Limit and Continuity

SM14103 MATHEMATICS I
 discuss the nature of fundamental
theorems on limit.
 apply the different methods of evaluating
the limit.
 discuss the nature of continuity of a
function.
 apply the conditions for continuity of a
function. 2
6.1 Limits (An Intuitive Approach)
6.2 Computing Limits
6.3 Limits (Discussed more rigorously)
6.4 Continuity

3
 A fundamental concept
that describes the behavior
of a function as it
approaches a certain point
What is or value.
Limit? It is used to define and
understand various
calculus concepts, such as
continuity, derivatives, and
integrals.
4
 Imagine you have a function, e.g., 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), and you want to
know what happens to the values of this function as you
get really close to a specific point "𝒂𝒂" on the 𝒙𝒙-axis.
 A limit tells you what the function is "approaching" as
you get closer and closer to that point.

Think as: you're at a specific point on the 𝒙𝒙-axis, and you want to
see where your function is heading as you move closer to that
location.
5
An Intuitive Understanding
 A limit implies what happens to our function
as we get closer and closer to a specific 𝒙𝒙
value.
 We may never get to that point, and that does
not matter.
 We are only interested in the behavior of the
function (𝒚𝒚-values) as we get VERY close to a
specific 𝒙𝒙 value.
6
Limit of a Function: Example 6.1
 Let the function 𝒇𝒇 defined by 𝒇𝒇 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒙𝒙 + 𝟑𝟑 and notice
what happens to the value of 𝒇𝒇 𝒙𝒙 as the value of 𝒙𝒙
moves closer and closer to 2.
 If you want to find the limit as 𝒙𝒙 approaches 𝟐𝟐, you'd
start with 𝒙𝒙 = 1, 1.5, 1.9, 1.99, 1.999, and so on, getting
closer and closer to 𝒙𝒙 = 2.
 As you do this, you'll notice that the values of 𝒇𝒇 𝒙𝒙
approach 𝟓𝟓. So, intuitively, the limit of 𝒇𝒇 𝒙𝒙 as 𝒙𝒙 approaches 𝟐𝟐 is 𝟓𝟓,
because as you get closer to 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟐𝟐, 𝒇𝒇 𝒙𝒙 gets closer
and closer to 𝟓𝟓 = 𝟐𝟐 + 𝟑𝟑
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 → 5 as 𝑥𝑥 → 2
7
Limit of a Function: Expressing Limits

 To express a limit, we use a specific notation:

Expression lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥
represents 'limit' 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
variable to
get close
value to get
close to

8
Limit of a Function: The uniqueness of the limit
If the limit of a function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) as 𝑥𝑥 approaches a value "𝑎𝑎"
exists, then there is only one unique real number 𝑳𝑳 such
that:

lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐿𝐿
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

In other words, there can't be multiple different limit values for

the same function at the same point, as long as the limit exists.

9
Limit of a Function: Understanding Limits
 How a function behaves as you get closer from the
left, the right, or both sides.“
 When approaching from the left side, you're getting closer to
the point "a" on the left of it.
 While, when approaching from the right side, you're getting
closer to the point "a" on the right of it.
 And the two-sided limit combines both approaches. It
considers the behavior of the function as you get closer to "a"
from both the left and right sides.
 The existence of the function at the point you're
approaching is not guaranteed.
10
Limit of a Function: Example 6.2
 Noted that: as we approach a limit from
(The Left, the right or both sides of a point)
1. Point a
right hand limit, no left
function not defined
2. Point b
left hand limit, no right a b
function defined

11
One-Sided limits: Right-Hand Limits
 We say

lim+𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐿𝐿
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

 provided we can make 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) as close to 𝐿𝐿 as we

want for all 𝑥𝑥 sufficiently close to a and 𝑥𝑥 > 𝑎𝑎
without actually letting 𝑥𝑥 be a.

12
One-Sided limits: Left-Hand Limits
 We say

lim−𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐿𝐿
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

 provided we can make 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) as close to 𝐿𝐿 as we

want for all 𝑥𝑥 sufficiently close to a and 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑎𝑎
without actually letting 𝑥𝑥 be a.

13
Relationship: One-Sided & Two-Sided Limits

A limit exists if and only if both corresponding one-

sided limits exits and are equal with the two-sided
limit.
That is
lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐿𝐿
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

if and only if
lim−𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim+𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐿𝐿
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
14
Observing a Limit: Using a graph

The limit is observed to be 2 The one-sided limit is observed to be 0

15
Observing a Limit: Using a table

The limit is observed to be 64

16
Some Basic Limits: Theorem 6.1
Let 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑘𝑘 be real numbers, then

1) lim 𝑘𝑘 = 𝑘𝑘
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
2) lim 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
1
3) lim− = −∞
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥
1
4) lim+ = +∞
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥

17
Some Basic Limits: Graphical Representation

18
Theorem 6.2:
Let 𝑐𝑐, 𝑘𝑘 be real number and suppose lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐿𝐿 and lim 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑀𝑀 , then:
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐

19
Infinite Limits
 When we say a function has a limit of infinity, it
means that as '𝑥𝑥' gets closer to '𝑐𝑐,' the ′𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)'
values become extremely large, approaching
either positive or negative infinity.

 Sometimes, one-sided or two-sided limits don't

exist because the values of the function just keep
increasing or decreasing without any limit.
20
Vertical Asymptotes
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) approaches infinity as 𝑥𝑥 → 𝑐𝑐
 A vertical asymptote is a vertical line
on the graph of a function that a
curve approaches but never crosses.
c
 If the limit of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) as 𝑥𝑥 approaches
"𝑐𝑐" results in an unbounded value
(positive or negative infinity), it
implies the existence of a vertical
asymptote at 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒄𝒄.
𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙)
𝒉𝒉(𝒙𝒙) =
 Often generated by rational functions 𝒈𝒈(𝒙𝒙)
when 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 0

21
Infinite Limits: Example 6.3

22
Infinite Limits: The expressions
lim− 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = +∞ and lim+ 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = +∞
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
Denote that 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) increases without bound as 𝑥𝑥 approaches a value "𝑎𝑎" from
the left and from the right, respectively. If both are true, then we write
lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = +∞
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

Similarly, the expressions

lim− 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = −∞ and lim+ 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = −∞
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
Denote that 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) decreases without bound as 𝑥𝑥 approaches a value "𝑎𝑎" from
the left and from the right, respectively. If both are true, then we write
lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = −∞
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
23
Non-Existent Limits

24
Limits at Infinity
 A concept that deals with the behavior of
functions as their input values, 𝑥𝑥 approach either
positive or negative infinity.
 This concept is essential for understanding the
long-term behavior of the function.

This understanding is valuable for analyzing trends, growth rates,

decay rates, and asymptotic behavior in mathematical and real-
world contexts.

25
Limits at Infinity: An informal view
If the value of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) eventually get close as we like to a number L as x
increases without bound, then we write

lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐿𝐿 or 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 → 𝐿𝐿 as 𝑥𝑥 → +∞
𝑥𝑥→+∞

Similarly, if the value of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) eventually get close as we like to a number L as x

decreases without bound, then we write

lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐿𝐿 or 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 → 𝐿𝐿 as 𝑥𝑥 → −∞
𝑥𝑥→−∞

26
Horizontal Asymptotes
 A horizontal asymptote is a horizontal line
that a function approaches as 𝑥𝑥 extend to
either positive or negative infinity.
 On the graph of a function, a horizontal
asymptote is a straight line (𝒚𝒚 = 𝑳𝑳) that
the function curve approaches but never
crosses as 𝑥𝑥 extends to infinity.
 If the function settles at a fixed value (𝐿𝐿) as 𝑥𝑥
approaches infinity or negative infinity, then
that value is the horizontal asymptote
otherwise, there's no horizontal asymptote.

27
Limits at Infinity: Example 6.4
1
Evaluate lim
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥

Solution:
1 1 1
lim = lim = lim =0
𝑥𝑥→−∞ 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥→+∞ 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥→−∞ 𝑥𝑥

∴, horizontal asymptote, 𝒚𝒚 = 𝟎𝟎.

28
Infinite Limits at Infinity
 A situation where the limit of a function as the 𝑥𝑥
extends to positive or negative infinity leads to an
unbounded value, specifically positive infinity or
negative infinity.
 Describe how functions behave as input values
become extremely large or extremely small,
showing unbounded growth or decrease without
converging to a finite value.
29
Infinite Limits at Infinity: An informal view
If the value of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) increases increases without bound as 𝑥𝑥 → +∞
or 𝑥𝑥 → −∞, then we write

lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = +∞ or lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = +∞
𝑥𝑥→+∞ 𝑥𝑥→−∞

as appropriate: and if the value of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) increases increases

without bound as 𝑥𝑥 → +∞ or 𝑥𝑥 → −∞, then we write
lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = −∞ or lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = −∞
𝑥𝑥→+∞ 𝑥𝑥→−∞

as appropriate.

30
Properties of Infinite Limits
Let 𝑎𝑎 be real number and given lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ∞ and
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
lim 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐿𝐿 , then:
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

 Sum/Difference : lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ± 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = ∞

𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

 Product : lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = ∞, 𝐿𝐿 > 0

𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
 Quotient : lim =0
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
31
We often encounter sums and products of more than
two functions.

The results are analogous to those in the Sum and Product

Rule:
If lim 𝑓𝑓1 𝑥𝑥 , lim 𝑓𝑓2 𝑥𝑥 , lim 𝑓𝑓3 𝑥𝑥 , … lim 𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 , exist, then
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

1. lim 𝑓𝑓1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑓𝑓1 𝑥𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑓𝑓1 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑓𝑓1 𝑥𝑥 +lim 𝑓𝑓2 𝑥𝑥 + ⋯ + lim 𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 ,
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

2. lim 𝑓𝑓1 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
𝑓𝑓1 𝑥𝑥 … 𝑓𝑓1 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑓𝑓1 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
lim 𝑓𝑓2 𝑥𝑥 … lim 𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 .
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

32
Limits of Polynomial Functions
If P is a polynomial function, then lim P 𝑥𝑥 = P 𝑎𝑎
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

Limits of Rational Functions

𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥
If Q is a rational function define by Q 𝑥𝑥 =
𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥
𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎
then lim 𝑄𝑄 𝑥𝑥 = provided that lim 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 0.
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔 𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

33
Limits of Trigonometric Functions
Let 𝑎𝑎 be real number, then:
1. lim sin 𝑥𝑥 = sin 𝑎𝑎
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
2. lim cos 𝑥𝑥 = cos 𝑎𝑎
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
3. lim tan 𝑥𝑥 = tan 𝑎𝑎
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
4. lim cot 𝑥𝑥 = cot 𝑎𝑎
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
5. lim sec 𝑥𝑥 = sec 𝑎𝑎
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
6. lim csc 𝑥𝑥 = csc 𝑎𝑎
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
34
Limits of Exponential Functions
𝑥𝑥
Let 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑏𝑏 , then:
10
10
8
8
6
𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑏𝑏 , 𝑏𝑏 > 1 6

4 4
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 , 0 < 𝑏𝑏 < 1
2 2

-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6
-2 -2

lim 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

35
Limits of Exponential Functions: Example 6.5

1. lim 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 = ∞
𝑥𝑥→∞
2. lim 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 = ∞
𝑥𝑥→−∞
3. lim 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥 = 0
𝑥𝑥→∞
4. lim 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥 = ∞
𝑥𝑥→−∞
𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 −1
5. lim =1
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥

36
 There are several methods and techniques to
compute limits in calculus.
 The choice of method depends on the specific
limit problem you're trying to solve.
 Direct Substitution, Factoring and Canceling, Conjugate
Pairs, Special Limits, Highest Degree (Dominant) Term,
Piecewise Functions, Change of Variable, Trigonometric
Identities, Squeeze Theorem, Graphical Analysis,
L'Hôpital's Rule. 37
Methods: Direct Substitution
 This method is the simplest and involves substituting
the value that the variable is approaching into the
function.
 If the substitution results in a defined value, that value
represents the limit.
 However, this approach is valid only when the
function remains defined at that specific point.
 Mathematically, this concept can be expressed as:
lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
38
Direct Substitution: Example 6.6

Evaluate the limits

lim 𝑥𝑥 3 − 5𝑥𝑥 2 + 4 = 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟑 − 𝟓𝟓 𝟎𝟎 + 𝟒𝟒 = 𝟒𝟒

𝑥𝑥→0
−𝟏𝟏
sin−1 𝑥𝑥 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎
lim = = = 𝟎𝟎
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 − 1 𝟎𝟎 − 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏

39
Methods Beyond Direct Substitution
 The limit expression might take on an indeterminate
form when determining limits.
 Indeterminate form:
 Mathematical expressions that do not yield a clear or
unique value when evaluated.
 Some familiar indeterminate forms include:
0 ∞
, , 0. ∞, ∞ ± ∞, 1∞ , 00 , ∞0
0 ∞
 This form cannot be directly evaluated using simple
substitution since it may result in an undefined or
inconclusive outcome.
40
Methods: Factoring and Canceling
 If you have a rational function (e.g., a quotient of
polynomials), you can often simplify it by
factoring both the numerator and denominator.
 If common factors can be canceled, this
simplification can help determine the limit.
 However, keep in mind that canceling common
factors is only valid when the canceled factors
are non-zero, so be cautious and check for any
excluded values.
41
Factoring and Canceling: Example 6.7
𝑥𝑥 2 − 1
Find lim
𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥 − 1
 The function is not defined at 𝒙𝒙 = 1, but since we’re only
interested in what happens as we get VERY close to that point, it
does not matter.
 Factoring the numerator creates:
(𝒙𝒙 − 1)(𝒙𝒙 + 1), thus the (𝒙𝒙– 1) cancels, leaving lim 𝑥𝑥 + 1 = 2
𝑥𝑥→1
 This indicates that the function values are getting very, very, very
close to 2 as the 𝒙𝒙 values approach 1.
42
Example 6.8:
Find the following limit
𝑥𝑥 2 − 10𝑥𝑥 + 25 (𝑥𝑥 − 5)(𝑥𝑥 − 5)
lim = lim
𝑥𝑥→5 𝑥𝑥 − 5 𝑥𝑥→5 𝑥𝑥 − 5

= lim ( 𝑥𝑥 − 5)
𝑥𝑥→5

=0

43
Methods: Conjugate Pairs
 This method is particularly helpful when you
have a limit involving a square root in the
denominator, and you want to remove the radical
sign to facilitate limit evaluation.
 The goal is to eliminate the radical in the
denominator and often simplify the expression.
 You can multiply both the numerator and
denominator by the conjugate pair to eliminate
the radical sign and simplify the expression.
44
Conjugate Pairs: Example 6.9
Find lim 𝑥𝑥 + 1 − 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥→∞
𝑥𝑥+1+ 𝑥𝑥
= lim 𝑥𝑥 + 1 − 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥+1+ 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥+1 −𝑥𝑥
= lim
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥+1+ 𝑥𝑥
1
= lim
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥+1+ 𝑥𝑥
=0
45
Methods: Special Limits
 Involving specific types of functions that have
unique characteristics.
 Often include trigonometric functions like sine
and cosine, exponential functions, logarithmic
functions, and others.
 Have been rigorously proven, considered reliable
and accepted as part of mathematical knowledge.

46
Special Limits: Example 6.10

1
lim 1 + 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒
𝑥𝑥→0

1 − cos 𝑥𝑥
lim =0
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥
sin 𝑥𝑥
lim =1
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥

47
Methods: Highest Degree (Dominant) Term
 Involves dividing both the numerator and denominator
of a rational function by the highest-degree term
present in both the numerator and denominator.
 The idea behind this method is that as 𝑥𝑥 approaches
infinity or negative infinity, the higher-degree terms
dominate the behavior of the function, and the lower-
degree terms become insignificant.
 By dividing with the highest-degree term, you
simplify the expression and focus on the most
influential part of the function.
48
Highest Degree (Dominant) Term: Example 6.11
3𝑥𝑥 3 −2𝑥𝑥 2 +1
Evaluate lim
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥 3 −1
3𝑥𝑥3 2𝑥𝑥2 1
− 3+ 3
𝑥𝑥3 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
= lim 𝑥𝑥3 1
𝑥𝑥→∞ −
𝑥𝑥3 𝑥𝑥3

2 1
3− + 3 3−0+0
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
= lim 1 = =0
𝑥𝑥→∞ 1− 3 1−0
𝑥𝑥

49
Example 6.12:

Find the following limit go to zero

2 2
𝑥𝑥 + 2 𝑥𝑥 1 + 1+ 1
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
lim = lim = lim =
𝑥𝑥→∞ 3𝑥𝑥 − 5 𝑥𝑥→∞ 5 𝑥𝑥→∞ 5 3
𝑥𝑥 3 − 3−
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥

50
Methods: Piecewise Functions
 When dealing with piecewise functions, it's
common to analyze the behavior of the function
at specific points, especially when there's a
transition from one formula to another.
 Limits are a crucial tool for understanding this
transition.

51
Piecewise Functions: Example 6.12
2𝑥𝑥 + 1 for 𝑥𝑥 < 2
Let 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = � , find lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 , lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 and lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 .
𝑥𝑥 + 3 for 𝑥𝑥 > 2 𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥→2 𝑥𝑥→3

Solution:
lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim− 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim+ 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim− 2𝑥𝑥 + 1 = 3
𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥→1

lim− 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim− 2𝑥𝑥 + 1 = 5 and lim+ 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim+ 𝑥𝑥 + 3 = 5,

𝑥𝑥→2 𝑥𝑥→2 𝑥𝑥→2 𝑥𝑥→2
∴ lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 5
𝑥𝑥→2

lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim− 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim+ 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim− 𝑥𝑥 + 3 = 6

𝑥𝑥→3 𝑥𝑥→3 𝑥𝑥→3 𝑥𝑥→3

52
Methods: Change of Variable
 In some cases, a change of variable (substitution)
can simplify the limit problem.
 The idea is to introduce a new variable, often
denoted by a letter like "𝑢𝑢" or "𝑡𝑡," that is related
to the original variable "𝑥𝑥."
 This new variable should help you rewrite the
expression in a way that makes it easier to
evaluate the limit.

53
Change of Variable: Example 6.13
sin 4𝑥𝑥
Find lim .
𝑥𝑥→0 9𝑥𝑥

Solution:
sin 4 𝑥𝑥 4 sin 4 𝑥𝑥
lim = lim
𝑥𝑥→0 9𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥→0 9 4𝑥𝑥
Let 𝑦𝑦 = 4𝑥𝑥, then 𝑦𝑦 → 0 iff 𝑥𝑥 → 0, so
4 sin 4 𝑥𝑥 4 sin 𝑦𝑦 4 4
lim = lim = .1 =
9 𝑥𝑥→0 4𝑥𝑥 9 𝑦𝑦→0 𝑦𝑦 9 9

54
Example 6.14:
Find the following limit
sin cos 𝑥𝑥 sin cos 𝑥𝑥
lim𝜋𝜋 = lim
𝑥𝑥→ cos 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑥→0 cos 𝑥𝑥
2
Notice that:
π Let 𝑦𝑦 = cos 𝑥𝑥 , then 𝑦𝑦 → 0 ∵ cos 𝑥𝑥 → 0, so
x→
2
π sin cos 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑦𝑦
cos x → cos
2 lim = lim =1
cos x → 0 cos 𝑥𝑥→0 cos 𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦→0 𝑦𝑦
55
Methods: Trigonometric Identities
 Special trigonometric limits often involve using
trigonometric identities and properties to
simplify and evaluate the limit.
 Handle special trigonometric limits by expanding
expressions and applying identities to simplify
the limit problem.
 These identities are useful tools for tackling a
wide range of trigonometric limit problems in
calculus.
56
Trigonometric Identities: Example 6.15
1−cos 𝑥𝑥
Find lim 2 .
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥
Identities Trig. – Half Angel Formulas
Solution:
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 2
1 − cos 𝑥𝑥 2 sin 2 sin
lim = lim 2 = lim 2
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 2
4
2
𝑥𝑥 2
1 sin 1 1
= lim 𝑥𝑥 2 = 1 =2
2 𝑥𝑥→0 2 2
2
57
Methods: Squeeze Theorem
 Also know as Sandwich Theorem and Pinching
Theorem.
 Useful when you're faced with the challenge of
evaluating the limit of a function that may be difficult or
complex to analyze directly.
 To apply: you need to find two other functions that
"squeeze" or bound your target function.
 If, as you approach the point of interest, the two squeezing
functions both converge to the same limit, and they
"squeeze" the target function between them, then the target
function also converges to that limit.
58
Squeezing Theorem: Graphical Representation

The two
functions that
"squeeze" or
bound your
target function

59
Theorem 6.3: Squeezing Theorem
If 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 ≤ ℎ 𝑥𝑥 on an open interval

containing 𝑎𝑎, and if lim 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = lim ℎ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐿𝐿,

𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

then lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐿𝐿.

𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

If a function can be squeezed between two functions

whose limits at a particular point 𝑎𝑎 have same value
𝐿𝐿, then that function must also have limit 𝐿𝐿 at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎.
60
Squeeze Theorem: Example 6.16
3𝑥𝑥 2 cos 𝑥𝑥
Find the limit using squeezing Theorem lim 2 .
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 +1

Solution:
Notice that
−1 ≤ cos 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 1
Thus,
−1 ≤ cos 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 1
−3𝑥𝑥 2 ≤ 3𝑥𝑥 2 cos 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 3𝑥𝑥 2
−3𝑥𝑥 2 3𝑥𝑥 2 cos 𝑥𝑥 3𝑥𝑥 2
2
≤ 2 ≤ 2
𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑥𝑥 + 1
61
Solution: Cont.
 Therefore,
−3𝑥𝑥 2 −3𝑥𝑥 2 cos 𝑥𝑥 3𝑥𝑥 2
lim 2 ≤ lim ≤ lim 2
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 +1 𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 2 +1 𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 +1

−3 0 2 −3𝑥𝑥 2 cos 𝑥𝑥 3 0 2
≤ lim ≤
0 2 +1 𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 2 +1 0 2 +1

−3𝑥𝑥 2 cos 𝑥𝑥
0≤ lim ≤0
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 2 +1

−3𝑥𝑥 2 cos 𝑥𝑥
 Using Squeeze Theorem; lim =0
𝑥𝑥→0 2
𝑥𝑥 + 1
62
Methods: Graphical Analysis
 Provides a visual representation of a function's
behavior, making it easier to understanding how
the function approaches a limit.
 Sometimes, visualizing the graph of the function
can provide insights into the limit.

63
Graphical Analysis: Example 6.17
sin 𝑥𝑥
Find lim .
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥

Solution: 𝑦𝑦

sin 𝑥𝑥
∴ lim =1
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥

𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥

64
Example 6.18:

65
Example 6.19: With table applies

3𝑥𝑥+9
Evaluate lim 2
𝑥𝑥→−3 𝑥𝑥 −9
Solution:

3𝑥𝑥 + 9 1
lim 2 =−
𝑥𝑥→−3 𝑥𝑥 − 9 2
66
Example 6.20:
sin 𝑥𝑥
Consider lim
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥
Solution:
1
1 𝑥𝑥
−
𝑥𝑥

With Squeeze theorem applies sin 𝑥𝑥

∴ lim =0
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥
67
Example 6.21:
Consider lim sin 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥→∞
Solution:
 As 𝑥𝑥 gets very large, function oscillates between 1 and −1
 Thus, no limit

∴ lim sin 𝑥𝑥 ∄
𝑥𝑥→∞

68
Example 6.22:

69
Methods: L'Hôpital's Rule
 This rule is useful for indeterminate forms:
0 ∞
,
0 ∞
 It involves taking the derivative of the
numerator and denominator until you get a
determinate form.
We will explore into a detailed discussion and the example
of L'Hôpital's Rule after exploring the principles of
derivatives.
70
 The precise definition of a limit is necessary for a
deeper understanding of the theory behind calculus,
allowing for the exploration of more complex
mathematical concepts.
 In mathematical proofs and theorems, the formal
definition of limits is often used to establish
relationships between different mathematical ideas.
 It provides the necessary mathematical reasoning to
prove various theorems and properties of functions.
71
Before we examine the definition of limits:
Let's review these terms.
Epsilon (𝜺𝜺):
 This represents positive 'tolerance' or 'margin of
error.'
 It's a small, arbitrarily chosen number that defines how
close we want the values of the function to be to the
limit 𝐿𝐿.
 The smaller 𝜀𝜀 is, the closer we demand the function
values to be to 𝐿𝐿.

72
Delta (𝜹𝜹):
 This is another positive number, and its purpose is to
control how close the input 𝑥𝑥 needs to be to the
constant 𝑎𝑎 for the function values to be within the 𝜀𝜀-
range of the limit.
 In other words, it's the range around 𝒂𝒂 where 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
needs to be within 𝜀𝜀 of 𝐿𝐿.
Absolute Value:
 The absolute value notation 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 ensures that the
distance between 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑎𝑎 is considered positively,
regardless of whether 𝑥𝑥 is greater or less than 𝑎𝑎.
73
Definition 6.1: Limit (𝜀𝜀 − 𝛿𝛿 Definition)
𝐿𝐿 is the limit of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) as x approaches 𝑎𝑎 if for any
value of epsilon (no matter how small) around
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿, there’s a value of delta around 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎, such
that all function values fall into the “target area” of
epsilon about 𝐿𝐿.

lim 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿 ; means

𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
for each given 𝜀𝜀 > 0 ∃𝛿𝛿 > 0, 0 < 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 < 𝛿𝛿 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) − 𝐿𝐿 < 𝜀𝜀

74
Convergence:
 The definition states that as 𝑥𝑥 gets infinitely close to 𝑎𝑎
(without being equal to 𝑎𝑎), the values of the function
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) converge to the limit 𝐿𝐿.
 In practical terms, this means that you can make 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
as close as you want to 𝐿𝐿 by choosing 𝑥𝑥 sufficiently
close to 𝑎𝑎.

75
Formal Definition of Limits:
Precision in Function Behavior.
𝑳𝑳 ± 𝜺𝜺 •
The lim 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
𝒂𝒂 ± 𝜹𝜹
 For any 𝜀𝜀 (as close as you want to get to L)
 There exists a 𝛿𝛿 (we can get as close as necessary
to 𝑎𝑎)
 Such that …
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) − 𝐿𝐿 < 𝜀𝜀 ← 0 < 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 < 𝛿𝛿
76
Specified Epsilon, Required Delta.

77
 Conclusion
lim 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿
Remember: the point 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
(𝑎𝑎, 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)) is excluded!
Means that
• given any tolerance ε for 𝐿𝐿
𝐿𝐿 + ε • we can find a tolerance 𝛿𝛿 for a
𝐿𝐿 such that
• if x is between a-𝛿𝛿 and a+𝛿𝛿, but x is not a,
𝐿𝐿 − ε
• f(x) will be between 𝐿𝐿−ε and 𝐿𝐿+ε.

(Graphically, this means that the part of the

graph that lies in the yellow vertical strip,
that is, those values that come from
𝑎𝑎 − d 𝑎𝑎 + d (a-𝛿𝛿, a+𝛿𝛿) will also lie in the orange
𝑎𝑎 horizontal strip.)
78
 This isn’t True for This function!

𝐿𝐿 + ε No amount of making the

Tolerance around a smaller
L is going to force the graph of
𝐿𝐿 − ε that part of the function
within the bright orange
strip!

lim 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥) ≠ 𝐿𝐿
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
a

79
Changing the value of 𝑳𝑳 doesn’t help either!

𝐿𝐿 + ε
L
𝐿𝐿 − ε

In fact, there is no 𝐿𝐿 that will help us. lim 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥) does not exist.
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
80
Definition 6.2: Infinite Limits
Given function 𝑓𝑓 defined for all real on open interval
containing 𝑎𝑎 (except possibly 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎)

lim 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥) = ∞ ;
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
for each given 𝑀𝑀 > 0 ∃𝛿𝛿 > 0, ∋ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) > 𝑀𝑀 ← 0 < 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 < 𝛿𝛿

81
Definition of Infinite Limits:
Geometric Interpretation

M --------------

For ∀ 𝑀𝑀 > 0 ∃ 𝛿𝛿 > 0

such that 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) > 𝑀𝑀
whenever 0 < 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑐 < 𝛿𝛿
82
Proving Limit: By Finding the Required 𝛿𝛿

 Proving the existence of a limit involves demonstrating

that as the independent variable 𝑥𝑥 approaches a
particular value 𝑎𝑎, the function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) gets arbitrarily
close to a specific limit 𝐿𝐿.
 Using the 𝜀𝜀 − 𝛿𝛿 Definition
 For any given epsilon, you must find delta, in terms
of that epsilon such that it would always be true.

83
Example 6.23:
Verify that lim 2𝑥𝑥 − 7 = 1.
𝑥𝑥→4
Solution:
 Check the Limit Statement:
lim 2𝑥𝑥 − 7 = 1
𝑥𝑥→4

 Begin with the ε-δ Definition:

Let’s assume 𝜀𝜀 > 0 is given, and we want to find a 𝛿𝛿 > 0 such
that if 0 <∣ 𝑥𝑥 − 4 ∣< 𝛿𝛿, then ∣ 2𝑥𝑥 − 7 − 1 ∣< 𝜀𝜀.
 Simplify the Expression:
∣ (2𝑥𝑥 − 7) − 1 ∣=∣ 2𝑥𝑥 − 8 ∣= 2 ∣ 𝑥𝑥 − 4 ∣
84
Solution: Cont.
 Notice that:
2𝑥𝑥 − 7 − 1 = 2 𝑥𝑥 − 4 and 𝑥𝑥 − 4 < 𝛿𝛿
∴, 2𝑥𝑥 − 7 − 1 = 2 𝑥𝑥 − 4 < 2𝛿𝛿

 Set Up the Inequality and compare it with the “then”

statement in the ε-δ Definition:
2𝑥𝑥 − 7 − 1 < 2𝛿𝛿 and 2𝑥𝑥 − 7 − 1 < 𝜀𝜀
∴ 2𝛿𝛿 = 𝜀𝜀

 Choose δ:
𝜀𝜀
𝛿𝛿 =
2
85
Solution: Cont.

 Prove the Limit:

𝜀𝜀
Now, if 0 < 𝑥𝑥 − 4 < 𝛿𝛿, then 2 𝑥𝑥 − 4 = 2 ⋅ = 𝜀𝜀
2

 Conclusion:
This shows that for any 𝜀𝜀 > 0, we have found a 𝛿𝛿 > 0 such
that if 0 < 𝑥𝑥 − 4 < 𝛿𝛿, then 2𝑥𝑥 − 7 − 1 < 𝜀𝜀.

Therefore, by the ε-δ definition, lim 2𝑥𝑥 − 7 = 1.

𝑥𝑥→4

86
Example 6.24:
Use the definition of the limit to prove the following
lim 𝑥𝑥 − 5 = −2.
𝑥𝑥→3
Solution:
 1st find the Required 𝜹𝜹
We are looking for a 𝛿𝛿 ∋
0 < |𝑥𝑥 – 3| < 𝛿𝛿 → |(𝑥𝑥– 5)– (−2)| < 𝜀𝜀
Now, notice that
𝑥𝑥 − 5 − −2 < 𝜀𝜀 𝑥𝑥 − 5 + 2 < 𝜀𝜀
𝑥𝑥 − 3 < 𝜀𝜀
It can be seen that the d we need is equal or less than ε
87
Solution:
 2nd prove it using definition of limit
Let ε > 0 be given. Choose 𝛿𝛿 = ε. Then 0 < |x – 3| < 𝛿𝛿
implies that
𝑥𝑥 − 5 − −2 = 𝑥𝑥 − 5 + 2 = 𝑥𝑥 − 3 < 𝛿𝛿 = 𝜀𝜀

 3rd State the limit

∴ lim 𝑥𝑥 − 5 = −2.
𝑥𝑥→3

88
 Continuity in calculus emphasizes a
function's unbroken or uninterrupted
behavior (curve).
 Graphically, a function is continuous at a
point 𝑐𝑐 if
 you can draw the graph of the function 
at 𝑐𝑐 without lifting your pencil off the
paper.
 there are no holes, jumps, or asymptotes
at that particular point.
89
Definition 6.2: Continuity
Let 𝑐𝑐 be a real number on the 𝑥𝑥-axis.

90
One Sided Continuity:
 A function is continuous from the right at a point
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 if and only if
𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥+ 𝒇𝒇 (𝒙𝒙) = 𝒇𝒇(𝒂𝒂)
𝒙𝒙→𝒂𝒂
 A function is continuous from the left at a point
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏𝑏 if and only if
𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥− 𝒇𝒇 (𝒙𝒙) = 𝒇𝒇(𝒃𝒃)
𝒙𝒙→𝒃𝒃
a
b

91
Continuity at points: Graphical Representation

92
Continuity at a point: Continuity Test
A function is continuous at point 𝑐𝑐 if:

1. f (x) is defined at x = c: f (c) exists

2. The limit as x approaches c of f (x) exists
3. f (c) = limit as x approaches c of f (x) x=c

𝒇𝒇(𝒄𝒄) = 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒇𝒇 (𝒙𝒙)

𝒙𝒙→𝒄𝒄

93
Discontinuity at a point:
If 𝑓𝑓 is defined for all values of 𝑥𝑥 close to a but
𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐) ≠ lim 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥)
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐
is not satisfied, then 𝑓𝑓 is discontinuous at 𝑐𝑐 or
𝑓𝑓 has a discontinuity at 𝑐𝑐.

94
Discontinuity at a Point:
 A function can be
discontinuous at a point
A hole in the function and the
function not defined at that
point

A hole in the function, but

the function is defined at that
point
95
Discontinuity at a point: Cont.
A hole in the function and the function not defined at
that point

called as jump discontinuity

A hole in the function, but the function is defined at

that point

called as infinite discontinuity

96
"Removing" the Discontinuity:
 A discontinuity at c is
called removable
If the function can be
made continuous by (1) (2)
1. defining the function
at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐
2. or … redefining the
function at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐

97
Continuity on an Interval:
 The function f is said to be continuous on an open
interval (𝒂𝒂, 𝒃𝒃) if
It is continuous at each number/point of the interval
 It is said to be continuous on a closed interval
[𝒂𝒂, 𝒃𝒃] if
It is continuous at each number/point of the interval
and
It is continuous from the right at point 𝒂𝒂 and
continuous from the left at point 𝒃𝒃
98
Theorem 6.4: Continuity Theorem
 A function will be continuous at any number
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐 for which 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐) is defined, when …
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is a polynomial
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is a power function
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is a rational function
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is a trigonometric function
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is an inverse trigonometric function
99
Properties of Continuous Functions:
 If 𝑓𝑓
and 𝑔𝑔 are functions and continuous at
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐 then …
𝑠𝑠 ∗ 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 is continuous (where 𝒔𝒔 is a constant)
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ± 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)is continuous
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 ∗ 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) is continuous
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
 is continuous, if 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) ≠ 0
𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) is continuous
100
Intermediate Value Theorem for Continuous
Functions:
 A principle in calculus that specifically applies to
continuous functions.
 States that if a function is continuous on a closed
interval [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏], it will take on every value between
𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎) and 𝑓𝑓(𝑏𝑏) for at least one value of 𝑥𝑥 within that
interval.
guarantees that there exists at least one 𝑐𝑐 in the
interval [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] where 𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐 = 𝑦𝑦
101
Theorem 6.5: Intermediate Value Theorem

If 𝑓𝑓 is a continuous function on
a closed interval [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏], and if
𝑦𝑦0 is any value between 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)
and 𝑓𝑓(𝑏𝑏), then 𝑦𝑦0 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐 for
some 𝑐𝑐 in [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏].
This theorem is incredibly useful, especially in
establishing the existence of solutions to certain
equations or for proving the existence of roots (zeros)
of functions within specific intervals.

102
Locating Roots with Intermediate Value
Theorem:
 Given f(a) and f(b) have
opposite sign
One negative, the other
positive
 Then there must be a root
between a and b

103
Example 6.25:
Define 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = as a piecewise function, so that it is
𝑥𝑥 3 −64
𝑥𝑥−4
continuous at 𝑥𝑥 = 4.
Solution:
 Rewrite:  Notice that:
𝑥𝑥 3 − 64 lim ( 𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 16) = 48, ⇒ 𝑓𝑓(4) = 48
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥→4
𝑥𝑥 − 4 48, 𝑥𝑥 = 4
2
(𝑥𝑥 − 4)(𝑥𝑥 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 16)
= 𝑥𝑥 3 − 64
𝑥𝑥 − 4 ∴ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = �
= 𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 16
, 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 4
𝑥𝑥 − 4

104
Example 6.26:
Determining if the given functions are continuous
or discontinuous and whether any discontinuity is
removable or not.
𝑥𝑥 2+ 2𝑥𝑥 − 3 𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 − 3
, 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 1 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = � 𝑥𝑥 + 1 , 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 1
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = � 𝑥𝑥 − 1
6, 𝑥𝑥 = 1 −2, 𝑥𝑥 = 1

𝑥𝑥 + 3
ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = �𝑥𝑥 − 1 , 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 1
4, 𝑥𝑥 = 1
105
 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 − 3
Solution: 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = � 𝑥𝑥 − 1 , 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 1
6, 𝑥𝑥 = 1

1. 𝑓𝑓(1) = 6, ∃ (defined).

2. lim 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥) = lim− 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥)

𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥→1
𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 − 3 𝑥𝑥 − 1 𝑥𝑥 + 3
= lim = lim = lim 𝑥𝑥 + 3 = 4
𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥 − 1 𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥 − 1 𝑥𝑥→1

3. ∵ 1 ≠ 2 , ∴ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is discontinuous at point 𝑥𝑥 = 1.

Removable, by let 𝑓𝑓(1) = 4.

106
 𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 − 3
, 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 1
Solution: 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = � 𝑥𝑥 + 1
−2, 𝑥𝑥 = 1

1. 𝑔𝑔(1) = −2, ∃ (defined).

2. lim 𝑔𝑔 (𝑥𝑥) = lim+ 𝑔𝑔 (𝑥𝑥) = lim− 𝑔𝑔 (𝑥𝑥)

𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥→1
𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 − 3 𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑥𝑥 − 3
= lim = lim = lim 𝑥𝑥 − 3 = −2
𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑥𝑥→1

3. ∵ 1 = 2 , ∴ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is continuous at point 𝑥𝑥 = 1.

No need to check if its removable or not.

107
 𝑥𝑥 + 3
Solution: ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = �𝑥𝑥 − 1 , 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 1
4, 𝑥𝑥 = 1

1. ℎ(1) = 4, ∃ (defined).
𝑥𝑥 + 3
2. lim ℎ (𝑥𝑥) = lim+ ℎ (𝑥𝑥) = lim− ℎ (𝑥𝑥) = lim =∞
𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥 − 1

3. ̸ ℎ(𝑥𝑥) is discontinuous at point 𝑥𝑥 = 1.

∵ 2 ∃∴

Not Removable.
108
Example 6.27:
On what intervals are the following functions
continuous? 1. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2
𝑥𝑥 2 −1

𝑥𝑥 −4
2. 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = sin 𝑥𝑥
Solution:

𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

109
(End of Chapter 6 - Limit & Continuity)
10 minutes break

111