Plate and Shell Models

Robert Nzengwa

Plate and Shell Models

Variational Methods in Plate and Shell Theory
Robert Nzengwa
University of Douala
Douala, Cameroon

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To my Mandjibo/Moungo
To my Family
To my Friends
Acknowledgements

A shell is a three-dimensional (3D) structure in which one dimension, referred herein

to as the thickness, is relatively smaller than the two others. A flat or curved metal
sheet is an excellent example. It can be observed that the curved metal sheet (shell)
offers a better resistance than the flat one (plate). Therefore, a shell structure certainly
resists by the mechanical properties of its constitutive material, but it also resists by
its geometric shape. This last property justifies the growing interest in using shell
structures for design, in very many fields in modern engineering. Roofing very large
spaces without columns, arch dams, cooling towers, storage tanks, water towers,
bridge structures or even pavements are non-exhaustive examples in civil engi-
neering. Aircraft fuselage and marine vessels in aircraft and marine construction,
industrial hoses, engine parts, pressure pipes, car hulls, etc. are examples of shell
structures. We cannot herein mention all the examples of structures defined as shells
or plates. The challenge for designers (architects and structural engineers) is how to
predict the mechanical behaviour of these structures under various loadings (static,
dynamic, thermal, etc.) during their service period. The relative smallness of the third
dimension, the thickness, has naturally inspired scientists to orient their research of a
solution by describing the 3D behaviour with parameters defined on the shell’s mid-
surface. In other words, it is about defining a two-dimensional (2D) model to predict
the 3D behaviour of the shell. One should be able to solve the governing equations
thus obtained. The first attempts at 2D modelling of a shell date back to the nineteenth
century with the works of Kirchhoff (1850) (see, for example, [61]) on plate theory
and Aron [9] in 1874, on shells. Between 1888 and 1963, Love [68] published many
papers. More historical details on this topic are found in Naghdi [75] or Love [68].
The hypotheses gathered under the name “Kirchhoff-Love hypotheses” have led to
the Kirchhoff-Love (K-L) model which is widely used to calculate thin shells. Let h
be the thickness of a shell and R the least radius of curvature in absolute value. We
define χ = h/2R as the characteristic ratio of the shell which should be strictly less
than 1. It is well known by practitioners that the K-L model becomes inappropriate
when χ is greater than a critical value χ0 situated between 0.15 and 0.2. Transverse
stresses through the thickness become significant and difficult to predict. Very many
numerical methods turn out inefficient. Models developed by Reissner and Mindlin

vii
viii Acknowledgements

(R-M) (cf. [70, 93, 94]) have proven better efficiency than (K-L) on “moderately thin”
plates by calculating transverse shear stresses through the thickness. Nevertheless,
they do not predict pinch stress, and numerical calculations become inefficient when
the thickness tends to zero. Many other models were developed during the second half
of the twentieth century to overcome these difficulties, some more or less rigorous or
simply heuristic. Despite continuous improvements in these models or their mathe-
matical justification (see Naghdi [74], Koiter [62], Ciarlet et al. [30] and [31]), many
problems still remain open. In any way, the different mathematical approaches in
shell theory (double series, integration of 3D equations, multi-scale dilatation and
limit analysis, etc.) are continuously more elaborated and less familiar to structural
engineers. Because of the improvements in high-performance numerical methods
and the tremendous computing capacity of computers available nowadays, archi-
tects design structures with very sophisticated shapes and require a very high level
of reliability that structural engineers should respect. How to transmit these calcu-
lating methods based on new knowledge, to structural engineers who are very chilly
to highly elaborated mathematical theories, is a permanent challenge to researchers
and professors in applied mechanics. The aim of this textbook is to present to struc-
tural engineers models in shell theory, some of them deduced from 3D elasticity and
validated on benchmarks, in their variational form suitable for implementing Finite
Element Methods and numerical calculations. In order to avoid getting lost in unnec-
essary digressions, we refer the reader to specialized articles or books, concerning
demonstrations which are purely mathematical. On the other hand, we have taken
care to expose, if only succinctly, any demonstration likely to equip the reader on the
resolution of practical problems. Master’s students in physics, mechanics and math-
ematics will discover with wonder, we hope, the applications of certain concepts
which have been taught to them in a spirit of finesse and rigour. Practitioners in
structural design analysis, as for them, will find herein a panoply of results which
they will be satisfied to apply directly to analyse elastic shell structures.
This book is organized into six chapters. Chapter 1 is a brief introduction to 3D and
2D curvilinear media. Essential notions on tensor algebra and differential geometry
of surfaces are treated. This chapter presents basic elements for the next chapters.
Chapter 2 is devoted to establishing the general equilibrium equations of shells. Kine-
matics deduced by Nzengwa et al. [87] from an asymptotic analysis of a multi-scale
dilatation (multiple scaling) of a 3D elastic shell problem was applied. In addition
to terms found in the classical K-L and R-M models, the equations contain also
terms related to the change of the third fundamental form of the shell’s mid-surface.
The energy impact of this tensor, called the Gauss deformation tensor, is remarkable
in numerical calculations presented in Chap. 5. Governing equations of transverse
shear and pinch stresses through-the-thickness are established. These equations are
ordinary differential equations defined in specific functional spaces with initial and
final conditions. Elastic dynamic analysis is studied in Chap. 3. Results obtained by
Nzengwa [87] and [88], deduced from the 3D equivalent problem, show the exis-
tence of very many inertia terms, generally neglected in classical thin shell theory.
Moreover, these additional terms contain and justify the corrective transverse inertia
Acknowledgements ix

term suggested in 1967 by the Russian engineer Morozov [72], to be considered in

aircraft wing vibration analysis.
During the deformation of a thick shell, the variation in thickness creates signif-
icant transverse stresses. The model studied in 2005 by Nzengwa [90] is presented.
Governing equations of the distribution of the transverse stresses are established. All
the equations obtained, thanks to the theory of compact operators, are presented in
variational forms suitable for numerical calculations. Thin shells constitute a large
class of structures to which numerous works and books have been devoted. Although
the equations of shells and plates are always quite complex, requiring appropriate
numerical methods, with some simplifying assumptions, a certain number of prob-
lems in thin plates and shells are solved analytically. In Chap. 4, membrane, bending
or mixed (membrane and flectional) theories of this class will be presented with appli-
cations in current engineering. Orthotropic plates or membrane prestressed plates are
studied. Huber and Von Karman equations obtained are expressed in a variational
form. As said earlier, shell equations require appropriate numerical methods. Even
in the variational form, the equations contain second order derivatives which need at
least C 1 [33] finite elements. Moreover, continuity of deformation and stress at the
common edge of elements should be ensured. These requirements have led to the
creation of very sophisticated finite elements highly memory-greedy. Recent numer-
ical methods are presented in Chap. 5. The Gradient Recovery method ((GR), Naga
et al. [7]) is applied to these equations, requiring only finite elements of class C 0 .
Results are compared to those of different finite elements such as Discrete Kirch-
hoff Triangles (DKT) on benchmarks. The GR is not only memoryless-greedy, but
also converges more rapidly to reference results. Another recent method, the Strain
Deformation approach (SD), Zeighampour et al. [106], has been applied with the
same conclusions. These two methods have shown that the characteristic parameter √
2χ = h/R, which delimits the boundary between thin and thick shells, is around 0.1
and also beyond this critical value, strain energy or additional rigidity contributed by
the change in Gauss curvature becomes significant. Chapter 6 is devoted to stiff-
ened shells, thermoelastic shells under thermal load in steady state and also to
anisotropic shells. This last category is largely addressed because of the growing
interest in composite structured or unstructured materials. This is particularly the
case of periodic 3D structures such as elevation towers, 2D such as embankments
reinforced, for example, by a regular solid bentonite intrusion grid or 1D such as peri-
odic stratified media. Their homogenized moduli are easily determined by applying
the two-scale convergence theorem established in 1989 by Nguetseng [82], which
give them a homogeneous anisotropic structure. Then the 2D shell model is derived as
in the above paragraph. Some authors have proposed particular kinematics resulting
from some expansion series according to the thickness parameter. These heuristic
models are efficient in solving some specific problems but cannot be applied else-
where without precautions. Finally, some shells, for example conical, can only be
described correctly by a thickening in a direction different from the normal to the
mid-surface. Their equilibrium equations are better analysed by using the theory of
oriented surfaces developed by the Cosserat brothers [37]. A brief presentation of
these heuristic models and Cosserat shells ends this chapter.
x Acknowledgements

Two appendices are added at the end of the text. The first appendix is devoted to
essential knowledge in 3D linear elasticity that has been used throughout the text.
The second appendix is a summary of the essential points of each chapter of the
textbook for fast learning of master’s research students or fast use of practitioners in
shell structures.
Throughout this document, we shall make use of the repeated index convention
in both curvilinear and Cartesian coordinate systems. Derivations will sometimes
be noted with the symbol “,” and will be understood in the classical sense or in the
sense of distribution of functional analysis, assuming that all the conditions for their
validity are met. The domains in Rn , n = 1, 2, 3 are deemed bounded and sufficiently
smooth. We shall make use of the spaces of square-integrable functions L2 () or
L2 (S) and sometimes with their first and second derivatives also square-integrable.
They will be equipped with their natural norms. Further notations will be indicated
throughout the document.
I want to thank my former students Nkongho A. Joseph, Feumo Achille Germain,
Ngatcha Ndengna Arno Roland, Djopkop Kouanang Landry and others, who, for
many years, have encouraged me to write this document. I thank particularly Feumo
Achille Germain and Ngatcha Ndengna Arno Roland who have spent a lot of time
formatting the text. I am indebted to Prof. Gabriel Nguetseng whose peer review
and suggestions led to the rearrangement of certain paragraphs. Finally, I especially
thank Prof. Philippe G. Ciarlet, who for the first time offered me the opportunity to
face the theory of shells.
Contents

1 Curvilinear Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Geometry of a 3D Curvilinear Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Parametrization and Covariant Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Metric Tensor, Line Element and Contravariant Base . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 Area Element, Volume Element and Change
of Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.4 Covariant Derivation and Christoffel Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.5 Strain Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.6 Equilibrium Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2 Surface Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.1 Parametrization, Covariant and Contravariant Bases,
Fundamental Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.2 2D Covariant Derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.2.3 Variation of Fundamental Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2 Equilibrium Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.1 Geometry of a Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.1.1 Description and Covariant Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.1.2 Relations Between 3D and 2D Christoffel Symbols . . . . . . . 35
2.2 Euler’s Equations and Variational Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2.1 Variational Formulation of Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2.2 Thick Shells Euler’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.2.3 Calculations of Transverse Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.2.4 Best First-Order Model for Thick Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3 Dynamic Evolution of Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.1 Dynamic Equilibrium Equation of the N-T Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.1.1 Variational Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.1.2 First-Order N-T Model Dynamic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.1.3 Transverse Stress Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.2 Free Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.2.1 Free Vibrations with Total Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

xi
xii Contents

3.2.2 First-Order Free Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

3.2.3 Free Vibrations with Simplified Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.3 The Model “N” of Thick Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.3.1 Existence of a Transverse Strain Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.3.2 Choice of a Transverse Distribution Function . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4 Thin Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.1 Theory of Thin Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.2 The Membrane Theory of Thin Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.2.1 Axisymmetric Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.2.2 Spherical Dome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2.3 Equilibrium of a Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.2.4 Equilibrium of a Cylindrical Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.3 The Mixed Theory (Membrane-Bending) of Thin Shells . . . . . . . . . 89
4.3.1 Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.3.2 Equilibrium Equation of the Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.4 Theory of Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.4.1 Theory of Pure Bending Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.4.2 The Von Karman Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.5 Theory of Orthotropic Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.5.1 The Huber Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.5.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5 Numerical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.1 Generalities of the 2D FEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.1.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.1.2 Element Stiffness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.1.3 Element Nodal Force Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.1.4 Numerical Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.2 C 0 Finite Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.2.1 Finite Element Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.2.2 Gradient Recovery Method (GR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.3 Curved Triangular Elements and Assumed Strain Approach
for Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.3.1 Curved Triangle Element for Cylindrical Shells . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.3.2 Shifted Lagrange Curved Finite Element (sh-L) . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.3.3 Stiffness Matrix and Nodal Force Vector per Element
in the GR Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.4.1 Cylindrical Shell with Gradient Recovery (GR)
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.4.2 Cylindrical N-T Shell Under the Assumed Strain
Approach with Shifted Lagrange Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.4.3 Spherical Shell with GR Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Contents xiii

6 Other Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

6.1 Stiffened, Thermoelastic and Homogeneous Anisotropic
Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.1.1 Variational Equation of Stiffened Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.1.2 First-Order Variational Equations of Stiffened Shells . . . . . . 150
6.1.3 Thermoelastic Isotropic Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.1.4 Anisotropic Homogeneous Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.2 Heterogeneous Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.2.1 General Periodic Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.2.2 Application on a Two-Component Periodic Stratified
Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.2.3 A Simplified Calculation Method in a Stratified Shell . . . . . 165
6.3 Some Semi-Analytic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.3.1 Models with Rigid Normal Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.3.2 Models with Higher Order Expansion Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.4 Cosserat Thick Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6.4.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6.4.2 Metric and Strain Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.4.3 Equilibrium Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

Appendix A: Brief Introduction to Three-Dimensional (3D) Linear

Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Appendix B: Summary of Chapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Appendix C: Solution of Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 3D curvilinear system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Fig. 1.2 Different coordinate systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Fig. 1.3 Convected coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Fig. 1.4 Surface coordinate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Fig. 1.5 Curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Fig. 1.6 Curvature of a cylindrical surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Fig. 1.7 Curvature of a spherical surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Fig. 1.8 Surface of revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Fig. 1.9 Transformation of a plane surface into a cylindrical surface . . . . 28
Fig. 1.10 Cylindrical tank with hemispherical tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Fig. 2.1 Shell with mid-surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Fig. 2.2 Border local base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Fig. 4.1 Hyperbolic tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Fig. 4.2 Vertical equilibrium of a cap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Fig. 4.3 A self-weighted spherical tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Fig. 4.4 Vertical equilibrium of a spherical cap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Fig. 4.5 A pressurized spherical tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Fig. 4.6 A pressurized cylindrical tank with hemispherical tips . . . . . . . . 88
Fig. 4.7 Water pipe over the river Wouri and structural model . . . . . . . . . 90
Fig. 4.8 Rectangular and circular plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Fig. 4.9 Moments on a plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Fig. 4.10 Evaluation of the maximum deflection of a simple support
plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Fig. 4.11 Simple support slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Fig. 4.12 Slab under concentrated loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Fig. 4.13 Pressurized pipe with end discs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Fig. 4.14 Bent slab under additional membrane loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Fig. 4.15 Unevenly reinforced slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Fig. 4.16 x-direction ribbed slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Fig. 4.17 Composite profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Fig. 4.18 Prestressed floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

xv
xvi List of Figures

Fig. 4.19 Grid beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Fig. 5.1 Lagrange and Hermite elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Fig. 5.2 Example of renumbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Fig. 5.3 Adjacent triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Fig. 5.4 Designation of nodes on a triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Fig. 5.5 Node positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Fig. 5.6 Position of node, Case 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Fig. 5.7 Different positions of nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Fig. 5.8 Triangles with 18 dof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Fig. 5.9 Triangles with 9 degrees of freedom (dof) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Fig. 5.10 Lagrange element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Fig. 5.11 Benchmark of a pinched cylindrical roof on rigid
diaphragms. Convergence at load points C and D . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Fig. 5.12 Self-weighted cylindrical roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Fig. 5.13 Convergence curves at load points B and C on transverse
displacement of the cylindrical roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Fig. 5.14 Benchmark of a hemispherical shell; convergence
at point A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Fig. 5.15 Effect of the variation of h/R = 0.10; 0.30; 0.325; 0.40; 0.50 . . . 146
Fig. 5.16 Variation of membrane displacement UA at A with regard
to h/2R = 0.006; 0.099; 0.12; 0.15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Fig. 6.1 Stiffened shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Fig. 6.2 3D, 2D and 1D periodic media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Fig. 6.3 Generic cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Fig. 6.4 Two-component generic cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Fig. 6.5 Conical trunk shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Fig. A.1 Position vector before and after transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Fig. A.2 Transported objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Fig. A.3 Length and angle change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Fig. A.4 Deformation in eigen directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Fig. A.5 Interpretation of plane strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Fig. A.6 Internal force vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Fig. A.7 Simple loads and stress tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Fig. A.8 Euler’s equations on a dam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Fig. A.9 Interpretation of Poisson’s ratio and shear modulus . . . . . . . . . . 193
Fig. A.10 Torsion of a bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Fig. A.11 Pressurized spherical tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198