SEHH2241 L101/102 Lecture #3 Sem1 2022

1 Terminology
• A theorem is a statement that can be shown to be true, i.e. it is a fact or result.

• A lemma is a less important theorem that is helpful in the proof of other results.

• A corollary is a theorem that can be established directly from a theorem that has been
proved.

• An axiom (or postulate) is a statement we assume to be true.

• A proof is a valid argument that establishes the truth of a theorem/lemma/corollary.

• A conjecture is a statement that is being proposed to be a true statement,

Example.

Theorem (Spectral theorem for matrices). A real square matrix is symmetric if and only if it is
orthogonally diagonalizable.

Lemma. All eigenvalues of a symmetric matrix are real.

Corollary. For any real matrix A, the product AA⊤ is orthogonally diagonalizable.

Axiom (1st Euclid’s Postulate). A straight line segment can be drawn joining any two points.

Conjecture (Goldbach conjecture). Every even integer greater than 2 can be written as the sum of
two primes.

2 Techniques of Proof

2.1 Direct proof

Let p and q be statements. Then we can prove a statement ‘If p, then q’ by

Direct proof : assume the hypothesis p holds, then show that q holds.

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Example. Show that if m and n are even numbers, then mn is also an even number.

Proof. Suppose m and n are even. Then we can write m = 2k1 and n = 2k2 for some integers k1 and
k2 . Hence the product
mn = (2k1 )(2k2 ) = 4k1 k2 = 2(2k1 k2 ) = 2k3 ,

where k3 = k1 k2 is an integer. Therefore, mn is also even.

Exercise 1. Prove the following statements.

(a) If m and n are even numbers, then m + n is also an even number.

(b) If m and n are odd numbers, then mn is also an odd number.

(c) If x and y are rational numbers, then x + y is also a rational number.

(d) Let n > 2 be an odd number. If n is a prime number, then n + 1 is not a prime number.

2.2 Proof by Contrapositive

Let p and q be statements. Then we can prove a statement ‘If p, then q’ by

Proof by Contrapositive: show that ‘If ¬q, then ¬p’, i.e. assume ¬q holds, then show that
¬p holds.

The method of proof-by-contrapositive is valid since the statement p → q is logically equivalent to the
statement ¬q → ¬p.

Example. Show that if n2 is an even number , then n is also an even number.

Proof. Suppose n is odd. Then n = 2k + 1 for some integer k. Therefore,

n2 = (2k + 1)2 = (2k)2 + 2(2k) + 1 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k 2 + 2k) + 1 = 2m + 1

for some integer m = 2k 2 + 2k. So n2 is odd.

Exercise 2. Prove the following statements.

(a) If 7m is an odd number, then m is also an odd number.

(b) If n2 is an odd number, then n is also an odd number.

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2.3 Proof by Contradiction

Let p and q be statements. Then we can prove a statement ‘If p, then q’ by

Proof by Contradiction (if p then q): assume ¬q and p hold, then show that there is a
contradiction.

This method of proof-by-contradiction is valid since the statement p → q is logically equivalent to the
statement (¬q ∧ p) → F .

Example. Show that if 7 pigeons are placed into 6 pigeonholes, then there is at least one pigeonhole
containing more than one pigeons.

Proof. Suppose on the contrary that all 6 pigeonholes contain no more than one pigeon. Then we can
have at most 6 pigeons, which contradicts to the assumption we have 7 pigeons.

Now, if there is only one statement p, then we can prove this by

Proof by Contradiction (p): assume ¬p holds, then show that there is a contradiction.

This method of proof-by-contradiction is valid since the statement p is logically equivalent to the
statement ¬p → F .
√
Example. Prove that 2 is irrational.
√ √ p
Proof. Suppose on the contrary that 2 is rational. Then 2= for some integers p, q which are
q
relatively prime. Then we write
√ p √
2= =⇒ q 2 = p =⇒ 2q 2 = p2 .
q

It follows that p is a multiple of 2 by the previous example. Therefore, we can write p = 2k for some
integer k. From the last equality above,

2q 2 = p2 = (2k)2 = 4k 2 =⇒ q 2 = 2k 2

and so q is also a multiple of 2 by the previous example again, which contradicts to our assumption
√
that p and q are relatively prime. Thus, 2 is irrational.

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 Exercise 3. Prove the following statements.

(a) Let x be a real number. If x > 0, then 1/x > 0.

√
(b) 3 is irrational.

√
(c) p is irrational for any prime p.

(d) log2 9 is irrational.

√
(e) If x is irrational, then x is also irrational.

(f) There are infinitely many prime numbers.

2.4 Proof of ‘p if and only if q’.

Let p and q be statements. Then we can prove a statement ‘p if and only if q’ by showing one
of the followings:

(1) both ‘If p, then q’ and ‘If q, then p’. (3) both ‘If p, then q’ and ‘If ¬p, then ¬q’.

(2) both ‘If ¬q, then ¬p’ and ‘If q, then p’. (4) both ‘If ¬q, then ¬p’ and ‘If ¬p, then ¬q’.

‘If p, then q’ is called by the ‘only if part’ or denoted by (=⇒), while ‘If q, then p’ is called by the ‘if
part’ or denoted by (⇐=). We also write ‘if and only if’ as ‘iff’.

Remark. Given a statement p(x) which depends on x, The negation

(1) ¬ (For all x, p(x) holds) ⇐⇒ There exists x such that ¬p(x) holds.

(2) ¬ (There exists x such that p(x) holds) ⇐⇒ For all x, ¬p(x) holds.

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 Exercise 4. Prove the following statements

(a) An integer n is even if and only if n + 1 is odd.

(b) An integer n is even if and only if 3n + 4 is even.

(c) Let x and y be real numbers. Then x = y if and only if x ≤ y and x ≥ y.

(d) Let x and y be real numbers. Then x = y if and only if |x − y| < ε for any " > 0.

(e) Let A be a square matrix such that A ∕= I but A2 = I. Show that An = I for some
positive integer n if and only if n is even.

2.5 Proof by cases

Let p and q be statements. Then we can prove a statement ‘If p, then q’ by

Proof by Cases: divide p into different cases p1 , p2 , · · · , pn , then prove each statment pi → q.

The method of proof-by-cases is valid since the statement (p1 ∧ p2 ∧ · · · ∧ pn ) → q is logically equiva-
lent to the statement (p1 → q) ∧ (p2 → q) ∧ · · · ∧ (pn → q).

Exercise 5. Prove the following statements.

(a) n2 − 4n < 0 for n = 1, 2, 3.

(b) n2 + n is an even number for any integer n.

(c) n2 + n3 is an even number for any integer n.

(d) n(n + 1)(n + 2) is divisible by 3 for any integer n.

(e) If x is a real number, then x ≤ |x|.

(f) Let m and n be integers. If mn is odd, then m is odd and n is odd.

An alternative form of proof by cases arises when the consequent of an implication involves a disjunc-
tion ‘If p, then q or r’. In this situation, we just need to prove the statement ‘If p and not q, then r’.
This is valid as p → (q ∨ r) is logically equivalent to (p ∧ ¬q) → r.

Example. Show that if the sum of a real number with itself is equal to its square, then the number

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is 0 or 2.

Proof. Suppose the sum of a real number x with itself is equal to its square, i.e. x + x = x2 . Further
suppose x ∕= 0. Then we can divide x on both side and get x = 2.

2.6 Existence

Given a statement p(x) which depends on x, we can prove the existence of x, i.e. the statement ‘there
exists x such that p(x) holds’ by a

• constructive proof : find a specific value of x such that the statement p(x) holds.

• non-constructive proof : Suppose ¬p(x) holds for every x. Then find a contradiction.

Example. Prove that there exists irrational numbers x and y such that xy is rational.
√
Proof. (1) Constructive proof: Take x = 2 and y = log2 9, which are both irrational. Then
!√ "log2 9 !√ "log2 (32 ) √ 2 log (3)
xy = = 2log2 3 = 3,
2
2 = 2 = 2

which is rational.
√
√ 2 √
(2) Non-constructive proof: Consider the number 2 . If it is rational then take x = y = 2 and
we’re done. Suppose it is irrational. Then
# √ $√ 2 !√ "√ 2√ 2 ! √ "2
√ 2
2 = 2 2 = 2,

which is rational.

Remark. From wikipedia, this proof is non-constructive because it relies on the statement ”Either
√ √2
2 is rational or it is irrational”, which is an instance of the law of excluded middle, which is not
valid within a constructive proof. The non-constructive proof does not construct an example x and y
and shows that one of them but does not show which one must yield the desired example.

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 Exercise 6. Prove the following statements.

(a) Let a ∕= 0 and b be real numbers. Then there exists a real number x such that ax = b.

(b) There exists an even prime number.

(c) There exists 2 × 2 matrices A and B such that AB = BA.

2.7 Uniqueness

Given a statement p(x) which depends on x, we can prove the uniqueness by showing ‘If p(x) ∧ p(y),
then x = y’.

Example. Let x be real. Show that the equation 3x + 1 = 2 has unique solution.

Proof. Suppose 3x + 1 = 2 = 3y + 1 for some x and y. Then

3x + 1 = 3y + 1

=⇒ 3x = 3y

=⇒ x = y.

Example. Show for any real number x, there exists a unique element 1 such that x · 1 = 1 · x = x.

Proof. Suppose x · 1 = 1′ · x = x. Then 1 = 1′ · 1 = 1′ .

Exercise 7. Prove the following statements.

(a) Let a ∕= 0 and b be real numbers. Then the equation ax = b has unique solution.

(b) For any real number x, there exists a unique element −x such that x+(−x) = (−x)+x = 0.

(c) The zero matrix is unique.

(d) The minimum min{x1 , x2 , · · · , xn } of any real numbers x1 , · · · , xn is unique.

(e) The maximum max{x1 , x2 , · · · , xn } of any real numbers x1 , · · · , xn is unique.

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3 Disprove a statement
Let p(x) and q(x) be statements which depend on x. The summaries the ways of disproving a
statement.

Statement Way to disprove

p(x) → q(x) Find a value of x such that p(x) → ¬q(x)
For all x, p(x) holds Show that there exists x such that ¬p(x) holds
There exists x such that p(x) holds Show that for all x, ¬p(x) holds

The first two ways are

Proof by counterexample: show that a statement fails for a particular case.

Example. Disprove that if A is a 2 × 2 matrix such that Ax = 0 for some x in R2 , then x = 0.

% ' % ' % '
1 0 x 0
Solution. Let A = & (. Solving Ax = 0 gives x = & 1 ( = & ( for any real t. Then take t = 1
1 0 x2 t
% ' % '
x1 0
yields & ( = & (, which is not the zero vector 0. !
x2 1

Exercise 8. Disprove the following statements.

(a) Every prime number is odd.

(b) Every function f : R → R satisfies f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y).

(c) There exists two rational number m, n such that mn is irrational.

(d) If x > y, then |x| > |y|.

(e) If x and y are irrational, then x + y is also irrational.

(f) If A and B are invertible matrices of same size, then A + B is also an invertible matrix.

(g) Rational numbers have unique representation.

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A Some number systems
Let n be an integer. Then n is a

• even number if n is a multiple of 2, i.e. n = 2k for some integer k.

p
• rational number if n can be written as a fraction, i.e. n = for some integer p, q and
q
q ∕= 0.

• prime number if n ≥ 2 and the only numbers that divide n are 1 and n itself.

• composite number if n ≥ 2 and it is not a prime number.

p 1
Remark. A rational number may have different representatives. For example, can be written as
q 2
2 3 4
, , · · · . Therefore when writing a proof, we usually select a simplest representative which restrict
4 6 8
p and q to be relatively prime. (See next section).

B Greatest common divisor

Let a and b be two integers which are not both 0. Then

(a) the greatest common divisor of two integers a and b is the largest integer that divides
both a and b, written as gcd(a, b).

(b) a and b are relatively prime if a and b do not have common divisor, i.e. gcd(a, b) = 1.

Example. 4 and 12 are not relatively prime as gcd(4, 12) = 4 ∕= 1, while 3 and 11 are relatively prime
as gcd(3, 11) = 1.