MOUNT ZION INTERNATIONAL

SCHOOL
Lenavilakku, Pudukkottai – 622 507.

This is to certify that RESHMA P student of class XII has successfully prepared the
report on the project entitled “Current Electricity” under the guidance of
Mr. Karthikeyan. The report is the result of his efforts and endeavours. The report is
found worthy of acceptance as final project report for the subject physics of class XII.

Signature of physics teacher Signature of external examiner

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Sl. Page
Descriptions
No Number
1 Acknowledgement 4

2 Introduction 5

3 Ohm’s Law 6

4 Experiment for Ohm’s Law 7

5 Wheatstone Bridge 9

6 Kirchhoff’s Law 10

7 Experiment for Kirchhoff’s Law 11

8 Bibliography 13
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to everyone who has contributed
to the successful completion of this project on Current Electricity. First and
foremost, I am deeply thankful to our Physics teacher, Mr Karthikeyan, for their
invaluable guidance, support, and encouragement throughout the project. Their
insights and suggestions were instrumental in deepening my understanding of
the concepts and theories.
I would also like to extend my sincere thanks to my parents and friends, who
provided constant encouragement and assistance during the research and
experimentation process. Their help kept me stay motivated on completing this
project.
Lastly, I acknowledge the use of various resources, including reference books
and online materials, that enriched my knowledge and understanding of current
electricity and its applications. This project has been a great learning
experience, and I am grateful for the opportunity to apply theoretical concepts
in a practical context.
Thank you.
 INTRODUCTION
Electricity is one of the most essential forms of energy
in our daily lives, and it plays a pivotal role in powering
everything from small electronic devices to large
industrial machinery. Current Electricity, a fundamental
concept in Physics, refers to the flow of electric charge
through a conductor. Unlike static electricity, where
charges are stationary, current electricity involves a
continuous movement of electrons, enabling the transfer
of energy.
This project explores the principles and applications of current electricity,
focusing on key concepts such as electric current, potential difference, Ohm's
Law, resistance, and the behaviour of electrical circuits. Understanding these
principles is crucial as they form the foundation for more complex electrical and
electronic systems. This study not only helps in comprehending the theoretical
aspects of electric currents but also provides insights into practical applications,
including household wiring, electronic gadgets, and power transmission.
Through this project, we aim to gain a deeper understanding of how electric
current functions, how it can be measured and controlled, and its real-world
applications. The project also demonstrates experiments to observe the
characteristics of current electricity and analyze how different factors, such as
resistance and potential difference, influence the flow of current. By
understanding current electricity, we gain insights into the functioning of
countless devices and systems that shape our modern world.
 OHM’S LAW
Ohm's law states that the electric current through a conductor between two
points is directly proportional to the voltage across the two points. Introducing
the constant of proportionality, the resistance, one arrives at the three
mathematical equations used to describe this relationship.
V=IR I=V/R R=V/I
where I is the current through the conductor, V is the voltage measured across
the conductor and R is the resistance of the conductor. More specifically, Ohm's
law states that the R in this relation is constant, independent of the current. If
the resistance is not constant, the previous equation cannot be called Ohm's law,
but it can still be used as a definition of static resistance. Ohm's law is
an empirical relation which accurately describes the conductivity of the vast
majority of electrically conductive materials over many orders of magnitude of
current. However some materials do not obey Ohm's law; these are called non
ohmics.

The law was named after the German physicist Georg Ohm, who, in a treatise
published in 1827, described measurements of applied voltage and current
through simple electrical circuits containing various lengths of wire.
 EXPERIMENT for ohm’s law
Aim:
To verify Ohm’s Law, which states that the current flowing through a conductor
between two points is directly proportional to the voltage across the two points,
provided the temperature remains constant.
Materials Required:
 DC power supply or battery (adjustable voltage source preferred)
 Resistor (e.g., 100 Ω)
 Ammeter (to measure current, in amperes)
 Voltmeter (to measure voltage, in volts)
 Connecting wires
 Rheostat (optional, for adjusting resistance)
 Switch
Theory:
Ohm’s Law is represented by the formula:
V=IR
where:
 V is the voltage across the resistor (in volts),
 I is the current flowing through the resistor (in amperes),
 R is the resistance of the resistor (in ohms, Ω).
According to Ohm’s Law, if the voltage across a resistor is varied, the current
should change proportionally if the resistance remains constant.
Procedure:
1. Set Up the Circuit:
Connect the circuit as shown in the figure below. Connect the resistor,
ammeter, and voltmeter in the circuit with the power supply. The
ammeter should be in series with the resistor to measure the current,
while the voltmeter should be parallel to the resistor to measure the
voltage.
2. Adjust the Voltage:
 Set the voltage source to a low value initially, such as 1V. Gradually
increase the voltage in increments (1V, 2V, 3V, etc.), up to a maximum
safe voltage for your resistor.
3. Record Observations:
For each voltage value, record the corresponding current reading from the
ammeter. Ensure the temperature of the resistor does not change
significantly; wait a few seconds before each reading to ensure stability.
4. Plot the Graph:
Plot a graph of Voltage (V) on the y-axis against Current (I) on the x-axis.
If Ohm’s Law holds, you should get a straight line passing through the
origin, indicating a linear relationship between voltage and current.
Observation Table:
VOLTAGE CURRENT
1.0 0.01
2.0 0.02
3.0 0.03

Calculation:
From the slope of the V-I graph, calculate the resistance R of the resistor using
the formula R=V/I
Result:
If the graph is a straight line through the origin, Ohm’s Law is verified,
indicating a constant resistance and a proportional relationship between voltage
and current.
Conclusion:
This experiment demonstrates that, for a conductor at constant temperature, the
current is directly proportional to the voltage, thus verifying Ohm’s Law.
 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Wheatstone bridge, also known as the resistance bridge, calculates the unknown
resistance by balancing two legs of the bridge circuit. One leg includes the
component of unknown resistance.
The Wheatstone Bridge Circuit comprises two known resistors, one unknown
resistor and one variable resistor connected in the form of a bridge. This bridge
is very reliable as it gives accurate measurements.

The current enters the galvanometer and divides into two equal magnitude
currents as I1 and I2. The following condition exists when the current through a
galvanometer is zero,
I1P=I2R...(1)
I1=I3=E/P+Q
I2=I4=E/R+S
Here, E is the emf of the battery.
By substituting the value of I1 and I2 in equation (1), we get
PE/P+Q=RE/R+S
P/P+Q=R/R+S
P(R+S)=R(P+Q)
PR+PS=RP+RQ
PS=RQ..(2)
R=PQ×S..(3)
 KIRCHHOFF’S LAW
In 1845, a German physicist, Gustav Kirchhoff,
developed a pair of laws that deal with the
conservation of current and energy within electrical
circuits. These two laws are commonly known as
Kirchhoff’s Voltage and Current Law

Kirchhoff’s First Law or Kirchhoff’s Current Law

According to Kirchhoff’s Current Law,
The total current entering a junction or a node is equal to the charge leaving the
node as no charge is lost.
Put differently, the algebraic sum of every current entering and leaving the node
has to be null. This property of Kirchhoff law is commonly called conservation
of charge, wherein I(exit) + I(enter) = 0.

Kirchhoff’s Second Law or Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

According to Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law,
The voltage around a loop equals the sum of every voltage drop in the same
loop for any closed network and equals zero.
Put differently, the algebraic sum of every voltage in the loop has to be equal to
zero and this property of Kirchhoff’s law is called conservation of energy.

Applications of Kirchhoff's Laws

Kirchhoff's laws are essential in:
 Circuit Analysis: Used to solve for unknown currents and voltages in
complex circuits.
 Network Theorems: They form the basis of network theorems, like
Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems.
 Electrical Engineering: Essential for designing and troubleshooting
electrical and electronic circuits.
EXPERIMENT for KIRCHHOFF’S
LAW

1.Simple Circuit Analysis with Kirchhoff’s Laws

 Objective: To verify Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff's
Voltage Law (KVL) in a simple circuit.
 Materials: Breadboard, DC power supply, resistors, wires, multimeter.
 Procedure:
1. Build a simple circuit with two resistors in series connected to a
power supply.
2. Measure the current flowing into each junction and confirm KCL
by ensuring the sum of incoming and outgoing currents at a node is
zero.
3. Measure the voltage drop across each resistor, then sum these
voltage drops around the loop to verify KVL.
4. Repeat with resistors in parallel, using the same steps to verify both
laws.
2. Complex Circuit Analysis
 Objective: Use Kirchhoff's laws to analyze a circuit with multiple loops
and branches.
 Materials: Breadboard, resistors, DC power supply, wires, multimeter.
 Procedure:
1. Construct a circuit with two loops and three or four resistors, where
resistors connect the loops at common junctions.
2. Choose one loop and apply KVL to sum the voltages around it.
3. Then use KCL at a key node to sum the incoming and outgoing
currents, confirming that the currents align with the KCL principle.
4. Calculate the expected voltages and currents based on Kirchhoff’s
laws and compare them to your measured values.
3. Verification of Energy Conservation
 Objective: Show that Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law represents energy
conservation in a circuit.
 Materials: A power source, resistors, LED or light bulb, multimeter.
 Procedure:
1. Build a series circuit with a resistor and an LED.
2. Use KVL to measure and sum the voltage drop across each
component, including the LED.
3. Verify that the total energy provided by the power source equals
the sum of the voltage drops across each component.
4. Application of Kirchhoff’s Laws in Real Circuits
 Objective: Apply Kirchhoff’s laws to solve real-world circuit problems.
 Materials: DC power supply, various resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
 Procedure:
1. Set up a more complex circuit that includes resistors in series and
parallel, as well as reactive components (capacitors or inductors).
2. Measure the total voltage and current in different branches, and
apply Kirchhoff’s laws to calculate unknown values.
3. Compare theoretical values with measured values, analyzing any
differences to account for real-world factors like wire resistance or
component tolerances.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

 Physics NCERT book

 Physics Lab Manual
 www.youtube.com
 www.wikipedia.com
 INVESTIGATORY
PROJECT

NAME : RESHMA P

CLASS : XII C

SUBJECT : PHYSICS

TOPIC : CURRENT ELECTRICITY

ACADEMIC YEAR : 2024 – 2025