In linear probing, we come across a problem known as
clustering.
144. What Is The Need For Extendible Hashing?

If either open addressing hashing or separate chaining hashing

is used, the major problem is that collisions could cause several
blocks to be examined during a Find, even for a well-distributed
hash table. Extendible hashing allows a find to be performed in
two disk accesses. Insertions also require few disk accesses.

145. What Do You Mean By Rehashing?

If the table gets too full, the running time for the operations will
start taking too long and inserts might fail for open addressing
with quadratic resolution. A solution to this is to build another
table that is about twice as big with the associated new hash
function and scan down the entire original hash table,
computing the new hash value for each element and inserting it
in the new table. This entire operation is called rehashing.

146. What Do You Mean By Double Hashing?

Double hashing is an open addressing collision resolution

strategy in which F(i)=i.hash2(X). This formula says that we apply
a second hash function to X and probe at a distance hash2(X),
2hash2(X),….,and so on. A function such as hash2(X)=R-(XmodR),
with R a prime smaller than Tablesize.

147. What Do You Mean By Secondary Clustering?

Although quadratic probing eliminates primary clustering,

elements that hash to the same position will probe the same
alternative cells. This is known as secondary clustering.

148. What Do You Mean By Quadratic Probing?

Quadratic probing is an open addressing collision resolution

strategy in which F(i)=i2. There is no guarantee of finding an
empty cell once the table gets half full if the table size is not
prime. This is because at most half of the table can be used as
alternative locations to resolve collisions.

149. What Do You Mean By Primary Clustering?

In linear probing collision resolution strategy, even if the table is

relatively empty, blocks of occupied cells start forming. This
effect is known as primary clustering means that any key hashes
into the cluster will require several attempts to resolve the
collision and then it will add to the cluster.

150. What Do You Mean By Linear Probing?

Linear probing is an open addressing collision resolution

strategy in which F is a linear function of i, F(i)=i. This amounts
to trying sequentially in search of an empty cell. If the table is big
enough, a free cell can always be found, but the time to do so can
get quite large.

151. What Do You Mean By Probing?

Probing is the process of getting next available hash table array

cell.

152. What Are The Types Of Collision Resolution Strategies In

Open Addressing?

Linear probing.
Quadratic probing.
Double hashing.
153. What Do You Mean By Open Addressing?

Open addressing is a collision resolving strategy in which, if

collision occurs alternative cells are tried until an empty cell is
found. The cells h0(x), h1(x), h2(x),…. are tried in succession,
where hi(x)=(Hash(x)+F(i))mod Tablesize with F(0)=0. The
function F is the collision resolution strategy.

154. Write The Disadvantages Of Separate Chaining?

The elements are evenly distributed. Some elements may have

more elements and some may not have anything.
It requires pointers. This leads to slow the algorithm down a bit
because of the time required to allocate new cells, and also
essentially requires the implementation of a second data
structure.
155. Write The Advantage Of Separate Chaining?

More number of elements can be inserted as it uses linked lists.

156. What Do You Mean By Separate Chaining?

Separate chaining is a collision resolution technique to keep the

list of all elements that hash to the same value. This is called
separate chaining because each hash table element is a separate
chain (linked list). Each linked list contains all the elements
whose keys hash to the same index.

157. What Are The Collision Resolution Methods?

Separate chaining or External hashing.

Open addressing or Closed hashing.
158. What Do You Mean By Collision In Hashing?

When an element is inserted, it hashes to the same value as an

already inserted element, and then it produces collision.

159. Write The Importance Of Hashing?

Maps key with the corresponding value using hash function.

Hash tables support the efficient addition of new entries and the
time spent on searching for the required data is independent of
the number of items stored.
160. What Do You Mean By Hash Function?

A hash function is a key to address transformation which acts

upon a given key to compute the relative position of the key in
an array. The choice of hash function should be simple and it
must distribute the data evenly. A simple hash function is
hash_key=key mod tablesize.

161. What Do You Mean By Hash Table?

The hash table data structure is merely an array of some fixed

size, containing the keys. A key is a string with an associated
value. Each key is mapped into some number in the range 0 to
tablesize-1 and placed in the appropriate cell.

162. Define Hashing?

Hashing is the transformation of string of characters into a

usually shorter fixed length value or key that represents the
original string. Hashing is used to index and retrieve items in a
database because it is faster to find the item using the short
hashed key than to find it using the original value.

163. What Do You Mean By The Term “percolate Down”?

When the minimum element is removed, a hole is created at the

root. Since the heap now becomes one smaller, it follows that the
last element X in the heap must move somewhere in the heap. If
X can be placed in the hole, then we are done.. This is unlikely, so
we slide the smaller of the hole’s children into the hole, thus
pushing the hole down one level. We repeat this step until X can
be placed in the hole. Thus, our action is to place X in its correct
spot along a path from the root containing minimum children.
This general strategy is known as percolate down.

164. What Do You Mean By The Term “percolate Up”?

To insert an element, we have to create a hole in the next

available heap location. Inserting an element in the hole would
sometimes violate the heap order property, so we have to slide
down the parent into the hole. This strategy is continued until
the correct location for the new element is found. This general
strategy is known as a percolate up; the new element is
percolated up the heap until the correct location is found.

165. What Are The Applications Of Priority Queues?

The selection problem.

Event simulation.
166. What Do You Mean By Heap Order Property?

In a heap, for every node X, the key in the parent of X is smaller

than (or equal to) the key in X, with the exception of the root
(which has no parent).

167. What Do You Mean By Structure Property In A Heap?

A heap is a binary tree that is completely filled with the possible

exception at the bottom level, which is filled from left to right.
Such a tree is known as a complete binary tree.

168. What Are The Properties Of Binary Heap?

Structure Property.
Heap Order Property.
169. What Is The Need For Priority Queue?

In a multiuser environment, the operating system scheduler

must decide which of the several processes to run only for a
fixed period of time. One algorithm uses queue. Jobs are initially
placed at the end of the queue. The scheduler will repeatedly
take the first job on the queue, run it until either it finishes or its
time limit is up and place it at the end of the queue if it does not
finish. This strategy is not appropriate, because very short jobs
will soon to take a long time because of the wait involved in the
run.

Generally, it is important that short jobs finish as fast as possible,

so these jobs should have precedence over jobs that have already
been running. Further more, some jobs that are not short are still
very important and should have precedence. This particular
application seems to require a special kind of queue, known as
priority queue. Priority queue is also called as Heap or Binary
Heap.

170. What Are The Applications Of B-tree?

Database implementation.
Indexing on non primary key fields.
171. What Do You Mean By 2-3-4 Tree?

A B-tree of order 4 is called 2-3-4 tree. A B-tree of order 4 is a tree

that is not binary with the following structural properties:

The root is either a leaf or has between 2 and 4 children.

All non-leaf nodes (except the root) have between 2 and 4
children.
All leaves are at the same depth.
172. What Do You Mean By 2-3 Tree?

A B-tree of order 3 is called 2-3 tree. A B-tree of order 3 is a tree

that is not binary with the following structural properties:

The root is either a leaf or has between 2 and 3 children.

All non-leaf nodes (except the root) have between 2 and 3
children.
All leaves are at the same depth.
173. Define B-tree Of Order M?

A B-tree of order M is a tree that is not binary with the following

structural properties:

The root is either a leaf or has between 2 and M children.

All non-leaf nodes (except the root) have between [M/2] and M
children.
All leaves are at the same depth.
174. What Is The Minimum Number Of Nodes In An Avl Tree Of
Height H?

The minimum number of nodes S(h), in an AVL tree of height h is

given by S(h)=S(h-1)+S(h-2)+1. For h=0, S(h)=1.

175. Define Heap?

A heap is defined to be a complete binary tree with the property

that the value of each node is atleast as small as the value of its
child nodes, if they exist. The root node of the heap has the
smallest value in the tree.

176. List The Types Of Rotations Available In Splay Tree?

Let us assume that the splay is performed at vertex v, whose

parent and grandparent are p and g respectively. Then, the three
rotations are named as:
Zig: If p is the root and v is the left child of p, then left-left
rotation at p would suffice. This case always terminates the splay
as v reaches the root after this rotation.

Zig-Zig: If p is not the root, p is the left child and v is also a left
child, then a left-left rotation at g followed by a left-left rotation
at p, brings v as an ancestor of g as well as p.

Zig-Zag: If p is not the root, p is the left child and v is a right

child, perform a left-right rotation at g and bring v as an ancestor
of p as well as g.

177. What Is The Idea Behind Splaying?

Splaying reduces the total accessing time if the most frequently

accessed node is moved towards the root. It does not require to
maintain any information regarding the height or balance factor
and hence saves space and simplifies the code to some extent.

178. Define Splay Tree?

A splay tree is a binary search tree in which restructuring is

done using a scheme called splay. The splay is a heuristic method
which moves a given vertex v to the root of the splay tree using a
sequence of rotations.

179. What Do You Mean By Balance Factor Of A Node In Avl

Tree?

The height of left subtree minus height of right subtree is called

balance factor of a node in AVL tree.The balance factor may be
either 0 or +1 or -1.The height of an empty tree is -1.

180. What Are The Categories Of Avl Rotations?

Let A be the nearest ancestor of the newly inserted nod which

has the balancing factor ±2. Then the rotations can be classified
into the following four categories:
Left-Left: The newly inserted node is in the left subtree of the left
child of A.
Right-Right: The newly inserted node is in the right subtree of the
right child of A.
Left-Right: The newly inserted node is in the right subtree of the
left child of A.
Right-Left: The newly inserted node is in the left subtree of the
right child of A.

181. What Do You Mean By Balanced Trees?

Balanced trees have the structure of binary trees and obey

binary search tree properties. Apart from these properties, they
have some special constraints, which differ from one data
structure to another. However, these constraints are aimed only
at reducing the height of the tree, because this factor determines
the time complexity.

Eg: AVL trees, Splay trees.

182. Define Avl Tree?

An empty tree is height balanced. If T is a non-empty binary tree

with TL and TR as its left and right subtrees, then T is height
balanced if

TL and TR are height balanced and

│hL – hR│≤ 1
Where hL and hR are the heights of TL and TR respectively.

183. Define Left-in Threaded Tree?

Left-in threaded binary tree is defined as one in which each

NULL pointers is altered to contain a thread to that node’s
inorder predecessor.

184. Define Right-in Threaded Tree?

Right-in threaded binary tree is defined as one in which threads
replace NULL pointers in nodes with empty right sub-trees.

185. What Is An Expression Tree?

An expression tree is a tree which is build from infix or prefix or

postfix expression. Generally, in such a tree, the leaves are
operands and other nodes are operators.

186. What Is The Use Of Threaded Binary Tree?

In threaded binary tree, the NULL pointers are replaced by some

addresses. The left pointer of the node points to its predecessor
and the right pointer of the node points to its successor.

187. Why It Is Said That Searching A Node In A Binary Search

Tree Is Efficient Than That Of A Simple Binary Tree?

In binary search tree, the nodes are arranged in such a way that
the left node is having less data value than root node value and
the right nodes are having larger value than that of root. Because
of this while searching any node the value of the target node will
be compared with the parent node and accordingly either left
sub branch or right sub branch will be searched. So, one has to
compare only particular branches. Thus searching becomes
efficient.

188. Define Ancestor And Descendant ?

If there is a path from node n1 to n2, then n1 is the ancestor of

n2 and n2 is the descendant of n1.

189. What Do You Mean By General Trees?

General tree is a tree with nodes having any number of children.

190. Define A Binary Search Tree?

A binary search tree is a special binary tree, which is either
empty or it should satisfy the following characteristics:

Every node has a value and no two nodes should have the same
value i.e) the values in the binary search tree are distinct.
The values in any left sub-tree is less than the value of its parent
node.
The values in any right sub-tree is greater than the value of its
parent node.
The left and right sub-trees of each node are again binary search
trees.
191. State The Demerits Of Linked Representation Of Binary
Trees?

Given a node structure, it is difficult to determine its parent

node.
Memory spaces are wasted for storing null pointers for the
nodes, which have one or no sub-trees.
It requires dynamic memory allocation, which is not possible in
some programming language.
192. State The Merit Of Linked Representation Of Binary Trees?

Insertions and deletions in a node involve no data movement

except the rearrangement of pointers, hence less processing
time.

193. State The Demerit Of Linear Representation Of Binary

Trees?

Insertions and deletions in a node take an excessive amount of

processing time due to data movement up and down the array.

194. State The Merits Of Linear Representation Of Binary Trees?

Storage method is easy and can be easily implemented in arrays.

When the location of a parent/child node is known, other one
can be determined easily.
It requires static memory allocation so it is easily implemented
in all programming language.
195. What Are The Tasks Performed During Postorder Traversal?

Traverse the left sub-tree.

Traverse the right sub-tree.
Process the root node.
196. What Are The Tasks Performed During Inorder Traversal?

Traverse the left sub-tree.

Process the root node.
Traverse the right sub-tree.
197. What Are The Tasks Performed During Preorder Traversal?

Process the root node.

Traverse the left sub-tree.
Traverse the right sub-tree.
198. What Are The Tasks Performed While Traversing A Binary
Tree?

Visiting a node.
Traverse the left sub-tree.
Traverse the right sub-tree.
199. What Are The Different Binary Tree Traversal Techniques?

Preorder traversal.
Inorder traversal.
Postorder traversal.
Levelorder traversal.
200. What Is Meant By Binary Tree Traversal?

Traversing a binary tree means moving through all the nodes in

the binary tree, visiting each node in the tree only once.

201. State The Properties Of A Binary Tree?

The maximum number of nodes on level n of a binary tree is 2n-

1, where n≥1.
The maximum number of nodes in a binary tree of height n is
2n-1, where n≥1.
For any non-empty tree, nl=nd+1 where nl is the number of leaf
nodes and nd is the number of nodes of degree 2.
202. Define A Right-skewed Binary Tree?

A right-skewed binary tree is a tree, which has only right child

nodes.

203. Define A Complete Binary Tree?

A complete binary tree is a tree in which every non-leaf node has

exactly two children not necessarily to be on the same level.

204. Define A Full Binary Tree ?

A full binary tree is a tree in which all the leaves are on the same
level and every non-leaf node has exactly two children.

205. Define Non-terminal Nodes In A Tree?

All intermediate nodes that traverse the given tree from its root
node to the terminal nodes are referred as non-terminal nodes.

206. Define Terminal Nodes In A Tree?

A node that has no children is called a terminal node. It is also

referred to as leaf node.

207. Define A Path In A Tree?

A path in a tree is a sequence of distinct nodes in which

successive nodes are connected by edges in the tree.

208. Define A Binary Tree?

A binary tree is a finite set of nodes which is either empty or

consists of a root and two disjoint binary trees called the left sub-
tree and right sub-tree.

209. Define Forest?

A tree may be defined as a forest in which only a single node
(root) has no predecessors. Any forest consists of a collection of
trees.

210. What Do You Mean By Level Of The Tree?

The root node is always considered at level zero, then its

adjacent children are supposed to be at level 1 and so on.

Here, node A is at level 0, nodes B and C are at level 1 and nodes

D and E are at level 2.

211. Define Depth And Height Of A Tree?

The depth of the tree is the depth of the deepest leaf. The height
of the tree is equal to the height of the root. Always depth of the
tree is equal to height of the tree.

212. Define Depth And Height Of A Node?

For any node ni, the depth of ni is the length of the unique path
from the root to ni. The height of ni is the length of the longest
path from ni to a leaf.

213. Define Parent Node?

The node which is having further sub-branches is called the

parent node of those sub-branches.

Here C is the parent node of D and E.

214. Define Internal Nodes?

The nodes other than the root and the leaves are called internal
nodes.

215. Define Leaves?

These are the terminal nodes of the tree. The nodes with degree
0 are always the leaves.

Here C and B are the leave nodes.

216. Define Degree Of The Node?

The total number of sub-trees attached to that node is called the

degree of the node.

217. Define Root?

This is the unique node in the tree to which further sub-trees are
attached.

218. Define A Tree?

A tree is a collection of nodes. The collection can be empty;

otherwise, a tree consists of a distinguished node r, called the
root, and zero or more nonempty (sub) trees T1, T2,…,Tk, each of
whose roots are connected by a directed edge from r.

219. Why We Need Cursor Implementation Of Linked Lists?

Many languages such as BASIC and FORTRAN do not support

pointers. If linked lists are required and pointers are not
available, then an alternative implementation must be used
known as cursor implementation.

220. List The Applications Of Queues?

Jobs submitted to printer

Real life line
Calls to large companies
Access to limited resources in Universities
Accessing files from file server
221. List The Applications Of Stacks?
Towers of Hanoi
Reversing a string
Balanced parenthesis
Recursion using stack
Evaluation of arithmetic expressions
222. What Are The Types Of Queues?

Linear Queues – The queue has two ends, the front end and the
rear end. The rear end is where we insert elements and front
end is where we delete elements. We can traverse in a linear
queue in only one direction ie) from front to rear.
Circular Queues – Another form of linear queue in which the last
position is connected to the first position of the list. The circular
queue is similar to linear queue has two ends, the front end and
the rear end. The rear end is where we insert elements and front
end is where we delete elements. We can traverse in a circular
queue in only one direction ie) from front to rear.
Double-Ended-Queue – Another form of queue in which
insertions and deletions are made at both the front and rear
ends of the queue.
223. What Are The Objectives Of Studying Data Structures?

To identify and create useful mathematical entities and

operations to determine what classes of problems can be solved
using these entities and operations.
To determine the representation of these abstract entities and to
implement the abstract operations on these concrete
representation.
224. State The Difference Between Persistent And Ephemeral
Data Structure?

Persistent data structures are the data structures which retain

their previous state and modifications can be done by
performing certain operations on it. Eg) Stack Ephemeral data
structures are the data structures which cannot retain its
previous state. Eg) Queues.

225. State The Difference Between Primitive And Non-primitive

Data Types?
Primitive data types are the fundamental data types. Eg) int,
float, double, char Non-primitive data types are user defined
data types. Eg) Structure, Union and enumerated data types.

226. What Are The Advantages Of Modularity?

It is much easier to debug small routines than large routines

It is easier for several people to work on a modular program
simultaneously
A well-written modular program places certain dependencies in
only one routine, making changes easier
227. Define An Abstract Data Type (adt)?

An abstract data type is a set of operations. ADTs are

mathematical abstractions; now here in an ADT’s definition is
there any mention of how the set of operations is implemented.
Objects such as lists, sets and graphs, along with their operations
can be viewed as abstract data types.

228. Define Data Type And What Are The Types Of Data Type?

Data type refers to the kinds of data that variables may hold in
the programming language. Eg) int, float, char, double – C

The following are the types of data type:

Built in data type- int, float, char, double which are defined by
programming language itself
User defined data type- Using the set of built in data types user
can define their own data type
Eg: typedef struct student

{
int roll;
char name;
}S;
S s1;
Where S is a tag for user defined data type which defines the
structure student and s1 is a variable of data type S.
229. Difference Between Abstract Data Type, Data Type And Data
Structure?

An Abstract data type is the specification of the data type which

specifies the logical and mathematical model of the data type.
A data type is the implementation of an abstract data type.
Data structure refers to the collection of computer variables that
are connected in some specific manner.
i.e) Data type has its root in the abstract data type and a data
structure comprises a set of computer variables of same or
different data types.

230. State The Difference Between Queues And Linked Lists?

The difference between queues and linked lists is that insertions

and deletions may occur anywhere in the linked list, but in
queues insertions can be made only in the rear end and
deletions can be made only in the front end.

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