Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr.

HBN

Vector Spaces and Linear transformations: Vector space, subspaces, linear combination
and linear span of set, Linear dependence and independence, Basis and Dimensions, Gram-
Schmidt orthogonalisation. Linear transformations.

Vector Space:

Definition:

Let F be a field, V be non empty set, then the set V is said to be vector space over a field F if
the following axioms are satisfied for every , ,   V and for every a, b  F

1. V is an abelian group under addition

(a) Closure Law:

 ,   V   +   V

(b) Commutative Law:

 +  =  + ,  ,   V

(c) Associative Law:

( + ) +  =  + ( + ),  , ,   V

(d) Identity Law:

There exists an unique element 0  V, such that  + 0 = 0 +  = ,    V

(e) Inverse Law:

For every vector   V there exists an unique vector -  V,

such that  + (-) = 0 = (-) +  = ,

2. V is closed with respect to scalar multiplication i.e.  a  F,   V  a  V.

(a) a( + ) = a + a  a  F and ,   V

(b) (a + b) = a + b  a, b  F and   V

(c) (ab) = a(b)  a, b  F and   V

(d) 1. = ,   V, where 1 is the unit element of F

Note:

1. Instead of saying V is a vector space over the field F we shall say that V(F) is a vector
space.

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

2. The elements of vector space V are called vectors.

3. The elements of the field F are called scalars.

4. The identity element of the group V under addition is denoted by 0 and is called zero
vector or null vector which is unique.

5. The null vector o should not be confused with the scalar 0, later we shall see these two are
connected by a relation.

6. When F=R the field of real numbers, then V(R) is called real vector space.

7. When F=C the field of Complex numbers, then V(C) is called Complex vector space.

8. The space {0} is called zero space or null space. It is easy to verify that all the conditions
of vector spaces are satisfied in case of zero space.

9. Last four axioms are satisfied in V means these are also satisfied in sub set of V.

Example: (Jan 2008)

Show that the set of all 22 matrices with real elements is a vector space over the field of real
numbers.

Solution:

Let V be the set of all 22 matrices and F be a field.

Let A = [aij]22, B = [bij]22, C = [cij]22  V, where aij, bij, cij  F.

Under addition:

1. Closure

 A, B  V, A + B  V

A + B = [aij]22 + [bij]22 = [aij + bij]22  V.

2. Associability (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)

(A + B) + C = ([aij]22 + [bij]22) + [cij]22

= [(aij + bij)]22 + [cij]22

= [(aij + bij) + cij]22

= [aij + (bij + cij)]22 | Associability under addition in F

= [aij]22 + [bij + cij]22

= [aij]22 +( [bij]22 + cij]22 )

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

= A + (B + C)

3 Existence of Identity: A + 0 = A = 0 + A  A  V, 0  V.

A + 0 = [aij]22 + [0]22 = [aij + 0]22 = [aij]22 = 0

Similarly 0 + A = A

Thus A + 0 = A = 0 + A

Here 0 = [0]22 is the identity.

4 Existence of Inverse:  A  V,  - A V such that A + (-A) = 0 = (- A) + A

A + (- A) = [aij]22 + [- aij]22 = [aij + (- aij)]22 = [0]22 = 0

Similarly (- A) + A = 0

Thus A + (-A) = 0 = (- A) + A

Here – A is the inverse of A.

5 Commutatively: A + B = B + A  A, B  V

A + B = [aij]22 + [bij]22 = [aij + bij]22 = [bij + aij]22 |Commutativity under addition in F

= [bij]22 + [aij]22 = B + A

Under Scalar Multiplication:

6.    F,  A  V.

A = [aij]22 = [aij]22  V

7. ( + ) A = A + A,  ,   F,  A  V

( + ) A = ( + )[aij]22 = [( + )aij]22 = [aij + aij]22 = [aij]22 + [aij]22

= [aij]22 + [aij]22 = A + A

8. (A + B) = A + B,    F,  A, B  V

(A + B) = ([aij]22 + [bij]22) = [aij + bij]22 = [(aij + bij)]22 = [aij + bij]22

= [aij]22 + [bij]22 =[aij]22 + [bij]22 = A + B

9. ()A = (A)  ,   F,  A  V

()A = ()[aij]22 = [()aij]22 =  [aij]22 =  ( [aij]22) = (A)

10. 1.A = A,  A  V,  1 F

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

1. A = 1.[aij]22 = [1.aij]22 = [aij]22 = A

Hence V is a vector space.

Example:

Show that the polynomials of degree at most 3 with real coefficients is a vector space over
the field of real numbers.

Solution:

Let V be the set of all polynomials of degree at most 3 with real coefficients and F be a field.
3
Let p(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3 = a x
n0
n
n

3
q(x) = b0 + b1x + b2x2 + b3x3 = b x
n 0
n
n

3
r(x) = c0 + c1x + c2x2 + c3x3 = c x
n 0
n
n

Under addition:

1. Closure:

 p(x), q(x)  V
3
 p(x) + q(x) =  (a
n 0
n  bn ) x n  V

(Since if an, bn  F  an + bn  F as field is closed for addition)

2. Associativity:  p(x), q(x), r(x)  V we have (p(x) + q(x)) + r(x) = p(x) + (q(x) + r(x))

 3 3
 3  3  3
(p(x) + q(x)) + r(x) =   an x n   bn x n    cn x n =   (an  bn ) x n    cn x n
 n 0 n0  n0  n0  n 0
3 3
=  (an  bn )  cn  x n =  an  (bn  cn ) x n
n 0 n 0

[Since if an, bn , cn  F  (an + bn) + cn = an + (bn + cn)]

3
 3 3

= 
n 0
an x n
  n
 n0
b x n
 
n 0
cn x n  = p(x) + (q(x) + r(x))


3 Existence of Identity:  p(x)  V,  0(x)  V such that p(x) + 0(x) = 0(x) + p(x) = p(x)

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

3
Here 0(x) =  0x
n 0
n
V

3 3 3 3
Now p(x) + 0(x) =  an x n   0 x n =
n0 n 0
 (an  0) x n =
n0
a x
n0
n
n
= p(x)

Similarly 0(x) + p(x) = p(x)

Therefore p(x) + 0(x) = p(x) = 0(x) + p(x)

Thus 0(x) is the additive identity of V.

4. Existence of Inverse:
3 3
 p(x) =  an xn  V,  - p(x) =
n0
 ( a
n0
n )xn  V

Such that p(x) + (-p(x)) = 0(x) = (-p(x)) + p(x)

3 3 3 3
p(x) + (-p(x)) =  an xn +
n0
 (  an ) x n =
n0
 (an  (an )) x n =
n0
 0x
n 0
n
= 0(x)

(-an is the additive inverse in F)

Similarly (-p(x)) + p(x) = 0(x)

Therefore p(x) + (-p(x)) = 0(x) = (-p(x)) + p(x)

Thus additive inverse of each element in V exists.

5 Commutativity: p(x) + q(x) = q(x) + p(x)  p(x), q(x)  V

3 3 3 3
p(x) + q(x) =  an xn +
n0
 bn x n =
n 0
 (an  bn ) x n =
n 0
 (b
n 0
n  an ) x n

(Since elements of F are commutative for addition)

3 3
=  bn x n +
n 0
a x
n0
n
n
= q(x) + p(x)

Thus elements of V are commutative for addition.

Under Scalar Multiplication:

6.    F, and  p(x)  V
3 3
p(x) =   an xn =
n0
 ( a
n0
n )xn  V

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

(Since   F, an F   an F because F is closed for multiplication)

7. (p(x) + q(x)) = p(x) + q(x),  ,   F, and  p(x), q(x)  V

3 3 3 3
(p(x) + q(x)) = (  an x n +  bn x n ) =   (an  bn ) x n =   (a n  bn ) x n
n0 n 0 n 0 n 0

3
=  ( a
n0
n   bn ) x n (Since elements of F satisfy distributive law)

3 3 3 3
=  ( an ) x n   ( bn ) x n =   an x n     bn x n = p(x) + q(x)
n0 n0 n0 n0

8. ( + )p(x) = p(x) + p(x)  ,   F, and  p(x)  V

3 3 3
( + )p(x) = ( + )  an x n =  (   )an x n =  ( an   an ) x n
n0 n0 n0

(Since elements in F satisfy distributive law)

3 3 3 3
=   an x n +   an x n =   an xn +   an xn = p(x) + p(x)
n 0 0 1 n0 0 1

9. (.)p(x) = (p(x))  ,   F, and  p(x)  V

3 3 3
 3 
(.)p(x) = (.)  an x n =  (( ) an ) x n =   (  an ) x n =     an x n  =(p(x))
n0 n 0 n 0  n 0 

10. 1. p(x) = p(x)  p(x)  V, 1 F

3 3 3
1. p(x) = 1.  an xn =
n0
 (1.an ) x n =  an xn = p(x) | Since 1 is the multiplicative identity of F
n0 n0

Hence V is a vector space.

Example:

If F is a field verify that F* - n tuple space is a vector space over the field F.

Solution:

Let x = (x1, x2, x3, ….. xn), y = (y1, y2, y3, ….. yn), z = (z1, z2, z3, ….. zn)  F* and xi’s, yi’s,
zi’s, a, b  F

Under Addition:

1. Closure: x + y  F*  x, y  F*

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

x + y = (x1, x2, x3, ….. xn) + (y1, y2, y3, ….. yn) = (x1 + y1, x2 + y2, x3+y3, ….. xn+yn)  F*

(Since xi’s, yi’s  F then xi + yi  F)

Therefore x + y  F*  x, y  F*

2. Associativity: (x + y) + z = x + (y + z)  x, y, z  F*

(x + y) + z = ((x1, x2, x3, ….. xn) + (y1, y2, y3, ….. yn)) + (z1, z2, z3, ….. zn)

= (x1 + y1, x2 + y2, x3 + y3, ….. xn + yn) + (z1, z2, z3, ….. zn)

= (x1 + y1 + z1, x2 + y2 + z2, x3 + y3 + z3, ….. xn + yn + zn)

= (x1, x2, x3, ….. xn) + (y1 + z1, y2 + z2, y3 + z3, ……. , yn + zn)

= (x1, x2, x3, ….. xn) + ((y1, y2, y3, ….. yn) + (z1, z2, z3, ….. zn)) = x + (y + z)

Therefore (x + y) + z = x + (y + z)  x, y, z  F*

3. Existence of Identity: x + 0 = x = 0 + x  x  F* and 0  F*

x + 0 = (x1, x2, x3, ….. xn) + (0,0,0, …. ,0) = (x1 + 0, x2 + 0, x3 + 0, ….. xn + 0)

= (x1, x2, x3, ….. xn) = x

Similarly 0 + x = x

Therefore x + 0 = x = 0 + x  x  F* and 0  F*

Here (0,0,0, ….. ,0) is the zero element of F*

4. Existence of Inverse: x + (- x) = 0 = (- x) + x,  x  F*,  (- x)  F*

x + (- x) = (x1, x2, x3, ….. xn) + (-x1, -x2, -x3, ….. -xn)

= (x1 – x1, x2 – x2, x3 – x3, ….. xn – xn) = (0,0,0, ….. ,0)

Similarly (-x) + x = 0

Therefore x + (- x) = 0 = (- x) + x,  x  F*,  (- x)  F*

5. Commutativity: x + y = y + x,  x, y  F*

x + y = (x1, x2, x3, ….. xn) + (y1, y2, y3, ….. yn) = (x1 + y1, x2 + y2, x3+y3, ….. xn+yn)

= (y1 + x1, y2 + x2, y3 + x3, ….. yn + xn) = (y1, y2, y3, ….. yn) + (x1, x2, x3, ….. xn) = y + x

(Commutativity in F)

Therefore x + y = y + x,  x, y  F*

Under Scalar Multiplication:

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

6. ax  F*,  a  F and  x  F*

ax = a(x1, x2, x3, ….. xn) = (ax1, ax2, ax3, ….. axn)  F*

 ax  F*

7. a(x + y) = ax + ay  a  F and  x, y  F*

a(x + y) = a((x1, x2, x3, ….. xn) + (y1, y2, y3, ….. yn)) = a(x1 + y1, x2 + y2, x3+y3, ….. xn+yn)

= (a(x1 + y1), a(x2 + y2), a(x3+y3), ….. a(xn+yn))

= (ax1 + ay1, ax2 + ay2, ax3 + ay3, ….. axn + ayn)

= (ax1, ax2, ax3, ….. axn) + (ay1, ay2, ay3, ….. ayn)

= a(x1, x2, x3, ….. xn) + a(y1, y2, y3, ….. yn) = ax + ay

Therefore a(x + y) = ax + ay  a  F and  x, y  F*

8. (a + b)x = ax + bx  a, b  F and  x  F*

(a + b)x = (a + b)(x1, x2, x3, ….. xn) = ((a + b)x1, (a + b)x2, (a + b)x3, ….. (a + b)xn)

= (a x1 + b x1, ax2 + bx2, ax3 + bx3, ….. axn + bxn)

= (ax1, ax2, ax3, ….. axn) + (bx1, bx2, bx3, ….. bxn) = ax + bx

Therefore (a + b)x = ax + bx  a, b  F and  x  F*

9. (ab)x = a(bx),  a, b  F and  x  F*

(ab)(x1, x2, x3, ….. xn) = ((ab)x1, (ab)x2, (ab)x3, ….. (ab)xn)

= (a(bx1), a(bx2), a(bx3), ….. a(bxn)) = a((bx1), (bx2), (bx3), ….. (bxn))

= a(b(x1, x2, x3, ….. xn)) = a(bx)

Therefore (ab)x = a(bx),  a, b  F and  x  F*

10. 1.x = x  x  F* and 1  F

1.x = 1. (x1, x2, x3, ….. xn) = (1.x1, 1.x2, 1.x3, ….. 1.xn) = (x1, x2, x3, ….. xn) = x

Therefore 1.x = x  x  F* and 1  F

Hence F* is a vector space.

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

Sub Spaces:

Definition:

A non empty sub set W of a vector space V over a field F is called a sub space of V. If W is
itself a vector space over F under the same operations of addition and scalar multiplication as
defined in V.

Note: Two special examples of sub spaces of any vector space V over F are

(i) Zero space, i.e. the set {0}.

(ii) The whole vector space V.

These two sub spaces are called Trivial or improper sub spaces of V. Any sub space of
different from {0} and V is called a proper sub space of V.

Theorem:

A non empty sub set W of a vector space V over a field F is a subspace of V if and only if

(i)  ,   W   +   W

(ii) c  F,   W  c  W (or)

A non empty subspace W of a vector space V is a subspace of V if and only if W is closed

under vector addition and scalar multiplication.

Proof:

Suppose W is a subspace of V. Then W is a vector space over F under the operation of

addition and scalar multiplication as defined in V.

Hence the conditions (i) and (ii) hold good.

Conversely,

Suppose W satisfies (i) and (ii) we shall show that W is a subspace of V.

The condition (i)  ,   W   +   W

 + is a binary operation on W.

Therefore W  

And by (ii) c  F,   W  c  W

In particular if c = 0  F,   W  0. = 0 W

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

if c = -1  F,   W  (-1) = - W,    W

Further as + is both commutative and associative in V so in W.

Thus (W, +) is an abelian group.

The other axioms of the vector space hold in W as they hold in the whole space V.

Hence W is a vector space over F and therefore a subspace of V.

Theorem:

A non empty sub set W is a subspace of a vector space V over F

if and only if a + b  W  ,   W, a, b  F .

Proof:

Let W be a subspace of V

Let a, b  F and ,   W by above theorem a, b  W and hence a + b  W.

Conversely

Let a + b  W, ,   W, a, b  F

Let a = 1 and b = 1, then 1. + 1. =  +   W  ,   W

Thus W is closed under vector addition

Now take  = 0 then a + b.0 = a  W,   W, a  F

Thus W is closed under scalar multiplication

Hence W is subspace of V.

Theorem:

The intersection of any two subspaces of a vector space V over a field F is also a subspace
of V.

Proof:

Let S and T be any two subspaces of the vector space V over the field F.

Now ST= { / S and T}

Since S and T are subspaces 0  S and 0  T

Therefore 0  ST and hence ST  

We shall show that for every ,   ST,

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

a + b  ST  a, b  F

,   ST ,   S and ,   T

 a + b  S and a + b  T  a, b  F

 a + b  ST

Hence ST is a subspace of V.

Note:

1. The result of the above theorem can be extended to any number of subspaces.
n
i.e. if S1, S2, S3, ……. Sn are n subspaces of V then S
i 1
i is also a subspace of V.

2. The union of two subspaces of a vector space V need not be a subspace of V.

Example (1):

Let V = R3, the vector space of all ordered triples of real numbers over the field of real
numbers. Show that the sub set W = {(x, 0, 0) / xR} is a subspace of R3.

Solution:

Let 1 = (x1, 0, 0), 2 = (x2, 0, 0) be any two elements of W.

Then 1 + 2 = (x1, 0, 0) + (x2, 0, 0)

= (x1 + x2, 0, 0)  W

Therefore W is closed under addition

Again for any scalar aR=F

a1 = a(x1, 0, 0)= (ax1, 0, 0) W

Therefore W is closed under scalar multiplication

Hence W is a subspace of R3

Example (2):

Prove that the set W = {(x, y, z) / x-3y+4z=0} of vector space V3(R) is a subspace of V3(R).

Solution:

Let 1 = (x1, y1, z1), 2 = (x2, y2, z2) be any two elements of W.

Such that x1-3y1+4z1 = 0 and x2-3y2+4z2 = 0

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

Then 1 + 2 = (x1, y1, z1) + (x2, y2, z2) = (x1 + x2, y1+ y2, z1+ z2)

(x1 + x2) - 3(y1+ y2) + 4(z1+ z2) = (x1-3y1+4z1) + ( x2-3y2+4z2) = 0 + 0 = 0

 1 + 2  W

Therefore W is closed under addition

Again for any scalar aR

a1 = a(x1, y1, z1)= (ax1, ay1, az1)

ax1-3ay1+4az1 = a(x1-3y1+4z1) = a.0 = 0

 a1 W

Therefore W is closed under scalar multiplication

Hence W is a subspace of V3(R)

Example (3):

Which of the following set of a real function f(x) defined on 0  x  1 or [0, 1] are the
subspace of vector space of all such functions over the field of real number F(R).

(a) all polynomials of degree 3.

  (b) all polynomials of degree  5.

(a) all polynomials such that 2f(0) = f(1).

Example (4):

Which of the following sets of vectors  = (a1, a2, a3 ………. an) in Rn are subspaces of Rn
(n3).

(a) all  such that a10.

(b) all  such that a1 + 3 a2 = a3

(c) all  such that a2 = a12

(d) all  such that a2 . a1 =0

(e) all  such that a2 is rational.

Solution:

(a) Let W = { :  Rn and a10}

Let  = (a1, a2, a3 ………. an),  = (b1, b2, b3 ………. bn)  W, where a1, b1  0.

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

Now for c, d  R, we have

c + d = c(a1, a2, a3 ………. an) + d(b1, b2, b3 ………. bn)

= (ca1+ db1, ca2+ db2, ca3+ db3 ………. can+ dbn)  W

Then for c, d  R, we have c + d  W

Because if a1 = 3, b1 = 4 and c = -1, d = -2.

Then c a1 + d b1 = -3 – 8 = -11  0.

Hence W is not a subspace of Rn.

(b) Let W = { :  Rn and a1 + 3 a2 = a3 }

Let  = (a1, a2, a3 ………. an),  = (b1, b2, b3 ………. bn)  W,

where a1 + 3 a2 = a3 and b1 + 3 b2 = b3.

Now for c, d  R, we have

c + d = c(a1, a2, a3 ………. an) + d(b1, b2, b3 ………. bn)

= (ca1+ db1, ca2+ db2, ca3+ db3 ………. can+ dbn)

We have c a1 + d b1 + 3 (c a2 + d b2) = c (a1 + 3 a2) + d(b1 + 3 b2) = ca3 + db3

Thus c + d  W

Hence W is a subspace of Rn.

(c) Let W = { :  Rn and a2 = a12}

Let  = (a1, a2, a3 ………. an),  = (b1, b2, b3 ………. bn)  W, where a2 = a12and b2 = b12.

Now for c, d  R, we have

c + d = c(a1, a2, a3 ………. an) + d(b1, b2, b3 ………. bn)

= (ca1+ db1, ca2+ db2, ca3+ db3 ………. can+ dbn)

We have (c a1 + d b1)2  c a2 + d b2

(Since if a2 = 9, a1 = 3, b2 = 16, b1 = 4, c = 3, d = 4, we have (c a1 + d b1)2 = (9 + 16)2 = 625

while c a2 + d b2 = 48 + 65 = 113)

Thus c + d  W.

Hence W is not a subspace of Rn.

(d) Let W = { :  Rn and a2 . a1 = 0}

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

Let  = (a1, a2, a3 ………. an),  = (b1, b2, b3 ………. bn)  W, where a2.a1 = 0 and b2 .b1 = 0.

Now for c, d  R, we have

c + d = c(a1, a2, a3 ………. an) + d(b1, b2, b3 ………. bn)

= (ca1+ db1, ca2+ db2, ca3+ db3 ………. can+ dbn),

we have (ca1+ db1) (ca2+ db2)  0 for a2.a1 = 0, b2 .b1 = 0

Thus c + d  W.

Hence W is not a subspace of Rn.

(e) ) Let W = { :  Rn and a2 is rational}

Let  = (a1, a2, a3 ………. an),  = (b1, b2, b3 ………. bn)  W, where a2, b2 are rationals.

Now for c, d  R, we have

c + d = c(a1, a2, a3 ………. an) + d(b1, b2, b3 ………. bn)

= (ca1+ db1, ca2+ db2, ca3+ db3 ………. can+ dbn),

Hence (ca2+ db2) is not always rational.

(Since when a2 = 4, b2 = 5, c = 5 , d = 7, we have ca2+ db2 = 4 5 + 35, which is not

rational)

Thus c + d  W.

Hence W is not a subspace of Rn.

Example (5):

Let V be the (real) vector space of all functions f from R in to R. Which of the following sets
of functions are subspaces of V

(a) all f such that f(x2) = [f(x)]2

(b) all f such that f(0) = f(1)

(c) all f such that f(3) = 1 + f(-5)

(d) all f such that f(-1) = 0

(e) all f which are continuous.

Solution:

(a) Let W = {f : f  V and f(x2) = [f(x)]2}.

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

Let f, g  W. Then f(x2) = [f(x)]2and g(x2) = [g(x)]2.

Now for ,   R, we have

(f + g)(x2) = (f) (x2)+ (g)(x2)

= f(x2)+ g(x2)

and (f + g)(x2) = [f(x)+ g(x)]2 = 2[f(x)]2+ 2[g(x)]2 + 2 f(x)g(x)

Thus (f + g)(x2)  [f(x)+ g(x)]2

 (f + g)  W.

Hence W is not a sub-space of V

(b) Let W = {f : f  V and f(0) = f(1)}.

Let f, g  W. Then f(0) = f(1) and g(0) = g(1) (1)

Now for ,   R, we have

(f + g)(0) = f(0)+ g(0)

= f(1)+ g(1) Using (1)

 (f + g)  W.

Hence W is a subspace of V.

(c) Let W = {f : f  V and f(3) = 1 + f(-5)}.

Let f, g  W. Then f(3) = 1 + f(-5) and g(3) = 1 + g(-5) (1)

Now for ,   R, we have

(f + g)(3) = f(3)+ g(3) = {(1 + f(-5)}+ {(1 + g(-5)} Using (1)

= ( + ) + (f+  g)(-5)  1 + (f+  g)(-5)

Thus (f + g)  W.

Hence W is not a subspace of V.

(d) Let W = {f : f  V and f(-1) = 0}.

Let f, g  W. Then f(-1) = 0 and g(-1) = 0 (1)

Now for ,   R, we have

(f + g)(-1) = f(-1)+ g(-1) = .0 + .0 = 0 Using (1)

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

 (f + g)  W.

Hence W is a subspace of V.

(e) Let W = {f : f  V and f is continuous}.

Let f, g  W. Then f, g are continuous.

Now for ,   R, we have

(f + g) is also continuous | since f, g are continuous

 (f + g)  W.

Hence W is a subspace of V.

Theorem:

If w1 and w2 are subspaces of the vector space V(F) then w1 + w2 is a subspace of V(F) and
w1 + w2 = [w1  w2]. Prove the above statement.

{If U and W are subspaces of the vector space V then U + W is a subspace of V and U + W =
[U  W]. Prove the above statement.}

Proof:

Let ,   w1 + w2 be any two arbitrary elements, then  = 1 + 2 and  = 1 + 2

where 1, 1 w1 and 2, 2 w2.

Now if a, b  F then

a + b = a(1 + 2) + b(1 + 2)

= (a1 + a2) + (b1 + b2)

= (a1 + b1) + (a2 + b2) (1)

Since w1 and w2 are subspaces of V

Therefore a, b  F and 1, 1 w1  a1 + b1  w1 (2)

a, b  F and 2, 2 w2  a2 + b2  w2 (3)

Using (2) and (3) it follows from (1) that a + b  w1 + w2

Therefore a, b  F and ,   w1 + w2  a + b  w1 + w2

Hence w1 + w2 is a subspace of V(F).

Linear combination and linear span of a set

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

Linear combination:

Definition: Let V be a vector space over a field F and 1, 2, 3, 4 ………. n be any n
vectors of V, then the vector of the form

C11 + C22 + C3 3 + C44 +………. + Cnn

where C1, C2, C3, C4…………………. Cn  F is called a linear combination of the vectors 1,
2, 3, 4 ………. n.

Example:

Consider the vectors 1 = (-1, 3, -1), 2 = (-1, 2, 3) and 3 = (1, 0, 1) of the vector space R3,
then the vector

 = 21 - 2 - 33 for C1 = 2, C2 = -1, C3 = -3

=2(-1, 3, -1) - (-1, 2, 3) -3(1, 0, 1)

= (-2, 6, -2) - (-1, 2, 3) -(3, 0, 3)

= (-2 +1 -3, 6 -2 -0, -2- 3- 3)

= ( -4, 4, -8)

is a linear combination of the vectors 1, 2 and 3 by choosing different set of scalars
different linear combinations of 1, 2 and 3 can be formed.

Linear span of a set:

Definition:

Let S be a non empty sub set of a vector space V(F). The set of all linear combinations of
finite number of elements of S is called the linear span of S and is denoted by L[S].

i.e. L[S] = { C11 + C22 + C3 3 + C44 +………. + Cnn / Ci  F, i  S, i = 1, 2, 3,

……n}

If   L[S], then  is of the form  = C11 + C22 + C3 3 + C44 +………. + Cnn for
scalars C1, C2, C3, C4…………………. Cn  F

Theorem:

Let S be a non empty subset of a vector space V(F)

Then (1) L[S] is a non empty sub space of V.

(2) L[S] is the smallest sub space of V containing S.

Proof:

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

(1) S being a non empty set    S

Further 1.  =  L[S]. Thus L[S]  .

Let ,   L[S]

Then  = C11 + C22 + C3 3 + C44 +………. + Cnn

 = C11 + C22 + C33 + C44 +………. + Cnn

where 1, 2, 3, 4 ………. n  S and Ci and Ciare scalars.

Consider

 +  = (C11 + C22 + C3 3 + C44 +………. + Cnn)

+ (C11 + C22 + C33 + C44 +………. + Cnn)

= (C1 + C1) 1 + (C2 + C2) 2 + (C3 + C3) 3 + ………. + (Cn + Cn) n

This is again a linear combination of the elements of S. Thus  +   L[S]

Let C be any scalar

Consider C.  = C.(C11 + C22 + C3 3 + C44 +………. + Cnn)

= (CC1)1 + (CC2)2 + (CC3) 3 + (CC4)4 +………. + (CCn)n

This is also linear combination of the elements of S. Thus C.  L[S]

Hence L[S] is a subspace of V(F).

(2) Let W be any subspace of V such that S  W

We shall show that L[S]  W

Let   L[S]

Therefore  = C11 + C22 + C3 3 + C44 +………. + Cnn

For scalars Ci and i  S

By data S  W, 1, 2, 3, 4 ………. n  W

Since W is a subspace of V, C11 + C22 + C3 3 + C44 +………. + Cnn  W

i.e.   W

Hence L[S]  W and therefore L[S] is the smallest subspace of V containing S.

Example:

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

Express the vector (3, 5, 2) as a linear combination of the vectors (1, 1, 0), (2, 3, 0), (0, 0, 1)
of V3(R).

Solution:

(3, 5, 2) = C1(1, 1, 0) + C2(2, 3, 0) + C3(0, 0, 1)

= (C1, C1, 0) + (2C2, 3C2, 0) + (0, 0, C3)

(3, 5, 2) = (C1 + 2C2, C1 + 3C2, C3)

 C1 + 2C2 = 3

C1 + 3C2 = 5

C3 = 2

 C1 = -1, C2 = 2, C3 = 2.

(3, 5, 2) = -1(1, 1, 0) + 2(2, 3, 0) + 2(0, 0, 1)

Example:

Let S = {(1, -3, 2), (2, 4, 1), (1, 1, 1)} be a subset of V3(R). Show that the vector (3, -7, 6) is
in L[S].

Solution:

If (3, -7, 6)  L[S] then (3, -7, 6) = c1(1, -3, 2) + c2(2, 4, 1) + c3(1, 1, 1)

= (c1, -3c1, 2c1) + (2c2, 4c2, c2) + (c3, c3, c3)

= (c1+2c2+ c3, -3c1+4c2+ c3, 2c1+ c2+ c3)

 c1+2c2+ c3=3

-3c1+4c2+ c3=-7

2c1+ c2+ c3=6

Augmented matrix is

1 2 1 : 3
 3 4 1 : 7 
 
 2 1 1 : 6 

R2 = R2+3R1, R3 = R3-2R1

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

1 2 1 : 3 
0 10 4 : 2 
 
0 3 1 : 0 

R3 = 10R3+3R2

1 2 1 : 3 
0 10 4 : 2 
 
0 0 2 : 6 

(A) = (A:B), therefore the system of equations possess solution

Reduced system of equation is

C1+2C2+ C3=3

10C2+ 4C3= 2

2C3=6

By solving above equations we get

 C1 = 2, C2 = -1, C3 = 3.

(3, -7, 6) = 2(1, -3, 2) -1(2, 4, 1) + 3(1, 1, 1)

Hence (3, -7, 6)  L[S]

Example:

Show that the vector (2, -5, 3)  V3(R) is not in L[S] where S = {(1, -3, 2), (2, -4, -1),
(1, -5, 7)}

Solution:

If (2, -5, 3)  L[S] then (2, -5, 3) = C1(1, -3, 2) + C2(2, -4, -1) + C3(1, -5, 7)

= (C1, -3C1, 2C1) + (2C2, -4C2, -C2) + (C3, -5C3, 7C3)

= (C1+2C2+ C3, -3C1-4C2-5C3, 2C1- C2+ 7C3)

 C1+2C2+ C3=2

-3C1-4C2-5C3=-5

2C1- C2+ 7C3=3

Augmented matrix is

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

1 2 1 : 2
 3 4 5 : 5
 
 2 1 7 : 3 

R2 = R2+3R1, R3 = R3-2R1

1 2 1 : 2 
0 2 2 : 1 
 
0 5 5 : 1 

R3 = 2R3+5R2

1 2 1 : 2 
0 2 2 : 1 
 
0 0 0 : 7 

(A)  (A:B)

 The system of equations is not consistent and hence has no solution.

Hence (2, -5, 3) cannot be expressed as combination of the elements of S and therefore it is
not in L[S].

Example:

Determine whether the polynomial 3x2 + x + 5 is the linear span of the set
S = {x3, x2 + 2x, x2 +2, 1-x} of the vector space of all polynomials over the field R.

Solution:

3x2 + x + 5 = C1 x3 + C2(x2 + 2x)+C3(x2 +2)+C4(1-x)

3x2 + x + 5 = C1 x3 + (C2 + C3) x2 + (2C2 – C4) x + (2C3 + C4)

 C1=0

C2 + C3 = 3

2C2 – C4 = 1

2C3 + C4 = 5

By solving we get

C1 = 0, C2 = 3, C3 = 0, C4 = 5

Therefore 3x2 + x + 5 = 0.x3 + 3(x2 + 2x) + 0.(x2 +2) + 5(1-x)

Hence 3x2 + x + 5L[S]

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

Example:

1
For what values of scalar k will the vector y be in the span {V1, V2, V3} where V1   1 ,
 2
5  3  4
V2   4  , V3   1  and y   3 
   

 7   0   k 

Solution:

 4 1 5  3

If y  L[S] then y   3   C1  1  C2  4   C3  1 
     
 k   2   7   0 

4  C1   5C2  3C3 

 3    C    4C    C 
   1  2  3 
 k   2C1  7C2   0 

4  C1  5C2  3C3 

 3   C  4C  C 
   1 2 3

 k   2C1  7C2 

 C1+5C2-3C3= -4

-C1-4C2+C3=3

2C1- 7C2=k

Augmented matrix is

 1 5 3 : 4 
 1 4 1 : 3 
 
 2 7 0 : k 

R2 = R2+R1, R3 = R3-2R1

1 5 3 : 4 
0 1 2 : 1 
 
0 17 6 : k  8

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

R3 = R3+17R2

1 5 3 : 4 
0 1 2 : 1 
 
0 0 28 : k  9 

(A) = (A:B) for any value of k

Therefore the system of equations possess solution

Therefore for any value of k the vector y be in the span {V1, V2, V3}.

Linearly Dependence and Independence:

Linearly dependent:

Definition:

A set {1, 2, 3, 4 ………. n} of vectors of a vector space V[F] is said to be linearly
dependent if there exists scalars C1, C2, C3 ………. Cn  F not all zero such that

C1 1+ C22 + C33 +……….+ Cn n = 0

Linearly independent:

Definition:

A set {1, 2, 3, 4 ………. n} of vectors of a vector space V[F] is said to be linearly
independent if there exists scalars C1, C2, C3 ………. Cn  F if

C1 1+ C22 + C33 +……….+ Cn n = 0

when C1 = C2 = C3 +……….+ Cn = 0

Example:

Show that the vectors 1 = (1, 0, 0, 0, 0…….0), 2 = (0, 1, 0, 0, 0…….0) …………….. n =

(0, 0, 0, 0, 0…….1) of the vector space Vn(R) are linearly independent.

Solution:

Consider

C1 1+ C22 + C33 +……….+ Cn n = 0 where Ci  R, 1 Vn(R)

 C1 (1, 0, 0, 0, 0…….0) + C2(0, 1, 0, 0, 0…….0), + C3(0, 0, 1, 0, 0…….0),

+…………..….+ Cn (0, 0, 0, 0, 0…….1) = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0……………0)

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

 (C1, 0, 0, 0, 0…….0) + (0, C2, 0, 0, 0…….0), + (0, 0, C3, 0, 0…….0),

+………………..….+ (0, 0, 0, 0, 0……. Cn) = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0……………0)

 (C1+ 0+0+0+0+…….+0, 0+C2+0+0+0+…….+0,0+0+C3+0+0+…….+0,

………………..….,0+0+0+0+0+……. +Cn) = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0……………0)

 (C1, C2, C3, ………………..….,Cn) = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0……………0)

 C1=0, C2=0, C3=0, ………………..….,Cn=0

Therefore 1, 2, 3, 4 ………. n are linearly independent.

Example:

Show that the set S = {(1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0), (-1, 0, -1)} is linearly dependent in V3(R).

Solution:

Consider C1 1+ C22 + C33= 0

C1(1,0,1)+ C2(1,1,0)+ C3(-1,0,-1)=(0,0,0)

(C1+ C2 –C3, C2, C1- C3) = (0, 0, 0)

 C1+ C2 –C3 = 0

C2=0

C1- C3=0

 C2=0, C1= C3

Therefore any non zero value for C1 will do. Say C1=1

Thus there exist not all zero scalars such that

C1(1,0,1)+ C2(1,1,0)+ C3(-1,0,-1)=(0,0,0)

i.e. C1=1

1(1,0,1)+ 0(1,1,0)+ 1(-1,0,-1)=(0,0,0)

Therefore the given set is linearly dependent.

Note:

1) The null set  is considered to be linearly independent.

2) An infinite sub set S of a vector space V[F] is said to be linearly independent if every finite
sub set of S is linearly independent.

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

Example:

Express M as a linear combination of matrices A, B, C where

4 7  1 1 1 2  1 1
M   , A  1 1 , B  3 4  , C   4 5
7 9       

Solution:

Let M = 1A + 2B + 3C where 1, 2, 3  F

4 7  1 1 1 2  1 1
i.e.    1    2    3  
7 9  1 1 3 4   4 5

 4 7  1 1    2 2 2    3 3 
7 9       3 
4 2   4 3 5 3 
   1 1  2

 4 7   1   2   3 1  2 2   3 

7 9    3  4   4  5 
   1 2 3 1 2 3

 1   2  3  4

1  22  3  7

1  3 2  43  7

1  4 2  5 3  9

Solving above equations we get

1 = 2, 2 = 3, 3 = -1

Therefore M = 2A + 3B – C.

Example:

If , ,  are linearly independent in V(F), prove that the vectors +, -, -2+ are also
linearly independent.

Solution:

Let a, b, c  F such that a( + ) + b( - ) + c( - 2 + ) = 0

a( + ) + b( - ) + c( - 2 + ) = 0 (1)

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

(a + b +c) + (a – b – 2c)  + c = 0

But , ,  are linearly independent.

Therefore a + b +c = 0

a – b – 2c = 0

c=0

 a = 0, b = 0, c = 0

Hence (1) holds only if a = 0, b = 0, c = 0 which shows that the vectors +, -, -2+ are
linearly independent.

Example:

Show that the vectors (1,1,2,4), (2,-1,-5,2), (1,-1,-4,0) and (2,1,1,6) are linearly independent
R4 and extract a linearly independent subset.

Solution:

Let x1 = (1, 1, 2, 4), x2 = (2, -1, -5, 2), x3 = (1, -1, -4, 0) and x4 = (2, 1, 1, 6)

Let ax1 + bx2 + cx3 + dx4 = 0 where a, b, c, d  R

 a(1,1,2,4) + b(2,-1,-5,2) + c(1,-1,-4,0) + d(2,1,1,6) = 0

 (a + 2b + c + 2d, a – b – c + d, 2a – 5b – 4c + d, 4a + 2b + 6d) = 0

 a + 2b + c + 2d = 0

a–b–c+d=0

2a – 5b – 4c + d = 0

4a + 2b + 6d = 0

Solving above equations we get a = b = c = d = 0

Hence the given vectors are linearly independent.

Example:

Prove that the non zero rows of matrix in echelon form are linearly independent.

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

Basis and Dimension

Basis:

Definition:

A sub set B of a vector space V[F] is called a basis of V if

(i) B is a linearly independent set

(ii) L[B] = V

That is a basis of a vector space V[F] is a linearly independent sub set which spans the whole
space.

Finite Dimensional:

Definition:

A vector space V[F] is said to be a finite dimensional space if it has finite basis.

Example:

Show that the vectors 1 = (1, 0, 0, 0, 0…….0), 2 = (0, 1, 0, 0, 0…….0) …………….. n =

(0, 0, 0, 0, 0…….1) of the vector space Vn(R) form a basis of Vn(R).

Solution:

The set S={1, 2, 3, 4 ………. n} is a linearly independent set if

C1 1+ C22 + C33 +……….+ Cn n = 0

 C1 (1, 0, 0, 0, 0…….0) + C2(0, 1, 0, 0, 0…….0), + C3(0, 0, 1, 0, 0…….0),

+…………..….+ Cn (0, 0, 0, 0, 0…….1) = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0……………0)

 C1=0, C2=0, C3=0, ………………..….,Cn=0

Therefore S is linearly independent.

Further any vector (x1, x2, x3, x4 ………. xn)  Vn[R] can be expressed as a linear
combination of the elements of S as

(x1, x2, x3, x4 ………. xn) = x1e1+x2 e2+x3 e3+x4 e4 +……….+ xn en

Hence L[S] = V and therefore S is basis of Vn[R].

Note: The basis S={(1,0,0,……..0),(0.1.0,…….0),(0,0,1,……..0)…….. (0,0,0,……..1)}is

called as standard basis.

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

In particular (1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1) standard basis of V3[R]

(1,0,0,0), (0,1,0,0), (0,0,1,0), (0,0,0,1) standard basis of V4[R]

Example:

Prove that the set of vectors {(1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1)} is basis for three dimensional vector
space V[R]

Solution:

Let S = {(1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1)}

Thus there exist not all zero scalars such that

C1(1,0,0)+ C2(0,1,0)+ C3(0,0,1) = (0,0,0)

(C1, C2,C3) = (0,0,0)

 C1 = C2= C3 = 0

Therefore the set S is linearly independent.

Let (x1, x2, x3)V[R] be arbitrary and a, b, cR such that

(x1, x2, x3) = a(1,0,0)+ b(0,1,0)+ c(0,0,1)

(x1, x2, x3)= (a, b,c)

 a = x1, b = x2, c= x3

Therefore

(x1, x2, x3) = x1(1,0,0)+ x2(0,1,0)+ x3(0,0,1)

Therefore L[S] = V[R].

Hence S is a basis set of V[R].

Example:

If (-1,0,0), (4,2,0), (5,-3,8) are basis in B, express the vectors (x1, x2, x3) with respect to the
basis B. Hence express (1,2,3) with respect to B.

Solution:

B = {(-1,0,0), (4,2,0), (5,-3,8)}

Thus there exist not all zero scalars such that

C1(-1,0,0)+ C2(4,2,0)+ C3(5,-3,8)=(0,0,0)

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

(- C1+ 4C2 + 5C3, 2C2 - 3C3, 8C3) = (0,0,0)

 - C1+ 4C2 + 5C3 = 0

2C2 - 3C3 = 0

8C3=0

 C1=0, C2=0, C3=0

Therefore the set B is linearly independent.

Let (x1,x2,x3)V3[R] be arbitrary and a, b, cR such that

(x1, x2, x3) = a(-1,0,0)+ b(4,2,0)+ c(5,-3,8)

(x1, x2, x3) = (- a+ 4b + 5c, 2b – 3c, 8c)

 - a+ 4b + 5c = x1

2b – 3c = x2

8c = x3

Solving for a, b, c, we get

22 x3 x 3x x
a   x1  2 x2  , b 2  3, c 3
16 2 16 8

Therefore

 22 x3  x 3x  x
(x1, x2, x3)=   x1  2 x2   (-1,0,0) +  2  3  (4,2,0)+ 3 (5,-3,8)
 16   2 16  8

Therefore

 66  2 9  3
(1, 2, 3)=  1  4   (-1,0,0) +    (4,2,0)+ (5,-3,8)
 16   2 16  8

 57   25  3
(1, 2, 3)=   (-1,0,0) +   (4,2,0)+ (5,-3,8)
 8   16  8

Example:

Show that the set B = {(1,1,0), (1,0,1), (0,1,1)} is a basis of the vector space V3[R]

Solution:

Thus there exist not all zero scalars such that

C1(1,1,0)+ C2(1,0,1)+ C3(0,1,1)=(0,0,0)

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

(C1+ C2, C1+ C3, C2+ C3)=(0,0,0)

 C1+ C2=0

C1+ C3=0

C2+ C3=0

 C1=0, C2=0, C3=0

Therefore the set B is linearly independent.

Let (x1,x2,x3)V3[R] be arbitrary and a, b, cR such that

(x1, x2, x3)= a(1,1,0)+ b(1,0,1)+ c(0,1,1)

(x1, x2, x3)= (a+ b, a+ c, b+ c)

 a + b= x1

a + c= x2

b + c= x3

Solving for a, b, c, we get

x1  x2  x3 x  x3  x2 x  x3  x1
a , b 1 , c 2
2 2 2

Therefore

x1  x2  x3 x  x3  x2 x  x3  x1
(x1, x2, x3)= (1,1,0)+ 1 (1,0,1)+ 2 (0,1,1)
2 2 2

Therefore L[B] = V3[R].

Note:

The above example shows that a vector space V[F] can have more than one basis for different
values of x1, x2, x3.

Inner Product spaces

Inner Product or Scalar Product:

Let V be a vector space over a field F and  and  be the elements of V,

 1 
then ,  =  . = 1  2
T
 3    2  is called the inner product.
 3 

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

Note: ,  is a scalar product.

Inner Product Space: (*Topic is not included for IA and SEE as per the syllabus)

Let V be a vector space over a feld F  , ,   V and c  F, V is said to be inner product

space if it satisfies the following axioms

(1) u, v = v, u

(2) u + v, w = u, w + v, w

(3) cu, v = cu, v

(4) u, u  0 and u, u = 0 if and only if u = 0.

Example:

Show that u = (u1, u2), v = (v1, v2) in R2 defined by u, v = 4u1v1 + 5u2v2 is inner product
space.

Solution:

i) Given: u, v = 4u1v1 + 5u2v2

v, u = 4 v1u1 + 5 v2u2

= 4u1v1 + 5u2v2

= u, v

ii) w = (w1, w2)

u + v, w = 4(u1 + v1)w1 + 5(u2 + v2)w2

= 4(u1w1 + v1w1) + 5(u2w2 + v2w2)

= 4u1w1 + 4v1w1 + 5u2w2 + 5v2w2

= 4u1w1 + 5u2w2 + 4v1w1 + 5v2w2

= u, w + v, w

iii) cu, v = 4(cu1)v1 + 5(cu2)v2

= c(4u1v1) + c(5u2v2)

= c(4u1v1 + 5u2v2)

= cu, v

iv) u, u = 4u1u1 + 5u2u2 = 4u12+5u22  0

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

and 4u12 + 5u22 = 0 only if u1= u2= 0 i.e. if u = 0, u, u = 0

Therefore u, v = 4u1v1 + 5u2v2 is a inner product space.

Note:

Let t0, t1, t2, t3 ….. tn be distinct real numbers for p and q  Pn (Polynomial), then inner
product of p and q is defined by

p, q = p(t0)q(t0) + p(t1)q(t1) + p(t2)q(t2) + ……….. + p(tn)q(tn)

Example:

Let V be P2 (polynomial of degree 2) with the inner product where t0 = 0, t1 = 1/2, t2 = 1 and
p(t) = 12t2, q(t) = 2t - 1. Compute p, q and q, q.

Solution:

p, q = p(t0)q(t0) + p(t1)q(t1) + p(t2)q(t2)

= p(0)q(0) + p(1/2)q(1/2) + p(1)q(1)

= (0)(-1) + (3)(0) + (12)(1)

= 12

q, q = q(t0)q(t0) + q(t1)q(t1) + q(t2)q(t2)

= [q(t0)]2 + [q(t1)]2 + [q(t2)]2

= [-1]2 + [0]2 + [1]2

=2

Length, Distance and Orthogonality:

Length (Norm):

Let V be an inner product space with the inner product denoted by u, v, the length of the
vector V is denoted by ||V|| and is defined as ||V|| =  u, v  and is a scalar.

Note:

1) ||V||2 = <u, v>

2) A vector whose length is 1 is called as unit vector.

Distance:

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

Let u and v be the two vectors in the vector space V, the distance between u and v is denoted
by ||u - v|| =  u  v, u  v 

Orthogonal Vector:

Two vectors u and v are said to be orthogonal if <u, v> = 0.

Example:

Let V be an inner product space and u, v  V, then prove that

i) ||u + v||2 - ||u - v||2 = 4<u, v>

ii) ||u + v||2 + ||u - v||2 = 2(||u||2 + ||v||2)

Solution:

||u + v||2 - ||u - v||2 = <u + v, u + v> - <u - v, u - v>

= <u, u + v> + <v, u + v> - {<u, u - v> + <-v, u - v>}

= <u, u> + <u, v> + <v, u> + <v, v>

- {<u, u> + <u, -v> + <-v, u> + <-v, -v>}

= <u, u> + <u, v> + <v, u> + <v, v>

- {<u, u> - <u, v> - <v, u> + <v, v>}

= <u, u> + <u, v> + <u, v> + <v, v>

- <u, u> + <u, v> + <u, v> - <v, v> | <u, v> = <v, u>

= 4<u, v>

||u + v||2 + ||u - v||2 = <u + v, u + v> + <u - v, u - v>

= <u, u + v> + <v, u + v> + {<u, u - v> + <-v, u - v>}

= <u, u> + <u, v> + <v, u> + <v, v>

+ {<u, u> + <u, -v> + <-v, u> + <-v, -v>}

= <u, u> + <u, v> + <v, u> + <v, v>

+ {<u, u> - <u, v> - <v, u> + <v, v>}

= <u, u> + <u, v> + <u, v> + <v, v>

+ <u, u> - <u, v> - <u, v> + <v, v> | <u, v> = <v, u>

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

= 2<u, u> + 2<v, v>

||u + v||2 + ||u - v||2 = 2(||u||2 + ||v||2)

Example:

If V is an inner product space, then prove that for any vectors ,  in V || + ||  |||| + ||||.

Solution:

By definition of norm, we have

|| + ||2 = < + ,  + >

= <,  + > + <,  + >

= <, > + <, > + <, > + <, >

= ||||2 + <, > + <, > + ||||2 | <, > = <, >

= ||||2 + 2<, > + ||||2

 ||||2 + 2|||| ||||> + ||||2 |by Schwartz inequality <, >  |||| ||||

|| + ||2  (|||| + ||||)

 || + ||  |||| + ||||.

Example:

Compute the length of the vectors p(t) = 12t2 and q(t) = 2t-1 where t0 = 0, t1 = 1/2, t2 = 1

Solution: ||p(t)|| =  p, p 

= [p(0)]2  [p(1/2)]2  [p(1)]2

= [0]2  [3]2  [12]2

= 153

||q(t)|| =  q, q 

= [q(0)]2  [q(1/2)]2  [q(1)]2

= [-1]2  [0]2  [1]2

= 2

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

Example:

Find the distance between the vectors u = (7, 1)T, v = (3, 2)T

Solution:

7   3   4 
u–v=     
1   2   1

||u - v|| = 42  (1) 2  17

Example:

3  1  1/ 2

Show that {u1, u2, u3} is an orthogonal set where u1 = 1  , u2 =  2 ,u =
  3
 2 
 
1   1   7 / 2 

Solution:

u1.u2 = 0, u2.u3 = 0, u3.u1 = 0

Each pair of distinct vectors is orthogonal.

Therefore {u1, u2, u3} is an orthogonal set.

Theorem:

If S = {u1, u2, u3 …………… up} is an orthogonal set of non zero vectors in Rn. Then S is
linearly independent and hence is a basis for the subspace spanned by S.

Proof:

If c1u1 + c2u2 + c3u3 + …………… + cpup = 0 where ci’s  F

(c1u1 + c2u2 + c3u3 + …………… + cpup).u1 = 0.u1

 (c1u1).u1 + (c2u2).u1 + (c3u3).u1 + …………… + (cpup).u1 = 0.u1

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

 c1 (u1.u1) + c2 (u2.u1) + c3(u3.u1) +…………… + cp (up.u1) = 0.u1

 c1 (u1.u1) = 0 |since u is orthogonal to u2, u3 …………… up

Since u1 is non zero u1.u1 is not zero and so c1 = 0

Similarly c2, c3 …………… cp must be zero.

Thus S is linearly independent.

Hence {u1, u2, u3 …………… up}is a basis for a sub space spanned by S.

i.e. Rn = Span{u1, u2, u3 …………… up}

Note:

1) Last example is a orthogonal basis.

2) Let {u1, u2, u3 …………… up} be a orthogonal basis for a subspace W of Rn. For each y in
W the scalars in the linear combination

y.u j
y = c1u1 + c2u2 + c3u3 + …………… + cpup are given by cj = j = 1, 2, 3, 4………p
u j .u j

Example:

3  1  1/ 2

The set S = {u1, u2, u3}, where u1 = 1  , u2 =  2 ,u =
  3
 2  is an orthogonal basis for
 
1   1   7 / 2 
6
R . Express the vector y =  1  as a linear combination of the vectors in S.
3

 8 

Solution:
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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

The linear combination of u1, u2, u3 is

y = c1u1 + c2u2 + c3u3

y.u1 y.u 2 y.u 3

where c1 = , c2 = , c3 =
u1 .u1 u 2 .u 2 u 3 .u 3

11 12 33
c1 = , c2 = , c3 =
11 6 33 2

c1 = 1, c2 = - 2, c3 = - 2

y.u1 y.u 2 y.u 3

y= u1 + u2 + u3
u1 .u1 u 2 .u 2 u 3 .u 3

y = u1 - 2u2 - 2u3

Orthogonal Projection:

Let y and u be the two vectors in vector space V(R). The orthogonal projection of y on u is
y.u
denoted by ŷ and is given by yˆ  u and component of y orthogonal to u is given by
u.u
y.u
y  yˆ  y  u
u.u

Example:

7  4
Let y    and u    , find the orthogonal projection of y orthogonal to u.
6 2

Solution:
T
7   4  4
y.u        7 6    28  12  40
6 2 2
T
4 4 4
u.u        4 2    16  4  20
2 2 2

Orthogonal projection of y on u is

y.u 40  4   4 8 
yˆ  u  2  2   4
u.u 20  2     

7  8   1
Component of y orthogonal to u is y  yˆ         
6  4  2 

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

Gram-Schmidt Process:

The Gram-Schmidt process is a simple algorithm for producing an orthogonal basis or

orthonormal basis, for any non zero subspace of Rn and is given below

Given a basis {x1, x2, x3 …………… xp} for a subspace W of Rn.

Then v1 = x1

x2 .v1
v2 = x2  v1
v1 .v1

x3 .v1 x .v
v3 = x3  v1  3 2 v2
v1 .v1 v2 .v2

x4 .v1 x .v x .v
v4 = x4  v1  4 2 v2  4 3 v3
v1 .v1 v2 .v2 v3 .v3

………………………………………...

…………………………………………

x p .v1 x p .v2 x p .v3 x p .v p 1

vp = x p  v1  v2  v3  ......  v p 1
v1 .v1 v2 .v2 v3 .v3 v p 1 .v p 1

Then {v1, v2, v3 …………… vp} is an orthogonal basis for W, and

Span{v1, v2, v3 …………… vk} = {v1, v2, v3 …………… vk} |where 1  k  p

Example:

 1 0  0  
      
1 1 0 
Construct an orthogonal basis for W where W          by Gram-Schmidt process.
 1 1  1  
 1 1  1  

Solution:

1 0 0

1 1  0
Given X 1    X 2    X 3   
1 1  1 
    
1 1  1 

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

1
1
Let V1=X1=  
1
 
1

X 2 V1
V2  X 2  V1
V1  V1

0 1  3 / 4 
1     1/ 4 
3 1
V2         
1  4 1  1/ 4 
    
1  1  1/ 4 

X 3  V1 X V
V3  X 3  v1  3 2 V2
V1  V1 V2  V2

0  1  3 / 4   0 
0  1    
  2   2 / 4  1/ 4   2 / 3
V3    
1  4 1 12 /16  1/ 4   1/ 3 
      
1  1  1/ 4   1/ 3 

Thus {V1, V2, V3} is an orthogonal set of non zero vectors and hence a linearly independent
set in W.

Example: (Dec 2012)

Let S be the subspace of inner product space R4, spanned by the vectors V1 = (1, 1, 1, 1),
V2 = (1, 2, 4, 5), V3 = (1, -3, -4, -2) in R4. Apply Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization process to
find an orthogonal basis and orthonormal basis of S.

Solution:

1 1  1
1 2  3 
Given X 1    X    X  
1 2  4  3  4 
    
1 5   2 

1
1
Let V1=X1=  
1
 
1

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

X 2 V1
V2  X 2  V1
V1  V1

1  1 1  3  2 
2       
  12 1  2  3  1
V2     
 4  4 1  4  3  1 
        
5 1  5  3  2 

X 3  V1 X V
V3  X 3  V1  3 2 V2
V1  V1 V2  V2

1 1  2   1   2   7 / 5   8 / 5 
 3  1          
  8   7  1  3   2   7 /10   17 /10 
V3       
 4  4 1 10  1   4   2   7 /10   13 /10 
            
 2  1  2   2   2   7 / 5   7 / 5 

Thus {V1, V2, V3} is an orthogonal set of non zero vectors and hence a linearly independent
set in R4.

Orthonormal basis of S are

1/ 2   2 / 10   16 / 910 
1/ 2     
  1/ 10   17 / 910 
u1   u 
  u3   
1/ 2  2

   1/ 10   13 / 910 
1/ 2     
 2 / 10   14 / 910 

Example: (Feb 2013)

Use Gram-Schmidt process on the basis {(1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1)} to obtain orthonormal
basis of R3.

Solution:

1  1  1
Given X 1  0 X 2  1  X 3  1
   

0 0 1

1 
Let V1=X1=  0 
 0 

X 2 V1
V2  X 2  V1
V1  V1

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

1  1  1  1  0 
  1       
V2  1    0   1   0   1 
1
 0   0  0  0  0 

X 3  V1 X V
V3  X 3  V1  3 2 V2
V1  V1 V2  V2

1 1  0  1 1  0  0 
  1  1         
V3  1  0   1   1  0  1   0 
1 1
1 0  0  1 0 0  1 

Thus {V1, V2, V3} is an orthogonal set of non zero vectors and hence a linearly independent
set in R3. Here {V1, V2, V3} itself is the orthonormal basis.

Example: (June 2012, July 2014)

Given v1 = (1, 1, 1), v2 = (0, 1, 1), v3 = (0, 0, 1). Use Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization and
find orthonormal basis.

Solution:

1 0 0

Given v1  1 v2  1  v3   0 
   
1 1  1 

1
Let V1 = v1 = 1
1

v2 V1
V2  v2  V1
V1  V1

0 1 0   2 / 3  2 / 3
2    
V2  1   1  1    2 / 3   1/ 3 
 
3
1  1 1   2 / 3  1/ 3 

v3  V1 v V
V3  v3  V1  3 2 V2
V1  V1 V2  V2

0  1  2 / 3 0 1/ 3  1/ 3  0 

  1   1/ 3 
V3  0   1  1/ 3   0  1/ 3   1/ 6    1/ 2 
3 2/3
1  1  1/ 3  1  1/ 3  1/ 6   1/ 2 

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

Thus {V1, V2, V3} is an orthogonal set of non zero vectors and hence a linearly independent

set in R3.

1/ 3   2 / 6   0 
     
Orthonormal basis are u1  1/ 3  u2   1/ 6  u3    2 
     2 
1/ 3   1/ 6   

Example: (Feb 2013)

Use Gram-Schmidt process on the basis {(1, 0, 1), (1, 0, -1), (0, 3, 4)} to obtain orthonormal
basis of R3.

Solution:

1  1 0
Given v1   0 v2   0  v3   3 
   
1   1  4 

1 
Let V1 = v1 =  0 
 1 

v2 V1
V2  v2  V1
V1  V1

1 1   1 
  0   
V2   0   0   0 
2
 1 1  1

v3  V1 v V
V3  v3  V1  3 2 V2
V1  V1 V2  V2

0 1   1   0   2   2  0 
4  4
V3   3  0    0    3    0    0    3
2 2          
 4 1   1  4   2   2  0 

Thus {V1, V2, V3} is an orthogonal set of non zero vectors and hence a linearly independent

set in R3.

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

1/ 2   1/ 2  0 
   
Orthonormal basis are u1   0  u2   0  u3  1 
1/ 2   1/ 2  0 
   

Linear transformation:

Let U and V be two spaces over a same field F then the mapping T : U  V from a
vector space U to a vector space V is said to be linear transformation if

i) T (   )  T ( )  T (  )
ii) T ( c )  cT ( ) for all  ,   U , c  F

Theorem:

Let T : U  V be a linear transformation then show that

i) T (0)  0/

ii) T (  )  T ( )

Solution:

(i) Given T : U  V be a linear transformation.

We have 0  0  0

 T (0  0)  T (0)

 T (0)  T (0)  T (0)[ T is linear ]

 T (0)  T (0)  T (0)  0/  T (0)  T (0)  0 / 
 T (0)  0/

(ii) Given T : U  V be a linear transformation.

We have   (  )  0

 T (  (  ))  T (0)

 T ( )  T (  )  T (0)[ T is linear ]
 T ( )  T (  )  0 /  T (0)  0 / 

 T ( )  0/ is the additive inverse of T ( )

Theorem:

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

Prove that T : U  V of a vector space U to a vector space V over the same field F is
linear transformation if and only if
T ( u   v )   T (u )   T ( v ),   ,   F and u , v  U

Proof:

Let T : U  V be a linear map then

i) T (   )  T ( )  T (  )
ii) T ( c )  cT ( )

 T ( u   v )  T ( u )  T (  v )[ from(i )]
  T (u )   T (v )[ from(ii )]

 T ( u   v )   T (u )   T ( v ),   ,   F and u , v  U

Conversely,

Suppose T ( u   v )   T (u )   T (v ),   ,   F and u , v  U (1)

By taking   1,   1 in (1) we get

T (u  v )  T (u )  T ( v ),  u , v  U (2)

By taking   0 in (1) we get

T ( u )   T (u ),  u  U (3)

From (2) and (3) we get T : U  V is a linear map.

Problems on Linear transformation

Example 1:Show that T : V3  V3 defined by T ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  ( x1, x2 ,0) is a linear

transformation.

Solution:Given, T ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  ( x1, x2 , 0)

  ( x1 , x2 , x3 );   ( y1 , y2 , y3 )  V3

Then consider

    ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  ( y1 , y2 , y3 )  ( x1  y1 , x2  y2 , x3  y3 )
 T (   )  T ( x1  y1 , x2  y2 , x3  y3 )
 ( x1  y1 , x2  y2 , 0)
 ( x1 , x2 , 0)  ( y1 , y2 , 0)

 T ( )  T (  ) (1)

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

Again,

c  c( x1 , x2 , x3 )  (cx1 , cx2 , cx3 )

 T (c   )  T (cx1 , cx2 , cx3 )
 (cx1 , cx2 ,0)
 c( x1 , x2 , 0)

 cT ( ) (2)

From (1) and (2) , T is a linear transformation.

Example 2: Let T : V2 ( R)  V2 ( R) defined by

T ( x , y )  ( x cos   y sin  , x sin   y cos  ) .Verify whether T is a L.T or Not.

Solution: Given, T ( x , y )  ( x cos   y sin  , x sin   y cos  )

  ( x1 , y1 );   ( x2 , y2 )  V2

Then consider

    ( x1 , y1 )  ( x2 , y2 )  ( x1  x2 , y1  y2 )  V2
 T (   )  T ( x1  x2 , y1  y2 )
 ( x1  x2  cos   ( y1  y2 ) sin  ,  x1  x2  sin   ( y1  y2 ) cos  ))

 ( x1 cos   y1 sin   x2 cos   y2 sin  ,

(1)
x1 sin   y1 cos   x2 sin   y2 cos  ))

T ( )  T (  )  T ( x1 , y1 )  T ( x2 , y2 )
T ( x, y )  ( x1 cos   y1 sin  , x1 sin   y1 cos  )  ( x2 cos   y2 sin  , x2 sin   y2 cos  )
 ( x1 cos   y1 sin   x2 cos   y2 sin  ,
(2)
x1 sin   y1 cos   x2 sin   y2 cos  ))

From (1) and (2), T (   )  T ( )  T (  ) (#)

Again,

c  c( x1 , y1 )  (cx1 , cy1 )
 T (c )  T (cx1 , cy1 )
 (cx1 cos   cy1 sin  ,, cx1 sin   cy1 cos  )
 c( x1 cos   y1 sin  , x1 sin   y1 cos  )

 cT ( ) (##)

From (#) and (##), T is a linear transformation.

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

Example 3: Let T : R  R 2 defined by T ( x)  ( x, 2 x 2 , x3 ) .Verify whether T is a L.T

or Not.

Solution: Given, T ( x)  ( x, 2 x 2 , x3 )

  x;   y  V

Then consider

    x yR
 T (   )  T ( x  y ) (1)


 x  y, 2  x  y  ,  x  y 
2 3

T ( )  T (  )  T ( x )  T ( y )

 ( x, 2 x 2 , x3 )  ( y, 2 y 2 , y 3 )
(2)
 ( x  y, 2( x 2  y 2 ), ( x3  y 3 ))

From (1) and (2), T (   )  T ( )  T (  )

Therefore, T is not a linear transformation.

Example 4:

Check whether the following are L.T or not?

(i) T ( x, y , z )  ( x  y , y  z )
(ii) T ( x , y , z )  (2 x  y , y  z , 2 y  4 z )
(iii) T ( x , y )  (3 x  2 y , 3 x  4 y )

Type –II problems

Example 5: Find the LT T : R 2  R 2 defined by T (1, 0)  (1, 2) and T (0,1)  (4, 3)

Solution:Given T (1, 0)  (1, 2) and T (0,1)  (4, 3)

Let ( x, y )  R 2 then

( x, y )  c1 (1, 0)  c2 (0,1)
 ( x, y )  (c1 , c2 )
 x1  c1 , y  c2

T ( x, y )  xT (1, 0)  yT (0,1)
 x (1, 2)  y (4,3)

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

T ( x , y )  ( x  4 y., 2 x  3 y ) is the required L.T

Example 6: Find the L.T T : R 2  R 3 defined by T (1,1)  (0,1, 2) and T ( 1,1)  (2, 3, 0)

Solution: Given T (1,1)  (0,1, 2) and T ( 1,1)  (2, 3, 0)

Let ( x, y )  R 2 then

( x, y )  c1 (1,1)  c2 (1,1)
 ( x, y )  (c1  c2 , c1  c2 )
 c1  c2  x; c1  c2  y

On solving we get,

x y yx
c1  ; c2 
2 2

x y  yx
( x, y )    (1,1)    (1,1)
 2   2 
x y  yx
T ( x, y )    T (1,1)    T (1,1)
 2   2 
x y  yx
  (0,1, 2)    (2,1, 0)
 2   2 
 ( y  x, y , x  y )
verification : T (1,1)  (0,1, 2)

T ( x , y )  ( y  x , y , x  y ) is the required L.T

Example 7: Find the L.T T : R 2  R 4 defined by T (1,1)  (1,  1,1,  1) and T ( 1,1)  (1,1,1,1)
.

Example 8: Find the L.T T : R 2  R 2 defined by T (2,1)  (2,1) and T (1, 2)  (4, 2) .

Matrix of Linear transformation:

Let U and V be two vector space of dimensions n and m respectively.Let B1  1 ,  2 ,...,  n 
and B1  1 , 2 ,..., m  be the ordered basis of U and V respectively. Then T : U  V be a
linear mapping defined by
b
T ( i )  cij 1  c2 j  2  ...  cmj  m   cij i where i, j  1, 2,..., m
j 1

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

 T (1 )  c11 1  c21  2  ...  cm1  m

T ( 2 )  c12 1  c22  2  ...  cm 2  m


T ( n )  c1n 1  c2 n  2  ...  cmn  m

Then the coordinate vectors of  T (1 ), T ( 2 ),..., T ( n ) are successive written as a column
vectors in the form of rectangular array is called the matrix of linear transformation related
the ordered basis B1 and B2 .It is denoted by AT or (T : B1 , B2 ) .Therefore,

 c11 c12  c1n 

c c22  c2 n 
AT   21
     
 
 cm1 cm 2  cmn 

Example 1:

Find the matrix of L.T T : V3 ( R)  V3 ( R) defined by T ( x , y , z )  ( x  y , y  z ) related

to the basis B1  (1,1,1),(1,0,0),(1,1,0) and B1  e1 , e2  .

Solution: Given, T ( x , y , z )  ( x  y , y  z )

B1  (1,1,1),(1,0,0),(1,1,0) and B1  e1 , e2   {(1,0),(0,1)}

Then consider

T (1,1,1)  (1  1,1  1)  (2, 2)

(2, 2)  c1 (1, 0)  c2 (0,1)
 (2, 2)  (c1 , c2 )
 c1  2, c2  2

(2, 2)  2(1, 0)  2(0,1) (1)

Again, T (1, 0, 0)  (1  0, 0  0)  (1, 0)

(1, 0)  c1 (1, 0)  c2 (0,1)

 (1, 0)  (c1 , c2 )

 c1  1, c2  0

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

(1, 0)  c1 (1, 0)  c2 (0,1)

 (1, 0)  (c1 , c2 )

 (1, 0)  1(1, 0)  0(0,1) (2)

Also

T (1,1, 0)  (1  1,1  0)  (2,1)

(2,1)  c1 (1, 0)  c2 (0,1)

 (2,1)  (c1 , c2 )

 c1  2, c2  1

(2,1)  2(1, 0)  1(0,1) (3)

From (1),(2),(3) , the matrix of L.T is given by

2 1 2
AT    (write coordinate vectors in terms of columns)
 2 0 1

Example 2: Find the matrix of L.T T : V2 ( R)  V2 ( R) defined by T ( x , y )  ( x ,  y ) related to

the basis B1  (1,1),(1,0) and B1  (2,3),(4,5) .

Example 3: Find the matrix of L.T T : V3 ( R)  V3 ( R) defined by

T ( x , y , z )  ( x  y  z , 2 x  z , x  y  2 z ) with respect to the standard bases B1 and B2 .

(Hint: the standard basis B1  {e1 , e2 , e3 }  {(1,0,0),(0,1,0),(0,0,1)}  B2 )

Type –II problems:

1 1 2 
Example1: Find the linear transformation for the matrix AT    with respect to the
3 1 0
basis B1  (1,0,0),(0,1,0),(0,0,1) and B1  (1,0),(0,1) .

1 1 2 
Solution: Given AT   
 3 1 0  23

Define T : V3 ( R)  V2 ( R) by

T (1, 0, 0)  1(1, 0)  3(0,1)  (1, 3)

T (0,1, 0)  1(1, 0)  1(0,1)  ( 1,1)
T (0, 0,1)  2(1, 0)  0(0,1)  (2, 0)

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Unit-3 NMP Dr. JSK and Dr. HBN

Let ( x, y, z)  V3 ( R) then

( x, y, z )  c1 (1,0, 0)  c2 (0,1, 0)  c3 (0, 0,1)

 ( x, y, z )   c1 , c2 , c3 
 c1  x, c2  y, c3  z
( x, y, z )  x(1, 0, 0)  y (0,1, 0)  z (0, 0,1)
T ( x, y , z )  xT (1, 0, 0)  yT (0,1, 0)  zT (0, 0,1)
 x(1,3)  y ( 1,1)  z (2, 0)

T ( x , y , z )  ( x , y  2 z , 3 x  y ) is the required Transformation .

1 2
 1  with respect to the
Example 2: Find the linear transformation for the matrix AT   0
 1 3
basis B1  (1,1),(1, 1) and B1  (1,1,1),(1, 1,1),(0,0,1) .

1 2
 1  with respect to the
Example 3: Find the linear transformation for the matrix AT   0
 1 3
basis B1  (1, 2),(2,1) and B1  (1, 1, 1),(1, 2,3),(1,0,2) .

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