Behistun Inscription - Wikipedia 31/12/2024, 23:48

Behistun Inscription
The Behistun Inscription (also Bisotun,
Bistun
Bisitun or Bisutun; Persian: ‫بیستون‬, Old
Persian: Bagastana, meaning "the place of UNESCO World Heritage Site
god") is a multilingual Achaemenid royal
inscription and large rock relief on a cliff at
Mount Behistun in the Kermanshah Province of
Iran, near the city of Kermanshah in western
Iran, established by Darius the Great
(r. 522–486 BC).[1] It was important to the
decipherment of cuneiform, as it is the longest
known trilingual cuneiform inscription, written
in Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian (a
variety of Akkadian).[2]

Authored by Darius the Great sometime between

Punishment of captured impostors and
his coronation as king of the Persian Empire in
conspirators: Gaumāta lies under the boot of
the summer of 522 BC and his death in autumn
Darius the Great. The last person in line,
of 486 BC, the inscription begins with a brief
wearing a traditional Scythian hat and costume,
autobiography of Darius, including his ancestry
is identified as Skunkha. His image was added
and lineage. Later in the inscription, Darius
after the inscription was completed, requiring
provides a lengthy sequence of events following
some of the text to be removed.
the death of Cambyses II in which he fought
nineteen battles in a period of one year (ending Location Mount Behistun, Kermanshah
in December 521 BC) to put down multiple Province, Iran
rebellions throughout the Persian Empire. The Criteria Cultural: ii, iii
inscription states in detail that the rebellions Reference 1222 (https://whc.unesco.org/en/li
were orchestrated by several impostors and their st/1222)
co-conspirators in various cities throughout the Inscription 2006 (30th Session)
empire, each of whom falsely proclaimed himself
Area 187 ha
king during the upheaval following Cambyses II's
death. Darius the Great proclaimed himself Buffer zone 361 ha
victorious in all battles during the period of Coordinates 34°23′26″N 47°26′9″E
upheaval, attributing his success to the "grace of
Ahura Mazda".

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The inscription is approximately 15 m (49 ft)

high by 25 m (82 ft) wide and 100 m (330 ft) up
a limestone cliff from an ancient road connecting
the capitals of Babylonia and Media (Babylon
and Ecbatana, respectively). The Old Persian text
contains 414 lines in five columns; the Elamite
text includes 260 lines in eight columns, and the
Babylonian text is in 112 lines.[3][4] A copy of the
Location of Behistun Inscription in West
text in Aramaic, written during the reign of and Central Asia
Darius II, was found in Egypt.[5] The inscription Show map of West and Central Asia
was illustrated by a life-sized bas-relief of Darius Show map of Iran
I, the Great, holding a bow as a sign of kingship, Show all
with his left foot on the chest of a figure lying
supine before him. The supine figure is reputed
to be the pretender Gaumata. Darius is attended to the left by two servants, and nine one-meter
figures stand to the right, with hands tied and rope around their necks, representing conquered
peoples. A Faravahar floats above, giving its blessing to the king. One figure appears to have
been added after the others were completed, as was Darius's beard, which is a separate block of
stone attached with iron pins and lead.

Name
The name Behistun is derived from usage in Ancient Greek and Arabic sources, particularly
Diodorus Siculus and Ya'qubi, transliterated into English in the 19th century by Henry
Rawlinson. The modern Persian version name is Bisotun.[6]

History
After the fall of the Persian Empire's Achaemenid Dynasty and its successors, and the lapse of
Old Persian cuneiform writing into disuse, the nature of the inscription was forgotten, and
fanciful explanations became the norm.

In 1598, Englishman Robert Sherley saw the inscription during a diplomatic mission to Safavid
Persia on behalf of Austria, and brought it to the attention of Western European scholars. His
party incorrectly came to the conclusion that it was Christian in origin.[7] French General
Gardanne thought it showed "Christ and his twelve apostles", and Sir Robert Ker Porter thought
it represented the Lost Tribes of Israel and Shalmaneser of Assyria.[8] In 1604, Italian explorer
Pietro della Valle visited the inscription and made preliminary drawings of the monument.[9]

Translation efforts
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German surveyor Carsten Niebuhr visited in around 1764 for Frederick V of Denmark,
publishing a copy of the inscription in the account of his journeys in 1778.[10] Niebuhr's
transcriptions were used by Georg Friedrich Grotefend and others in their efforts to decipher
the Old Persian cuneiform script. Grotefend had deciphered ten of the 37 symbols of Old
Persian by 1802, after realizing that unlike the Semitic cuneiform scripts, Old Persian text is
alphabetic and each word is separated by a vertical slanted symbol.[11]

In 1835, Sir Henry Rawlinson, an officer of the British East India Company army assigned to the
forces of the Shah of Iran, began studying the inscription in earnest. As the town of Bisotun's
name was anglicized as "Behistun" at this time, the monument became known as the "Behistun
Inscription". Despite its relative inaccessibility, Rawlinson was able to scale the cliff with the
help of a local boy and copy the Old Persian inscription. The Elamite was across a chasm, and
the Babylonian four meters above; both
were beyond easy reach and were left for Darius at Behistun
later. In 1847, he was able to send a full
and accurate copy to Europe.[12]

Later research and

activity
The site was visited by the American
linguist A. V. Williams Jackson in 1903.[13]
Later expeditions, in 1904 sponsored by Full figure of Darius Head of Darius with
the British Museum and led by Leonard trampling rival Gaumata. crenellated crown
William King and Reginald Campbell
Thompson and in 1948 by George G.
Cameron of the University of Michigan, obtained
photographs, casts and more accurate transcriptions of the
texts, including passages that were not copied by
Rawlinson.[14][15][16][17] It also became apparent that
rainwater had dissolved some areas of the limestone in
which the text was inscribed, while leaving new deposits of
limestone over other areas, covering the text.
Route to inscription at upper right.
In 1938, the inscription became of interest to the Nazi
German think tank Ahnenerbe, although research plans
were cancelled due to the onset of World War II.

The monument later suffered some damage from Allied soldiers using it for target practice in
World War II, and during the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran.[18]

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In 1999, Iranian archeologists began the

documentation and assessment of damages
to the site incurred during the 20th century.
Malieh Mehdiabadi, who was project
manager for the effort, described a
photogrammetric process by which two-
dimensional photos were taken of the
inscriptions using two cameras and later
transmuted into 3-D images.[19]

In recent years, Iranian archaeologists have

been undertaking conservation works. The
site became a UNESCO World Heritage Site
in 2006.[20]

In 2012, the Bisotun Cultural Heritage Context of the inscription (centre) in 2010. A person is
Center organized an international effort to visible in the lower left; reaching the inscription requires
re-examine the inscription.[21] climbing the steep cliff face in front of them, then
traversing a narrow ledge.

Column 1 (DB I 1–15), sketch by

Friedrich von Spiegel (1881).

Behistun papyrus with an Aramaic

translation of the Behistun
inscription's text, known as TAD
C2.1.

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Close-up of the inscription.

The Behistun Inscription

photographed in 2019

Content

Lineage
In the first section of the inscription, Darius the Great
declares his ancestry and lineage:

King Darius says: My father is Hystaspes

[Vištâspa]; the father of Hystaspes was Arsames
[Aršâma]; the father of Arsames was Ariaramnes
[Ariyâramna]; the father of Ariaramnes was
Teispes [Cišpiš]; the father of Teispes was
Achaemenes [Haxâmaniš]. King Darius says: That
Lineage of Darius the Great
is why we are called Achaemenids; from antiquity according to the Behistun inscription.
we have been noble; from antiquity has our
dynasty been royal. King Darius says: Eight of my
dynasty were kings before me; I am the ninth. Nine
in succession we have been kings.

King Darius says: By the grace of Ahuramazda am I

king; Ahuramazda has granted me the kingdom.

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Territories
Darius also lists the territories under his rule:

King Darius says: These are the countries which

are subject unto me, and by the grace of
Ahuramazda I became king of them: Persia [Pârsa],
Elam [Ûvja], Babylonia [Bâbiruš], Assyria
Achaemenid empire at its greatest
[Athurâ], Arabia [Arabâya], Egypt [Mudrâya], the extent
countries by the Sea [Tyaiy Drayahyâ (Phoenicia)],
Lydia [Sparda], the Greeks [Yauna (Ionia)], Media
[Mâda], Armenia [Armina], Cappadocia
[Katpatuka], Parthia [Parthava], Drangiana
[Zraka], Aria [Haraiva], Chorasmia [Uvârazmîy],
Bactria [Bâxtriš], Sogdia [Suguda], Gandhara
[Gadâra], Scythia [Saka], Sattagydia [Thataguš],
Arachosia [Harauvatiš] and Maka [Maka]; twenty-
three lands in all.

Conflicts and revolts

Later in the inscription, Darius provides an eye-witness account of battles he successfully fought
over a one-year period to put down rebellions which had resulted from the deaths of Cyrus the
Great, and his son Cambyses II:

Relief of ššina c. 519 BC: Relief of Nidintu-Bêl: "This Relief of Tritantaechmes:

"This is ššina. He lied, is Nidintu-Bêl. He lied, "This is Tritantaechmes.
saying "I am king of saying "I am He lied, saying "I am king
[22] Nebuchadnezzar, the son of Sagartia, from the
Elam.""
of Nabonidus. I am king of family of Cyaxares.""[22]
Babylon.""[22]

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Relief of Arakha: "This is Relief of Frâda: "This is Behistun relief of

Arakha. He lied, saying: "I Frâda. He lied, saying "I Skunkha. Label: "This is
am Nebuchadnezzar, the am king of Margiana.""[22] Skunkha the Sacan."[22]
son of Nabonidus. I am
king in Babylon.""[22]

Other historical monuments in the Behistun complex

The site covers an area of 116 hectares. Archeological evidence indicates that this region became
a human shelter 40,000 years ago. There are 18 historical monuments other than the
inscription of Darius the Great in the Behistun complex that have been registered in the Iranian
national list of historical sites. Some of them are:

Hunters' cave Behistun Palace (said to be Sheikh Ali khan Zangeneh

Farhād Tarāsh Palace of Khosrau II) text endowment
Median fortress Ilkhanid caravanserai Safavid caravanserai
Parthian town Median temple Vologases's relief
Statue of Hercules in Bas relief of Mithridates II of Carved Sassanian stones
Behistun Parthia Royal Road
Parthian site of worship Bas relief of Gotarzes II of
Parthia

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Statue of Herakles in Behistun Herakles at Behistun, sculpted

complex for a Seleucis Governor in 148
BC.

Bas relief of Mithridates II of Damaged equestrian relief of

Parthia and bas relief of Gotarzes II at Behistun
Gotarzes II of Parthia and
Sheikh Ali khan Zangeneh text
endowment

Vologases's relief in Behistun

Similar reliefs and inspiration

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The Anubanini rock relief, also called Sarpol-i Zohab, of

the Lullubi king Anubanini, dated to c. 2300 BC, and
which is located not far from the Behistun reliefs at
Sarpol-e Zahab, is very similar to the reliefs at Behistun.
The attitude of the ruler, the trampling of an enemy, the
lines of prisoners are all very similar, to such extent that
it was said that the sculptors of the Behistun Inscription
had probably seen the Anubanini relief beforehand and
were inspired by it.[23] The Lullubian reliefs were the
model for the Behistun reliefs of Darius the Great.[24]

The inscriptional tradition of the Achaemenids, starting

especially with Darius I, is thought to have derived from
the traditions of Elam, Lullubi, the Babylonians and the
Assyrians.[25]
The Anubanini rock relief, dated to 2300
BC, and made by the pre-Iranian Lullubi
See also ruler Anubanini, is very similar in content
to the Behistun reliefs (woodprint).
Behistun palace
Darius I of Persia
Achaemenid empire
Taq-e Bostan (Rock reliefs of various Sassanid kings)
Pasargadae (Tomb of Pasargadae Cyrus the Great)
Shapur I's inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht
Naqsh-e Rajab
Cities of the Ancient Near East
Gaumata (False Smerdis)
Anubanini rock relief
List of colossal sculptures in situ
World Heritage Sites by country

Notes
1. "The Arya in Iran" (https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/others/sunday-read/the-arya-in-iran/
articleshow/71559634.cms).
2. "Behistun Inscription is a cuneiform text in three ancient languages."Bramwell, Neil D.
(1932). Ancient Persia
(https://archive.org/details/ancientpersia0000bram/page/6/mode/1up). NJ Berkeley Heights.
p. 6. ISBN 978-0-7660-5251-2.
3. Tavernier, Jan (2021). "A list of the Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions by language" (https://dial.
uclouvain.be/pr/boreal/object/boreal:268449). Phoenix (in French). 67 (2): 1–4. ISSN 0031-
8329 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-8329). Retrieved 2023-03-25. "The rock
inscription itself contains no less than 414 lines of Old Persian, 112 lines of Babylonian and
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Behistun Inscription - Wikipedia 31/12/2024, 23:48

inscription itself contains no less than 414 lines of Old Persian, 112 lines of Babylonian and
260 lines of Elamite (in an older and a younger version)."
4. "The Bīsitūn Inscription [CDLI Wiki]" (https://web.archive.org/web/20230325102656/https://c
dli.ox.ac.uk/wiki/doku.php?id=bisitun_inscription). cdli.ox.ac.uk. 2015-09-06. Archived from
the original (https://cdli.ox.ac.uk/wiki/doku.php?id=bisitun_inscription) on 2023-03-25.
Retrieved 2023-03-25. "This tri-lingual inscription has 414 lines in Old Persian cuneiform,
260 in Elamite cuneiform, and 112 in Akkadian cuneiform (Bae: 2008)"
5. Tavernier, Jan, "An Achaemenid Royal Inscription: The Text of Paragraph 13 of the Aramaic
Version of the Bisitun Inscription", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 60, no. 3, pp. 161–
76, 2001
6. King, L.W.; Thompson, R.C.; Budge, E.A.W. (1907). The Sculptures and Inscription of
Darius the Great: On the Rock of Behistûn in Persia (https://books.google.com/books?id=Xh
pkAAAAMAAJ). British museum. p. xi. "The name of the Rock is derived from that of the
small village of Bîsitûn or Bîsutûn, which lies near its foot. The form of the name "Behistûn"
is not used by the modern inhabitants of the country, although it is that by which the Rock is
best known among European scholars. The name "Behistûn," more correctly "Bahistûn,"
was borrowed by the late Major-General Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson, Bart., G.C. B.,
from the Arabic geographer Yakût, who mentions the village and its spring, and describes
the Rock as being of great height, and refers to the sculptures upon it. The earliest known
name of the Rock is that given by Diodorus Siculus, who calls it τό Βαγίστανον ορος,
whence, no doubt, are derived the modern forms of the name."
7. E. Denison Ross, The Broadway Travellers: Sir Anthony Sherley and his Persian Adventure,
Routledge, 2004, ISBN 0-415-34486-7
8. [1] (https://archive.org/download/travelsingeorgia02port/travelsingeorgia02port.pdf) Robert
Ker Porter, Travels in Georgia, Persia, Armenia, ancient Babylonia, &c. &c. : during the
years 1817, 1818, 1819, and 1820, volume 2, Longman, 1821
9. Kipfer, Barbara Ann (2013). Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=BDKqBgAAQBAJ). Springer US. ISBN 9781475751338.
10. Carsten Niebuhr, Reisebeschreibung von Arabien und anderen umliegenden Ländern, 2
volumes, 1774 and 1778
11. "Old Persian" (http://www.ancientscripts.com/oldpersian.html). Ancient Scripts. Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20100418053701/http://www.ancientscripts.com/oldpersian.html)
from the original on 18 April 2010. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
12. Harari, Y.N. (2015). "15. The Marriage of Science and Empire". Sapiens: A Brief History of
Humankind (https://books.google.com/books?id=FmyBAwAAQBAJ). HarperCollins.
ISBN 978-0-06-231610-3.
13. A. V. Williams Jackson, "The Great Behistun Rock and Some Results of a Re-Examination
of the Old Persian Inscriptions on It", Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 24, pp.
77–95, 1903
14. [2] (https://archive.org/download/sculpturesinscri00brituoft/sculpturesinscri00brituoft.pdf) W.
King and R. C. Thompson, The sculptures and inscription of Darius the Great on the Rock
of Behistûn in Persia: a new collation of the Persian, Susian and Babylonian texts,
Longmans, 1907
15. George G. Cameron, The Old Persian Text of the Bisitun Inscription, Journal of Cuneiform
Studies, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 47–54, 1951
16. George G. Cameron, The Elamite Version of the Bisitun Inscriptions, Journal of Cuneiform
Studies, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 59–68, 1960
17. W. C. Benedict and Elizabeth von Voigtlander, Darius' Bisitun Inscription, Babylonian
Version, Lines 1–29, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 1–10, 1956
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Version, Lines 1–29, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 1–10, 1956
18. "BEHISTUN Inscription - Persia" (http://atlantisonline.smfforfree2.com/index.php?topic=279
9.5;wap2). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120203155912/http://atlantisonline.smff
orfree2.com/index.php?topic=2799.5;wap2) from the original on 2012-02-03. Retrieved
2011-07-20.
19. "Documentation of Behistun Inscription Nearly Complete" (https://web.archive.org/web/2011
0918093441/http://www.chnpress.com/news/?section=2&id=2589). Chnpress.com. Archived
from the original (http://www.chnpress.com/news/?section=2&id=2589) on 2011-09-18.
Retrieved 2010-04-23.
20. "Iran's Bisotoon Historical Site Registered in World Heritage List" (http://www.payvand.com/
news/06/jul/1130.html). Payvand.com. 2006-07-13. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0181215122846/http://www.payvand.com/news/06/jul/1130.html) from the original on 2018-
12-15. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
21. "Intl. Experts to reread Bisotun inscriptions - Tehran Times" (https://web.archive.org/web/20
120529044243/http://www.tehrantimes.com/arts-and-culture/98233-intl-experts-to-reread-bi
sotun-inscriptions). Archived from the original (http://www.tehrantimes.com/arts-and-culture/
98233-intl-experts-to-reread-bisotun-inscriptions) on 2012-05-29. Retrieved 2012-04-14.
Intl. experts to reread Bisotun inscriptions, Tehran Times, May 27, 2012
22. Behistun, minor inscriptions DBb inscription- Livius (https://www.livius.org/sources/content/b
ehistun-persian-text/behistun-minor-inscriptions/). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
200310112440/https://www.livius.org/sources/content/behistun-persian-text/behistun-minor-i
nscriptions/) from the original on 2020-03-10. Retrieved 2020-03-26.
23. Potts, D. T. (1999). The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient
Iranian State (https://books.google.com/books?id=mc4cfzkRVj4C&pg=PA318). Cambridge
University Press. p. 318. ISBN 9780521564960. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2017
1012050532/https://books.google.com/books?id=mc4cfzkRVj4C) from the original on 2017-
10-12. Retrieved 2019-03-15.
24. Wiesehofer, Josef (2001). Ancient Persia (https://books.google.com/books?id=yFocMaM49
SgC&pg=PA13). I.B.Tauris. p. 13. ISBN 9781860646751. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20120502163656/http://books.google.com/books?id=yFocMaM49SgC) from the
original on 2012-05-02. Retrieved 2019-03-17.
25. Eastmond, Antony (2015). Viewing Inscriptions in the Late Antique and Medieval World (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=5uJwBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14). Cambridge University Press.
p. 14. ISBN 9781107092419. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200518234133/https:
//books.google.com/books?id=5uJwBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14) from the original on 2020-05-
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Rock-Inscriptions of Behistun taken in combination with the Accounts of Herodotus and
Ctesias (https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3917316;view=1up;seq=23). (Trinity
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Borger, Rykle. Die Chronologie des Darius-Denkmals am Behistun-Felse, Vandenhoeck &
Ruprecht, Göttingen, 1982, ISBN 3-525-85116-2.

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pp. 33–70."Oriental Institute | Oriental Institute Seminars (OIS)" (https://web.archive.org/web
/20140604035903/http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/pubs/catalog/ois/ois2.html).
Oi.uchicago.edu. 2009-06-18. Archived from the original (http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/pu
bs/catalog/ois/ois2.html) on 2014-06-04. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
Saber Amiri Parian, A New Edition of the Elamite Version of the Behistun Inscription (I) (http
s://cdli.ucla.edu/pubs/cdlb/2017/cdlb2017_003.html), Cuneiform Digital Library Bulletin
2017:003.
Schmitt, Rüdiger. Die altpersischen Inschriften der Achaimeniden. Editio minor mit
deutscher Übersetzung, Reichert, Wiesbaden, 2023, ISBN 978-3-7520-0716-9, pp. 9 and
36–96.

External links
King, L. W.; Thompson, R. Campbell (1907). The sculptures and inscription of Darius the
Great on the Rock of Behistûn in Persia : a new collation of the Persian, Susian and
Babylonian texts, with English translations, etc (https://archive.org/details/sculpturesinscri00
brituoft). British Museum.
The Behistun Inscription (https://www.livius.org/be-bm/behistun/behistun01.html)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225415/http://www.livius.org/be-bm/behi
stun/behistun01.html) 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine, livius.org article by Jona
Lendering, including Persian text (in cuneiform and transliteration), King and
Thompson's English translation, and additional materials
Tolman, Herbert Cushing (1908). The Behistan inscription of King Darius: translation and
critical notes to the Persian text with special reference to recent re-examinations of the rock
(https://archive.org/details/behistaninscript00daririch). Vanderbilt University.
Tolman's English translation of the inscription text (https://web.archive.org/web/2009041

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3214509/http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Persia/Behistun_txt.html)
Brief description of Bisotun (https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1222) from UNESCO
"Bisotun receives its World Heritage certificate" (https://web.archive.org/web/200906050109
57/http://www.chnpress.com/news/?section=2&id=7430), Cultural Heritage News Agency,
Tehran, July 3, 2008
Other monuments of Behistun (https://www.livius.org/be-bm/behistun/behistun-rem.html)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20161107071427/http://www.livius.org/be-bm/behistu
n/behistun-rem.html) 2016-11-07 at the Wayback Machine
Rüdiger Schmitt, "Bisotun i", Encyclopaedia Iranica [4] (http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/
bisotun-i)
Hyland, John O. (2014). "The Casualty Figures in Darius' Bisitun Inscription". Journal of
Ancient Near Eastern History. 1 (2): 173–199. doi:10.1515/janeh-2013-0001 (https://doi.org/
10.1515%2Fjaneh-2013-0001). S2CID 180763595 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusI
D:180763595).

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