Lecture-4

1. What is the main problem of the Byte count method in the framing
method? (5 no slide)
= The first framing method (Byte count method) uses a field in the header to specify the

✓The trouble with this algorithm is that the count can be garbled by a transmission
number of characters in the frame.

error. For example, if the character count of 5 in the second frame of fig. b becomes a 7,
the destination will get out of synchronization and will be unable to locate the start of the
next frame

2. What will happen if FLAG and ESC byte appear on the data or
payload field? Show the phenomenon with a diagram. (7 no slide – only
fig)
=

3. Mention the best case and worst case of byte stuffing. (10 – 2nd & 3rd
para)
=✓ For instance, if there are no flag bytes in the data, 100 bytes might be carried in a
✓ If, however, the data consists solely of flag bytes, each flag byte will be escaped and
frame of roughly 100 bytes (best case).

the frame will become roughly 200 bytes long (worst case). (byte stuffing case)

4. What is the Worst case of bit stuffing? (10 – 4rd para)

= If, the data consists solely of flag bytes, each flag byte will be escaped and the frame
will become roughly 200 bytes long (worst case). (byte stuffing case)
With bit stuffing, the increase would be roughly 12.5% as 1 bit is added to every byte.
(bit stuffing case)
 5. Compare error correction through retransmission and autonomous
error correction. (12 no slide)
=
Aspect Retransmission Autonomous Error Correction
Detects errors and requests retransmission of corrupted
Corrects errors without requesting
Definition data packets. retransmission from sender.
Receiver sends negative acknowledgment (NAK) or Errors are corrected locally by the
requests retransmission. Sender retransmits affected
receiver without involving the
Process data packets. sender.
Dependency on Independent of sender; receiver
Sender Dependent on sender to retransmit data. corrects errors autonomously.
Lower overhead as no additional
Increased overhead due to additional requests and communication for
Overhead retransmissions. retransmission is required.
Minimal delay as errors are
corrected locally without waiting
Delay May introduce delay due to retransmission process. for retransmission.
More efficient in terms of
Less efficient in terms of bandwidth utilization and bandwidth utilization and
Efficiency response time. response time.
Suitable for scenarios where real-
Suitable for unreliable communication channels where time processing or low latency is
Applicability errors are common. required.
May be more complex to
implement depending on the error
Complexity Relatively simple to implement. correction algorithm used.

6. Example of CRC code. (17 & 18 no slide)

= Example-1:
Given, Message bit string M=1010001101 (10 bits)
Generator bit string G=110101 (6 bits)
Determine remainder polynomial R(x) and transmitted polynomial T(x).
7. Give the basic principle of stop and flow control. (28 no slide)
= ✓The simplest form of flow control, known as stop-and-wait flow control.
✓A source entity transmits a frame. After the destination entity receives the frame, it
indicates its willingness to accept another frame by sending back an acknowledgment to

✓The source must wait until it receives the acknowledgment before sending the next
the frame just received.

✓The destination can thus stop the flow of data simply by withholding acknowledgment.
frame.

8. What are the stop and flow control limitations? (29 – 1st & last para)
=✓This protocol works fine when a message is sent in a few large frames but its
✓ For this case of small frame the line is always underutilized
performance is very poor for small frames.

9. Show sliding window flow control for the case of the variable window
with a diagram. (35, 36, 37 – only diagram)

=
 10. What is the main drawback of Random Access Protocol? Why
sometimes is preferable. (45 – 3rd para)
= For example ALOHA protocol. The efficiency of such protocol is very poor under
heavy traffic condition because of frequent collision of packets. Under light traffic
condition the throughput of such protocol is high due to low probability of collision.
This type of protocol is very simple and can be implemented easily.

11. Compare exhaustive service, gated service, and limited service. (48, 49,
and 50 no slide)
=When a station captures a token its serves the queue in one of the following three type
of service.

(a) The server serves

all the packet (including those
received during the transmission)
 in the queue
(no packets of a
customer is left) called
exhaustive service.

(b) The server serves only its

queued packet which arrived just before
capturing the token. In other words, the
token is made free after transmitting the
packets which were waiting before the
transmission began i.e. the packets in
the queue arrived after getting
the token will not be served.
This type service is called
gated service.

(c) The server serves a limited

number of packet k may be less than
the number of waiting packets in the
queue called limited service.

12. Why do wireless networks use CA(Collision Avoidance) instead of

CD(Collision Detection)? (57 no slide)
= ➢The wireless LAN system cannot detect collisions because the power of the
transmitting device is much stronger than the its received signal power.
➢In this situation collision detection is not practical, it makes sense to try to devise a
system that can help prevent collisions. Thus the CA is CSMA/CA refers to ‘collision
avoidance’.
➢In wired communication both the transmitted and received signals are equally strong
therefore collision can be detected easily, whereas situation is not favorable in wireless
link, there collision avoidance (CA) is used in wireless network instead of collision
detection (CD).

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Lecture-5
1. Show the flow of IP packets on a heterogeneous network. (3 no slide -
only fig.)
=

2. Draw an IPV4 packet and mention the functions of differentiated

service. (6 no slide)
= Differentiated Services (8 bits) It is intended to distinguish between different classes of
service. Various combinations of reliability and speed are possible. For digitized voice,
fast delivery is more essential than accurate delivery. For file transfer, error-free
transmission is more important than fast transmission. This field is related to three
parameters: {Delay, Throughput, Reliability} in communication.

3. Give the functions of the protocol field of the IPV4 packet. (12 no slide -
without fig.)
=Protocol (8 bits)
 The Protocol field tells it which transport process to give the packet to. TCP is one possibility, but so are
UDP and some others.
Identifies the higher-level protocol
“6” for the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
“17” for the User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
4. What is the function of flow level in IPV6? (19 - 1st, 2nd & 3rd para)
= ➢The Flow label field provides a way for a source and destination to mark groups of
packets that have the same requirements and should be treated in the same way by the
network.
➢For example, a stream of packets from one process (on a certain source host) to a process on a
specific destination host might have stringent (strict condition) delay requirements and thus need
reserved bandwidth.
➢When a packet with a nonzero Flow label shows up, all the routers can look it up in internal tables to
see what kind of special treatment it requires.

5. What is the function of the Hop limit of IPV6? (20 no slides - middle
para)
=➢ Next header field tells which transport protocol (e.g., TCP, UDP) is passed to the packet.
➢The Hop limit field is used to keep packets from living forever. It is, in practice, the same as the Time
to live field in IPv4, namely, a field that is decremented on each hop.
6. Mention the function of the flow level of IPV6. (19 no slide) (4 no qus
same just fig added)
=➢The Flow label field provides a way for a source and destination to mark groups of
packets that have the same requirements and should be treated in the same way by the
network.
➢For example, a stream of packets from one process (on a certain source host) to a process on
a specific destination host might have stringent (strict condition) delay requirements and thus
need reserved bandwidth.
➢When a packet with a nonzero Flow label shows up, all the routers can look it up in internal
tables to see what kind of special treatment it requires.

7. Examples 1, 2, and 3. (33 and 34 no slide)

=Example-1 The example of a customized subnet mask for class B is like:
Example: Determine the number of subnet and host per subnet
Ans. The number of subnet = 26 = 64
The number of hosts/subnet = 210 -2= 1022

Example-2
If the subnet mask 255.255.240.0 is used for a class B IP address then find the number of
subnets and number of hosts/subnet
Binary: 11111111 . 11111111 . 11110000 . 00000000
Decimal: 255.255.240.0
The number of hosts/subnet = 212 – 2 = 4094
The number of subnets = 24 = 16
Example-2
If the subnet mask 255.255.255.192 is used for a class C IP address then fined the
number of subnets and number of hosts/subnet.
The number of hosts/subnet = 26 – 2 = 62
The number of subnets = 22 = 4
Example-3
A class C IP address is 150.100.14.163 and the corresponding subnet mask is
255.255.255.128 Determine the maximum number of hosts per subnet and the number of
subnets.
Ans. The subnet mask in both binary and decimal is like:
11111111. 11111111. 11111111. 10000000
255.255.255.128
Here 1 bits are for subnets and 7 bits for hosts.
Therefore, the number of hosts per subnet 27 -2 = 126
The number of subnets are 21= 2
8. Given the example of the IPV6 address and its format. (35 no slide)
= IPv6 uses 128 bit and expressed in 32 hexadecimal numbers like:
EFAC: BA89: 7529:AFDC: 92AF:8654:1293 :29A2
After every 4 digits a colon ‘:’ is used therefore 32 digits + 7
colons = 39 characters hence called addressing system of 39 characters.
In some addresses huge number of zeros exits like:
DFAC: 0000: 0000:0000: 0009:03AC1:5923 :FEA2 can be expressed as:
DFAC: 0: 0:0: 9:3AC1:5923 :FEA2
Or
DFAC: : 9:3AC1:5923 :FEA2
Double colon can be used only once in a IPv6 address.

Lecture-6
1. Compare connectionless and connection-oriented services. (3 no slide)
 = If connectionless service is offered, packets are injected onto the subnet individually
and routed independently of each other. No advanced setup is needed. In this context, the
packet are frequently called datagram's (in analogy with telegram) and the network is
called a datagram network.
If connection oriented service is used, a path from the source to destination router must
be established before any data packets can be sent. This connection is called a VC
(virtual circuit), in analogy with the physical circuits set up by the telephone system, and
the network is called a virtual circuit network.
2. Routing tables on connectionless service. Draw the routing table
under two-phase (1st and last path).( 5 no slide - only fig)
=

3. The routing table of connection-oriented or Virtual Circuit. (8 no slide)

[Table drawn from diagram]
=Here, host H1 has established connection 1 with host H2. This connection is
remembered as the first entry in each of the routing tables.
The first line of A’s table says that if a packet bearing connection identifier 1 comes in
from H1, it is to be sent to router C and given connection identifier 1. Similarly, the first
entry at C routes the packet to E, also with connection identifier 1.
4. Compare Datagram and Virtual Circuit. (10 no slide- 1st 4 ta)
=

5. Problem on Sink tree.(16 and 18 no slides)

=

18 no slide (green pic)

6. Problem on shortest path routing. (22 no slide)

 Consider node-A as the source and
the OSPF will determine the shortest
path from node A. Initially weighs are
kept infinity.

Remaining (unvisited) nodes:

{A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H}

Visited nodes: { }

7. How to avoid axis flooding. (31 no slide)

=Flooding is a static algorithm in which every incoming packet is sent out on every
outgoing line except the one it arrived on like HUB. Flooding obviously generates vast
numbers of duplicating packets. Several remedial measures are taken against huge
duplications of packets:
*Using hop counter in the header of each packet.
*An alternative technique for damming the flood is to keep track of which packets have
been flooded, to avoid sending them out a second time.
*Using selective flooding algorithm where the routers do not send every incoming
packet out on every line, only on those lines that are going approximately in the right
direction.

Lecture-7
 1. Show the arrangement of a three-way handshake in connection
establishment. (10 no slide - only fig(a)).
=

2. What will happen when old duplicate CR arrives? (11 no slide)

=*Now let us see how the three -way handshake works in the presence of delayed duplicate
control TPDUs .
*In Fig . below, the first TPDU is a delayed duplicate CONNECTION REQUEST from an old
connection . This TPDU arrives at host 2 without host 1's knowledge . Host 2 reacts to this
TPDU by sending host 1 an ACK TPDU, in effect asking for verification that host 1 was indeed
trying to set up a new connection .
*When host 1 rejects host 2's attempt to establish a connection, host 2 realizes that it was tricked
by a delayed duplicate and abandons the connection . In this way, a delayed duplicate does no
damage .

3. Show the scenario of the case for both old duplicate CR and old
duplicate data arrives. (12 no slides - fig(c))
=The worst case is when both a delayed
CONNECTION REQUEST and an ACK are floating
around in the subnet. This case is shown in Fig. below.
*As in the previous example, host 2 gets a delayed
CONNECTION REQUEST and replies to it using y
as the initial sequence number.
*When the second delayed TPDU arrives at
host 2, the fact that z has been acknowledged
rather than y tells host 2 that this, too, is an
old duplicate.

4. Compare asymmetric and symmetric release. (13 no slide - 2nd para)

 = Asymmetric release is the way the telephone system works: when one party hangs
up, the connection is broken. Symmetric release treats the connection as two separate
unidirectional connections and requires each one to be released separately

5. Show the arrangement of a 3-way handshake for CR release. (17 no

slide - fig(a))
=*We will next consider using a three –
way handshake for four scenarios of
releasing connection .
* In Fig . (a), we see the normal case in
which one of the users sends a DR
(DISCONNECTION REQUEST ) TPDU
to initiate the connection release .
*When DR arrives, the recipient sends back a
DR TPDU, too, and starts a timer , just in case
its DR is lost .
* When this DR arrives, the original sender
sends back an ACK TPDU and releases the
connection .
* Finally, when the ACK TPDU arrives,
the receiver also releases the connection .

6. How to take the problem of loss of acknowledgment. (18 no slide)

=If the final ACK TPDU is lost, as shown in Fig. 6-14(b), the situation is saved by the
timer. When the timer expires, the connection is released anyway.

Lecture-8
1. Why DNS server is necessary? (6 no slide - Without 2nd para)
=✓Although a user terminal or server theoretically can refer to web pages, mailboxes,
web server and other resources by using the network addresses (IP address) of the

✓Consequently, high-level, readable names were introduced like:

computers on which they are stored, these addresses are hard for people to remember.

✓Nevertheless, the network itself understands only numerical addresses, so some

www.cs.washington.edu against the company’s website regardless of its IP address.

mechanism is required to convert the ASCII strings to network addresses.

2. Is it possible to serve DNS by a single server? (8 no slide - 1st and 2nd

para)
=✓In theory at least, a single name server could contain the entire DNS database and respond
to all queries about it. In practice, this server would be so overloaded as to be useless.
✓To avoid above problem, the DNS name space is divided into nonoverlapping zones.

3. Give the steps of DNS name resolution. (12 and 13 no slide)

=DNS operation typically includes the following steps (Figure above):
1. A user program requests an IP address for a domain name.
2. The browser first checks to see if the name is in its local database or cache, and, if so, returns
the IP address to the requestor.
3.Next, go to the name server available under the ISP.
4. Otherwise, starts towards the higher DNS tree as possible
 5. When a response is received at the local name server, it stores the name/address
mapping in its local cache and may maintain this entry for the amount of time specified
in the time to live field of the retrieved RR (resource records).
6. The user program is given the IP address or an error message
.
4. Give the steps of delivery of email from user 1 to user 2. (17 and 18 no
slide)
= The procedure for e-mail exchange between user 1 and user 2 are as follows.
1.User1 provides user2’s e-mail address ([email protected]) and composes its message.
2.User1 sends the message to its mail server (isp.com)
3.Server isp.com places the message in its queue.
4.SMTP on user1’s mail server notices the message in the queue and opens a TCP connection
with the organization mail server (organization.com)

5. Initial handshaking takes place between the two servers.

6. 6. The message is sent to the organization mail server using the established TCP connection.
 7. 7. Users2’s mail server receives the message and then puts it in user 2’s mailbox, ready to be
retrieved by user2. A user mail box is a space in the mail server allocated to the user to keep its
e-mail.

8. Mention the function of three phases of the pop 3 protocol. (20 no slide)
=
✓ During the first phase, authorization, the user agent sends a username and a password (in the
clear) to authenticate the user.

✓ During the second phase, transaction, the user agent retrieves messages; also during this phase,
the user agent can mark messages for deletion, remove deletion marks, and obtain mail statistics.

✓ The third phase, update, occurs after the client has issued the quit command, ending the POP3
session; at this time, the mail server deletes the messages that were marked for deletion.

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EXTRA
3. Give the steps of detemining a web page under client side.(28,29)
1. The browser determines the URL (by seeing what was selected).

2. The browser asks DNS server for the IP address of the server www.cs.washington.edu.

3. DNS server replies with 128.208.3.88.

4. The browser makes a TCP connection to 128.208.3.88 on port 80 (service ID at transport layer
imposed by application layer), the well-known port for the HTTP protocol.
5. It sends an HTTP request asking for the page /index.html.

6. The www.cs.washington.edu server sends the page as an HTTP response, for example, by sending
the file /index.html.

7. If the page includes URLs that are needed for display, the browser fetches the other URLs using
the same process. In this case, the URLs include multiple embedded images also fetched from
www.cs.washington.edu, an embedded video from youtube.com, and a script from google-
analytics.com.

8. The browser displays the page /index.html

9. The TCP connections are released if there are no other requests to the same servers for a short
period.

4. What is called caching?(33er 1st)

❖Putting the copy of web-pages in a secured memory that are fetched for subsequent use is called
caching. The cache can be in the browser, proxy server, edge nodes, etc. – closer to the user than an
origin server.

5. What is the benefit of web caching?(34)

Caching provides four benefits:

a. Reduce ‘frequent request load’ on the web server

b. Reduce latency

c. Reduce bandwidth utilization of users

d. Network traffic reduction

6. Mention the function of the caching process.( s-34)

The caching process works as follows:

1. The website page requests a resource from the origin server.

2. The system checks the cache to see if there is already a stored copy of the resource.

3. If the resource is cached, the result will be a cache hit response and the resource will be delivered
from the cache.

4. If the resource is not cached, cache loss will result and the file will be accessed in its original
source. 5. After the resource is cached, it will continue to be accessed there until it expires or the
cache is cleared.