UNIT-IV- ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES -NOTES

Unit.4: Analysis of Structures: Types of beams, loads, support, and problems on beams. Plane trusses:
Method of joints with numerical.
Friction: Types of friction, laws of friction, limiting friction, coefficient of friction concept of static and
dynamic friction, numerical problems on impending motion on horizontal and inclined planes along with
connected bodies.
Support Reactions
Different types of supports connect the various structural parts to their environment. The structural members
apply action forces to the support. Similarly, the support exerts forces on structural members known as
reaction forces.
A beam is a horizontal element that is usually supported. The beam is subjected to vertical forces known as
action. Supports exert reaction forces on the beam.
Types of Supports
The following types of supports are found in practice:
1. Simple supports
2. Roller supports
3. Hinged or pinned supports
4. Fixed supports

Simple supports
Simple supports (Figure-4.1) are those which exert reactions perpendicular to the plane of support. They
restrict translation of the body in one direction only, but do not restrict rotation.

Figure 4.1- Simple supports.

Roller supports
Roller supports (Figure 4.2) have reactions that are perpendicular to the plane of the support. They only
enable translation in one direction, although rotation is permitted.

Figure 4.2- Roller supports.

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Hinged or pinned supports

Hinged supports (Figure 4.3) can exert responses in any direction, but for our purposes, we divide these
reactions into two components. As a result, hinged supports limit translation in both directions. However,
rotation is an option.

Figure 4.3 Hinged or pinned supports.

Fixed supports
Fixed supports (Figure 4.4) are those that limit both body movement and rotation. Fixed supports generate
an internal moment known as the restraint moment to prevent the body from rotating.

Figure 4.4 Fixed supports.

Types of Beams
Simply supported beam
It is a beam built by simple supports (Figure 4.5). A beam of this type can withstand forces normal to its
axis.

Figure 4.5 Simply supported beam.

Continuous beam
It is a beam which consists of three or more supports (Figure 4.6).

Figure 4.6 Continuous beam.

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Cantilever beam
It is a beam whose one end is fixed, and the other end is free (Figure 4.7).

Figure 4.7 Cantilever beam

Propped cantilever beam
It is a beam with one fixed end and one simply supported end (Figure 4.8).

Figure 4.8 Propped cantilever beam

Overhanging beam
It is a beam which extends beyond support(s). In Figure 4.9, it is seen that the beam extends beyond support
B up to C. The overhang portion is BC.

Figure 4.9 Overhanging beam

Types of Loads

Concentrated load

A load which is concentrated at a point in a beam is known as concentrated load (Figure 4.10).

Figure 4.10 Concentrated load

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Uniformly distributed load

A load which is distributed uniformly along the entire length of the beam is known as uniformly distributed
load (such as the load 20 kN per metre (UDL), length shown in Figure 4.11.

Figure 4.11 Uniformly distributed load

To convert the 20 kN/m UDL into a point load which is acting at the centre of a particular span (i.e., 3 m),
we proceed as follows: Magnitude of point load = 20 kN/m * 3 m = 60 kN.

Uniformly varying load

A load which varies with the length of the beam is known as uniformly varying load (Figure 4.12). The
magnitude of the point load corresponding to a uniformly varying load such as that shown in Figure 4.12,
is calculated as follows:

Figure 4.12 Uniformly varying load.

Magnitude of point load = Area of the triangle = 1 /2 *base * height = 1 / 2 * 2 * 2 = 2 kN

The point load acts at the centre of gravity (CG) of the triangle.

PROBLEMS ON EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR NON-CONCURRENT FORCE SYSTEM

Tips to Solve the Problems

1) In a coplanar non-concurrent force system, three conditions of equilibrium can be applied,
namely as follows:
ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0 and ΣM = 0
2) Draw the free body diagram of the given beam by showing all the forces and reactions acting
on the beam.
3) Apply the three conditions of equilibrium to calculate the unknown reactions at the supports.

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Numerical.1: A simply supported beam of length (span) 5 m is loaded as shown in Figure 4.13. Find the
reactions at A and B.

Figure 4.13 numerical.1

Solution:
ΣFy = 0
RA + RB – 6 – 2 – 5 = 0
RA + RB = 13……….(1)
ΣMA = 0
–RB * 5 + 6 * 2 + 2 * 3 + 5 * 4 = 0
5RB = 38 => RB = 7.6 kN
From eqn..(1) RA = 13 – 7.6 = 5.4 kN

Numerical.2: A simply supported beam of span 6 m is subjected to loading as shown in Figure 4.15.
Determine the reactions at A and B.

Figure 4.14 numerical.2

Solution:
Converting the UDL of 3 kN/m over a span of 3 m into a point load, and applying the laws of equilibrium
(Figure 4.15), we get

Figure 4.15

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ΣFy = 0
RA + RB – 5 – 9 – 2 = 0
RA + RB = 16 ……….(1)
ΣMB = 0
–2 * 1.5 – 9 * 3 – 5 * 4.5 + RA * 6 = 0
RA = 52.5 / 6 = 8.75 kN
From eqn..(1) RB = 7.25 kN

Numerical.3: For the beam with loading shown in Figure 4.16, determine the reactions at the supports.

Solution:
tan θ = 1 / 2
θ = tan–1 (1 /2)
θ = 26.56°

ΣFx = 0
RAX + 100 * cos 45° – RD *sin 26.56° = 0
RAX – 0.477 * RD = 70.71……………. (i)
ΣFy = 0
RAY + RD *cos 26.56° – 100 * sin 45° – 150° = 0
RAY + 0.894 * RD = 220.71………………. (ii)
ΣMA = 0
–5*RD *cos 26.56° + 150 *3.5 + 100 sin 45° * 1 = 0
RD = 133.199 kN Ans.
Substituting the value of RD in (i), we get
RAX = –11.15 kN
Substituting the value of RD in (ii), we get
RAY = 101.63 kN
RA = √ RAX 2+ RA y2
√ (-7.174)2 + (101.63)2 = 101.88 kN

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Engineering Structure
The Engineering structures are mainly classified into three types. They are:

(i) Trusses (ii) Frames (iii) Machines

Plane trusses are those structures in which all members are lying in a single plane. Plane trusses are made
of several bars or members connected together at the joints by riveting or welding to form a rigid formwork,
and also support stationary loads or moving loads. Individual members of a truss are a two-force member
subjected to either tension or compression.

Classification of Trusses
The trusses are classified into three types which are depicted in Figure 4.18.

Rigid truss or perfect truss

A rigid truss is one in which the number of members is sufficient to resist the external loads, and in which
deformation is very small. The relationship between the number of members and number of joints is given
by: m = 2j – 3
5 = 2*4 – 3 = 5
Hence, it is rigid truss.

Non-rigid truss or deficient truss

A non-rigid truss is one in which the number of members is less than that required for a perfect truss. The
relationship between the number of members and number of joints is given by:
m < 2j – 3
4 < 2*4 – 3
4<5
Hence, it is non-rigid truss.

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Over rigid truss or redundant truss

An over rigid truss is one in which the number of members is more than that required for a perfect truss.
The relationship between the number of members and number of joints is given by:
m > 2j – 3
6 > 2*4 – 3
6>5

Hence, it is an over rigid truss.

The following are the assumptions made in the analysis of statically determinate trusses:
1) The members of trusses are straight.
2) The cross section of members is uniform.
3) Forces are acting only on joints.
4) All members are pin-jointed members.
5) All members are rigid.
6) All members of trusses are two force members subjected to either equal and opposite tension or
compression.

Analysis of Statically Determinate Trusses

Plane trusses can be analysed by method of joints and method of sections

Method of joints
Analysis of truss mainly consists of calculations of support reactions and determination of internal forces
induced in the internal members of a truss. The method of joints or joint method is a method in which the
equilibrium of individual joints is considered, and this method is useful in finding the forces in all members
of a truss.
The various steps involved in the method of joints are as follows:
1) Check whether the given truss is statically determinate or indeterminate.
2) Calculate the support reactions by considering the equilibrium of entire truss.
3) Now, consider a joint with minimum number of unknowns (maximum of 2 unknowns, because
only two conditions of equilibrium are available namely ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0).
4) Initially assume that all members under consideration are in tension (arrowhead away from the
joint is positive).
5) Apply the conditions of equilibrium and by solving the equilibrium, determine the unknown
forces in the members.

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6) If the result works out to be positive then our assumption is right, if it is negative then our
assumption is wrong and it indicates that particular member is under compression, so that reverse the
direction of force while considering it in the next joint.
7) Same procedure has to be followed for other joints to determine the internal forces in the
remaining members of a truss.
8) Note down the results in a tabular format in the table given below:

Numerical.1: Analyse the truss shown in Figure 4.17 by the method of joints. Tabulate the result and
indicate the nature of force in the truss.

ΣFx = 0
 RAx = 0
ΣFy = 0
 RAy + RD – 20 – 10 = 0
 RAy + RD = 30 kN
ΣMA = 0
 – RD * 9 + 10 * 6 + 20 * 3 = 0
RD * 9 = 120
or RD = 13.333 kN
Therefore RAy = 30 – 13.333 = 16.667 kN

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Consider a joint A with minimum number of unknowns [i.e., 2]

∟BAE = tan–1 (3/ 3) = 450

Applying conditions of equilibrium, we get
ΣFy = 0
i.e., 16.667 + FAB sin 45° = 0
FAB = –23.570 kN (C)
i.e., member AB is under compression
ΣFx = 0.
FAE + FAB cos 45° = 0
FAE = 16.667 kN (T)

Therefore, our assumption is right.

Consider joint E

Applying conditions of equilibrium

ΣFx = 0
FEF = 16.667 kN (T)
ΣFy = 0
 FBE = 0

Consider joint B
ΣFx = 0
23.57 cos 45° + FBC + FBF cos 45° = 0
ΣFy = 0
23.57 sin 45° – FBF sin 45° – 20 = 0
FBF = – 4.714 kN (C)
 FBC = –13.333 kN(C)

Consider joint C
ΣFx = 0
FCD cos 45° + 13.333 = 0
FCD = –18.856 kN (C)
ΣFy = 0
– 10 – FCF – FCD sin 45° = 0
FCF = 3.333 kN (T)
Consider joint F
ΣFx = 0
FFD – 16.667 + 4.714 cos 45° = 0
FFD = 13.333 kN (T)

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Frictional Force
Frictional force can be defined as a force that opposes motion when the surface of a body comes into contact
with that of another body. The object can either be stationary or in motion relative to the surface. Friction
occurs where the object is in contact with the surface.

Limiting Friction
The resisting friction F which opposes the sliding motion of one body over another, has a limiting value
and if the applied force exceeds this value, the body begins to move. This limiting value of the force is
called the limiting friction.

Coefficient of Friction (µ)

It is the constant ratio which the limiting friction F bears to the normal reaction N, i.e., as shown in Figure
4.18, where a body of weight W is in equilibrium under the applied force P and the frictional force F,

µ = F / N , µ = 0 ( smooth surfaces)

Figure 4.18 Coefficient of friction (µ).

Types of Friction
Depending on the state of rest or motion, we can categorize friction into:
(i) Static friction and (ii) Dynamic friction - a) Sliding friction
b) Rolling friction
(i) Static friction: It is the friction experienced between two bodies when both bodies are at rest.
(ii) Dynamic friction: It is the friction experienced between two bodies when one body moves over the
other body. It is of two types:

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(a) Sliding friction: It is the resisting force which opposes the sliding motion of one body over another body,
This force acts in a direction opposite to the direction of impending motion.
(b) Rolling friction: It is the friction between the two bodies when one body rolls over the other body.
Based on the surface of contact, there are two types of friction, namely:
(i) Dry friction: If the contact surfaces between the two bodies are dry, then the friction between such bodies
is known as dry friction.
(ii) Fluid friction: The friction between two fluid layers or the friction between a solid and a fluid is known
as fluid friction.
Angle of Friction (Ø )
Let us again consider a body of weight W which is placed over a rough surface and is subjected to an
external force P as shown in Figure 4.18. The following forces are acting on the body:
(i) Self-weight, W
(ii) External force, P
(iii) Frictional force, F
(iv) Normal reaction, N

The angle of friction for two contacting surfaces is the angle between
the resultant R (of friction force F and the normal reaction N) and the
normal reaction N. It is denoted by Ø .

In triangle ABD, tan Ø = AD / AB

= F/ N = µ

Angle of Repose (θ)

When a plane is inclined to the horizontal by a certain angle, the body placed on it will remain at rest up to
a certain angle of inclination, beyond which the body just begins to move. This maximum angle made by
the inclined plane with the horizontal, when the body placed on that plane is just at the point of
sliding down the plane, is known as the angle of repose. Repose means sleep which is disturbed at that
particular angle of inclination.

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Laws of Friction

The laws of static friction are:

(i) The force of friction always acts in a direction opposite to that in which the body tends to move.
(ii) The magnitude of the force of friction is exactly equal to the applied force which just moves the body.
(iii) The magnitude of the limiting friction bears a constant ratio to the normal reaction between the two
surfaces in contact, i.e., F / N = constant
where F is the limiting friction and N is the normal reaction.
(iv) The force of friction is independent of the area of contact between the two surfaces.
(v) The force of friction depends upon the roughness of the surfaces in contact.

The laws of dynamic friction are:

(i) The force of friction always acts in a direction opposite to that in which the body is moving.
(ii) The magnitude of the kinetic friction bears a constant ratio to the normal reaction between the two
surfaces in contact. But this ratio is slightly less than that in the case of limiting friction.
(iii) The friction force remains constant for moderate speeds but decreases slightly with the increase in
speed.

Tips to Solve the Problems

(i) Draw a free body diagram.
(ii) Draw the reference axes. We have to choose the reference axes in such a way that one of the axis must
be along the direction of motion.
The following forces should be considered while drawing the free body diagram.
(i) Self-weight always acts vertically downwards.
(ii) External or internal forces.
(iii) In a rough surface (with a non-zero coefficient of friction), two forces must be present.
(a) Frictional force (tangential force) which is always opposite to the direction of motion at the contact
surface and is parallel to the contact surface.
(b) Normal reaction, which is always perpendicular to the contact surface.
(iv) Write the algebraic sum of the forces along the x-axis, i.e., ΣFx = 0
(v) Write the algebraic sum of the forces along the y-axis, i.e., ΣFy = 0
(vi) Write the limiting friction equation, i.e., µ = F/N.
(vii) Solve for the three unknowns from the three equations.

Numerical: A block shown in Figure 4.19 is just moved by a force of 200 N. The weight of the block is
600 N. Determine the coefficient of static friction between the block and the floor.

Figure 4.19

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Solution: Considering the conditions of equilibrium,

ΣFx = 0
or 200 cos 20° – µ *N = 0
or µ *N = 187.938………… (i)
ΣFy = 0
or N – 600 + 200 sin 20° = 0
or N = 531.596 N……………. (ii)
Substituting the value of N in Eq. (i), we get
µ = 0.35

Numerical : A block weighing 1500 N rests on a plane inclined at 20° to the horizontal (Figure 8.13). If µ
= 0.3, find the force required to push the block up the plane when the line of action of force makes an angle
of 30° with the plane.

Figure 4.20
Solution:

Figure 4.21
Consider the free body diagram (Figure 4.21),
ΣFy = 0
Or –P sin 30° – 1500 cos 20° + N = 0
or N = P sin 30° + 1500 cos 20°
= 0.5P + 1409.539
Also, ΣFx = 0
or P cos 30° – 1500 sin 20° – 0.3(0.5P + 1409.539) = 0
or 0.866P – 513.03 – 0.15P – 422.861 = 0
or 0.716P = 935.891
or P = 1307.110 N

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