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Further Pure 3 Summary Notes
1. Limits
The function f(x) → l when x → a is written

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙 (l is called the limiting value)

𝑥→𝑎

Look for the highest

Example
power of x
3𝑥 2 +2𝑥+4
(Divide by x2)
Find lim
𝑥→∞ 1−2𝑥 2 −3𝑥

3𝑥 2⁄ +2𝑥⁄ +4⁄ 3+ 2⁄𝑥+4⁄ 2

𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥 1 1
=1 State clearly lim = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim =0
1⁄ −2𝑥 2⁄ −3𝑥⁄ ⁄𝑥 2 −2− 𝑥⁄3 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2
𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥2

3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 4 3
lim = −
𝑥→∞ 1 − 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 2

Important limits – may be quoted

lim 𝑥 𝑘 𝑒 −𝑥 = 0 lim 𝑥 𝑘 𝑙𝑛𝑥 = 0

𝑥→∞ 𝑥→0

2. Maclaurin’s Series
′ (𝟎)𝒙
𝒇′′(𝟎)𝒙𝟐 𝒇′′′(𝟎)𝒙𝟑
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝟎) + 𝒇 + + … … ….
𝟐! 𝟑!
Assumption
 f(x) can be expressed as f(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3…….
 The series can be differentiated term by term
 The function f(x) and all of its derivatives exist at x = 0

The following are given in the formula book

You may need to

use the BINOMIAL
SERIES too
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Use brackets when

Example substituting e.g (-3x) to avoid
Find the Maclaurin expansion of f(x) = ln(1 + 2x) up to the x3 term. errors when using ‘powers’
State the range of values for which it is valid

𝑥2 𝑥3 (2𝑥)2 (2𝑥)3
ln(1 + x) = 𝑥 − + ln(1 + 2x) = (2𝑥) − +
2 3 2 3
2 8𝑥 3
= 2𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 3

ln(1 + x) valid for -1 < x < 1 ln(1 + 2x) valid for -1 < 2x < 1 so -½ < x < ½

3. Improper Integrals
𝑏
An integral ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is improper if

 the interval of integration is infinite

 f(x) is undefined at one or both of a/b
 f(x) is not defined at one or more of the interior points (not considered in FP3)

Example
𝑒
∫0 𝑥𝑙𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (Improper – not defined at lower boundary x = 0 - cannot have ln 0)

1. Replace undefined limit with c

𝑐 Integration by parts /
𝐼 = ∫0 𝑥𝑙𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
substitution / partial
fractions may be needed
2. Integrate and substitute in the boundary values

1 𝑐1 1
𝐼 = [2 𝑥 2 𝑙𝑛𝑥] − ∫0 2 𝑥 2 × 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Remember Integration by parts
𝑑𝑣
1 1 2 1 1 u = ln x 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥
= 2 𝑒2 − 𝑐 𝑙𝑛𝑐 − 4 𝑒2 + 4 𝑐2
2

lim 𝑐 2 𝑙𝑛𝑐 = 0 lim 𝑐 2 = 0

𝑥→0 𝑥→0
Make sure you show this clearly with the correct notation
𝑒 1 2
∫0 𝑥𝑙𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 4
𝑒
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4. Polar Coordinates and curves

P has polar coordinate (r,𝜃)

𝜃
Positive θ

Negative θ
Polar – Cartesian
𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑟2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
𝑦
𝜃 tan 𝜃 =
𝑥 Use these when you need
to change between polar
and Cartesian equations

Curves and Graphs

r=a 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 𝜃= 𝛼
circle centre (0,0) Straight line (semi-infinite/half line)
radius a

r = 2a cos θ (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 r = 2a sin θ 𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 𝑎)2 = 𝑎2

r=4cos θ r=4sin θ
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Hints for sketching curves
 if r is expressed as a function of cos only - symmetrical about the initial line
𝝅
 if r is expressed as a function of sin only - symmetrical about the line 𝜽 =
𝟐
 if 𝑟 → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝜃 → ∞ then the line 𝜃 = 𝛼 is a tangent to the curve at the pole
 NEGATIVE VALUES of r are not allowed – if 𝑟 < 0 in the interval 𝛼 < 𝜃 < 𝛽 then there is no curve in
this interval

Area bounded by a polar curve

𝛽1 r must be non-negative and defined for 𝛼 < 𝜃 < 𝛽

∫𝛼 2 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃
If you need to find an area between curves
use the values of 𝜃 at the point(s) of
intersection for the limits

MAKE SURE YOU CAN INTEGRATE TRIG FUNCTIONS

You may need to use
∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ∫(𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 − 1)𝑑𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 − 𝜃

1 1 1
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = ∫ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃) = (𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃)
2 2 2
1 1 1
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃)𝑑𝜃 = (𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜃)
2 2 4
1
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛+1 𝜃
𝑛+1

5. First order differential equations

𝑑𝑦 𝑦
Linear 1st order differential equation − 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 (dependent variable ‘y’ is linear)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Non-Linear 1st order differential equation 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 𝑦 2 (dependent variable ‘y’ is quadratic)

2
A General solution has unknown variables and represents a family of solutions e.g 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑥

To find a Particular solution boundary or initial conditions are used to evaluate unknown variables
e.g. when y = 2 x = 0 or y(0) = 2 both mean the same thing
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METHOD 1 : Separating the variables (seen in Core 4)

𝑑𝑦
= 3x 2 𝑦 ln|𝑦| = 𝑥 3 + 𝑐
dx
1 3 +𝑐
dy = 3x 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥
𝑦

1 3
∫ 𝑦 dy = ∫ 3x 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑥

METHOD 2 : Using an Integrating Factor

𝑑𝑦
Step 1 : Check that the equation is in the form + 𝑃(𝑥)𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥

2
𝑑𝑦
−
2𝑦
= 𝑥2 P(x) = − Q(x) = 𝑥 2 Take care with the
𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 ‘sign’ of P(x)

Step 2 : Find the ‘Integrating Factor’ 𝑰(𝒙) = 𝒆∫ 𝑷(𝒙)𝒅𝒙

−2
∫ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 = −2 ln|𝑥|
1
ln 𝑥 −2 =
𝐼(𝑥) = 𝑒 −2ln |𝑥| = 𝑒 𝑥2

Step 3 : Multiply all terms by the Integrating Factor

The left hand side is the result
1 𝑑𝑦 2𝑦
− =1 of differentiating I(x)y using
𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 3 the product rule

𝑑 𝑦
𝑑
( )= 1 (𝐼(𝑥)𝑦) = 𝐼(𝑥)𝑄(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
MAKE SURE YOU SHOW THIS CLEARLY
𝑦
= ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2
𝑦 Don’t forget to include the ‘c’ in
=𝑥+𝑐 any rearrangement to isolate y
𝑥2
e.g. cx2
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑐𝑥 2

Step 4 : You have found the GENERAL solution – if necessary use values given to find a PARTICULAR
solution
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METHOD 3 : Complementary Functions and Particular Integrals

𝑑𝑦
Step 1 : Check that the equation is in the form 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑦
− 2𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Step 2 : Solve the REDUCED EQUATION 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑦
− 2𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥

1
𝑑𝑦 = 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑦
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 2𝑥 - this is the COMPLEMENTARY FUNCTION

𝑑𝑦
Step 3 : Find a PARTICULAR Integral/solution of the complete equation 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
Looking only at the f(x)
 If f(x) is of the form 𝑐𝑒 𝑘𝑥 try a particular solution of the form
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑘𝑥 (or 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥𝑒 𝑘𝑥 if the CF has the same exponential from as f(x)

 If f(x) is of the form 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑐 sin 𝑘𝑥 try a particular integral of the form
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 + 𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥

 If f(x) is a polynomial of degree n try a particular integral of the form

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
− 2𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥 Try 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 = 𝑎𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝑎𝑥𝑒 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑎𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝑎𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 − 2(𝑎𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 ) = 𝑒 2𝑥 Substituting these into our original equation

𝑎𝑒 2𝑥 = 𝑒 2𝑥
𝑎𝑒 2𝑥 − 𝑒 2𝑥 = 0
𝑒 2𝑥 (𝑎 − 1) = 0
𝑎=1 This gives a PARTICULAR integral/solution 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥

Step 4 : Write down the GENERAL SOLULTION y = CF + PI

𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥

Step 5 : If boundary values are given to allow you to calculate A this must be done using y = CF + PI

6. Second order differential equations

Eulers Identity
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝜋 = −1
𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
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𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
Solving equations of the form 𝒂 𝟐 +𝒃 + 𝒄𝒚 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

Step 1 : Solve the auxiliary equation 𝒂𝒌𝟐 + 𝒃𝒌 + 𝒄 = 𝟎

Solve
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Find the general solution to 2 𝑑𝑥 2 + 6 𝑑𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 0

2𝑘 2 + 6𝑘 + 5 = 0

−6 ± √62 − 4 × 2 × 5
k=
2×2

3 1
k=− ± 𝑖
2 2

3 possibilities for values for

k1 and k2 real and unequal k1 = k2 equal roots K1 = p+qi K2= p- qi (non real)
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑘1 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 𝑘2 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑘1 𝑥 (𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥) 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑝𝑥 (𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑞𝑥 + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑞𝑥)

𝑑2 𝑦
Exceptional case if solving + 𝑛2 𝑥 = 0 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝑥 + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2

Step 2 : Use the chosen form of y for the general solution

General solution
3 1 1
𝑦 = 𝑒 −2𝑥 (𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)
2 2

𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
Solving equations of the form 𝒂 +𝒃 + 𝒄𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙

Step 1 & 2 : Solve the auxiliary equation 𝒂𝒌𝟐 + 𝒃𝒌 + 𝒄 = 𝟎 (as above)

This will find the COMPLEMENTARY Function , CF, yc

Find the general solution of the differential equation

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2
+3 + 2𝑦 = 2𝑒 −2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Auxiliary equation
𝑘 2 + 3𝑘 + 2 = 0
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) = 0
K1 = -1 K2 = -2

COMPLEMENTARY Function
𝑦𝑐 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −2𝑥
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Step 3 : Finding a PARTICULAR solution of the complete equation (particular Integral) y p
You need to consider f(x) and yc

𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑦𝑐 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −2𝑥 2
+3 + 2𝑦 = 2𝑒 −2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑒 −2𝑥

yc - contains 𝑎𝑒 𝜆𝑥 but not 𝑎𝑥𝑒 𝜆𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥𝑒 𝜆𝑥
yc - contains 𝑎𝑥𝑒 𝜆𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑒 𝜆𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 𝑒 𝜆𝑥
yc - does not contain 𝑎𝑒 𝜆𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑥𝑒 𝜆𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑒 𝜆𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑥 yc - 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑥 + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑥 if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑥
or 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑥 if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑥
f(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆x yc – does not contain 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑥 + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑥 + 𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑥
f(𝑥) polynomial f
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯
degree n

Particular solution / integral

𝑦𝑝 = 𝑎𝑥𝑒 −2𝑥

Step 4 : Finding a PARTICULAR solution of the complete equation (particular Integral) y p

𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
Differentiate 𝑦𝑝 to find and 𝑑𝑥 2 and substitute these into the original equation
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
𝑦𝑝 = 𝑎𝑥𝑒 −2𝑥 = 𝑎𝑒 −2𝑥 − 2𝑎𝑥𝑒 −2𝑥 = −2𝑎𝑒 −2𝑥 − 2(𝑎𝑒 −2𝑥 − 2𝑎𝑥𝑒 −2𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
= −4𝑎𝑒 −2𝑥 + 4𝑎𝑥𝑒 −2𝑥

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2
+3 + 2𝑦 = 2𝑒 −2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

−4𝑎𝑒 −2𝑥 + 4𝑎𝑥𝑒 −2𝑥 + 3(𝑎𝑒 −2𝑥 − 2𝑎𝑥𝑒 −2𝑥 ) + 2𝑎𝑥𝑒 −2𝑥 = 2𝑒 −2𝑥
−𝑎𝑒 −2𝑥 = 2𝑒 −2𝑥
𝑎 = −2
𝑦𝑝 = −2𝑥𝑒 −2𝑥

Step 5 : General solution y = yc + yp

𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −2𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑒 −2𝑥

Step 6 : Use boundary values and General solution y = yc + yp to find the value of A and B
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7. Using substitution to reduce the order of differential equations
Show that the substitution 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑡 transforms the differential equation

𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑥2 − 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 2𝑙𝑛𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
into

𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2
−4 + 4𝑦 = 2𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 Use the chain rule
We need to find 𝑑𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
= ×
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑒𝑡 = 𝑥
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
=𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
We need to find 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 (𝑎𝑛𝑑 )
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
(𝑥 𝑑𝑥 )= 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 Using the product rule

(𝑥 𝑑𝑥 )= 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
( + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 )= 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Substitute =𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
𝑥(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 )= 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑑 𝑦2 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 Substitute = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2 = − 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2

Substituting into the original

𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑥2 2
− 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 2𝑙𝑛𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2
− −3 + 4𝑦 = 2𝑡
These are usually SHOW 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
THAT questions with the 𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
substitution given 2
−4 + 4𝑦 = 2𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
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8. Numerical solution of first order differential equations
𝑑𝑦
 Problem given in the form 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
It is essential that the
 Solution 𝑦(𝑥)
correct notation is used !!
 Boundary conditions 𝑦(𝑥0 ) = 𝑦0
 Step length = h and 𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝑛 + ℎ

EULER’S FORMULA
dy
= 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑦𝑟+1 = 𝑦𝑟 + ℎ𝑓(𝑥𝑟 , 𝑦𝑟 )
dx
Always work to at least 2 more decimal places than the
number required by the final solution

Example
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 + 3 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦(1) = 1
𝑑𝑥
Use the Euler formula with h = 0.1 to obtain an approximation to y(1.1) correct to 4 decimal places

𝑦(𝑥0 ) = 𝑦0 𝑥0 = 1 𝑦0 = 1

𝑦(1.1) = 𝑦1 = 1 + 0.1(1 + 3 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛1)

𝑦1 = 1.4841
Formulae are usually give in
MIDPOINT FORMULA the exam paper
𝑦𝑟+1 = 𝑦𝑟−1 + 2ℎ𝑓(𝑥𝑟 , 𝑦𝑟 )

𝑦(𝑥0 ) = 𝑦0 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑦1 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 ′ 𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎

IMPROVED EULER FORMULA

ℎ
𝑦𝑟+1 = 𝑦𝑟 + (𝑓(𝑥𝑟 , 𝑦𝑟 ) + 𝑓(𝑥𝑟+1 , 𝑦𝑟+1 )
2

or can be given in the form

1 𝑦𝑟+1 calculated using the
𝑦𝑟+1 = 𝑦𝑟 + (𝑘1 + 𝑘2 ) original Euler formula
2

Where 𝑘1 = ℎ𝑓(𝑥𝑟 , 𝑦𝑟 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘2 = ℎ𝑓(𝑥𝑟+1 , 𝑦𝑟+1 )

Example
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 + √𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦(3) = 4
𝑑𝑥
Use the improved Euler formula with h = 0.1 to obtain an approximation for y(3.1) to 3 decimal places
𝑦0 = 4 𝑥0 = 3
𝑘1 = 0.1(3 + √4) = 0.5

𝑦1 = 4 + 0.1(3 + √4) 𝑘2 = 0.1(3.1 + √4.5) = 0.522132

𝑦(3.1) = 3 + 0.5(0.5 + 0.522132)

= 4.511