PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES CELLS

Prokaryotes are cells lacking a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. They are of simpler
structure compared to eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotes include Bacteria and Archaea. Eukaryotes are
cells or organisms that possesses a clearly defined nucleus.
BACTERIA AS PROKARYOTES
General Characteristics of Bacteria
1. The cell structure consists of Cell wall (made of peptidoglycan in most bacterial species),
Plasma membrane, Cytoplasm, Flagella and pili
2. Using their reaction to Gram staining, they are broadly divided into Gram-positive and
Gram-negative bacteria
3. They can exist in different shapes such as Cocci (spherical), Bacilli (rod-shaped), Spirilla
(spiral-shaped) and cell arrangements such as single, pairs, clusters and chains when
viewed microscopically
4. The genetic material consists of single, circular chromosome with or without plasmid
5. They lack membrane-bound nucleus.
6. Bacteria reproduce by
a) Binary Fission e.g., Simple asexual reproduction, DNA replication and cell
division, Rapid growth under favorable conditions
b) Genetic Diversity e.g., Transformation, Conjugation, Transduction
Role of Bacteria in Ecosystems
➢ Decomposition- Breakdown of organic matter and Recycling of nutrients
➢ Nitrogen Fixation- Conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to a usable form and Symbiotic
relationships with plants
➢ Bioremediation- Cleanup of pollutants by bacteria and application in environmental
management
Major Differences Between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
S/No. Criteria Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
1 Nucleus Lack a true nucleus Possess true nucleus
2 Genetic material
Found in the nucleoid region Found in the nucleus
3 Organelles Not bounded by membrane Bounded by membrane.
4 Size Smaller Larger
5 Complexity Simple and Lack cell Complex and specialized.
compartmentalization Organelles with specific functions
6 Chromosome Circular, plasmid may be Linear
present
7 Replication of Binary fission and rapid Mitosis for somatic cells and
DAN reproduction Meiosis for gametes
8 Ribosomes 70S ribosome 80S ribosomes (60S and 40S)
subunits
 9 Examples Bacteria and Archaea Animals, plants, fungi, and protists
STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA

Figure 1: Structure of a bacteria

The Cell Wall is composed of Peptidoglycan which is used to determines Gram-positive or Gram-
negative bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria possess thick peptidoglycan layer while Gram-negative
bacteria possess thin peptidoglycan layer surrounded by an outer membrane
The Plasma Membrane is composed of Phospholipid bilayer with selective permeability.
Functions include:
➢ To control entry and exit of substances
➢ Serves as a site of energy production (electron transport chain)
The Cytoplasm is composed of water, proteins, ions, and organic molecules. Ribosomes (for
protein synthesis) is also found in the cytoplasm
The Nucleoid Region habours the Genetic Material in form of Single, circular DNA molecule.
Plasmids (Carry non-essential genes e.g., antibiotic resistance) may also be found.
The Flagella and Pili: Flagella are external, whip-like structures used for Movement and motility
while Pili (Fimbriae) are short, hair-like appendages used for Adhesion to surfaces and other cells
The Capsule is composed of a Slimy layer of polysaccharides. Functions include protection
against host defenses and facilitates adherence to surfaces
The Endospores are Stress-induced Survival mechanism in bacteria. They aid the bacteria in
resistance to hostile environments such as heat, chemicals, and radiation. Dormant stage in the
bacterial life cycle
Shapes and Arrangements: They can exist in different shapes such as Cocci (spherical), Bacilli
(rod-shaped), Spirilla (spiral-shaped) and cell arrangements such as single, pairs (diplo), clusters
(staphylo) and chains (strep) when viewed microscopically
Unique Features in Some Bacteria
• Magnetosomes: Magnetic particles for orientation in magnetic fields
• Gas vesicles: Buoyancy control in aquatic environments
• Phototaxis: Movement in response to light
TYPES OF BACTERIA
Classification Based on Shape
1. Cocci (Spherical): Examples: Streptococcus, Staphylococcus. Arrangements can be
Diplococci, streptococci, staphylococci
2. Bacilli (Rod-shaped): Examples: Escherichia coli (E. coli), Bacillus subtilis. Arrangements
can be Single, diplobacilli, streptobacilli
3. Spirilla (Spiral-shaped): Examples: Spirillum, Helicobacter pylori.
Classification Based on Oxygen Requirement
1. Aerobic Bacteria: Require oxygen for growth. Examples: Mycobacterium tuberculosis,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
2. Anaerobic Bacteria. Grow in the absence of oxygen. Examples: Clostridium botulinum,
Bacteroides fragilis.
3. Facultative Anaerobes. Can grow with or without oxygen. Examples: Escherichia coli,
Staphylococcus aureus.
Classification Based on Staining Characteristics
➢ Gram-Positive Bacteria e.g., Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Clostridium
➢ Gram-Negative Bacteria e.g., Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Pseudomonas
Classification Based on Metabolic Pathways
1. Autotrophic Bacteria: Produce their own food. Examples: Cyanobacteria, some sulfur
bacteria
2. Heterotrophic Bacteria: Depend on external sources for nutrients. Examples: Most
pathogenic bacteria, many soil bacteria
Classification Based on Temperature Requirements
1. Psychrophilic Bacteria: Thrive at low temperatures. Examples: Psychrobacter, Colwellia
2. Mesophilic Bacteria: Optimal growth at moderate temperatures. Examples: Escherichia
coli, Staphylococcus aureus
3. Thermophilic Bacteria: Prefer high temperatures. Examples: Thermus aquaticus,
Thermotoga
Pathogenic and Non-Pathogenic Bacteria
➢ Pathogenic Bacteria: Cause diseases in humans, animals, or plants. Examples:
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Salmonella
 ➢ Non-Pathogenic Bacteria: Generally harmless or beneficial. Examples: Lactobacillus,
Bacillus subtilis
NUTRITION IN BACTERIA
Nutrition is essential for growth, reproduction, and metabolism. Bacteria exhibit diverse nutritional
strategies
Nutritional Categories found in bacteria
Autotrophic Bacteria. They produce their own organic compounds from inorganic sources. Types:
• Photosynthetic Bacteria e.g., Cyanobacteria {oxygenic}, purple bacteria {anoxygenic} that
use light energy for photosynthesis
• Chemoautotrophic Bacteria e.g., Nitrosomonas, sulfur bacteria that utilize inorganic
chemicals for energy.
Heterotrophic Bacteria: depend on external sources of organic compounds for nutrition. Types:
• Saprophytes - Decompose dead organic matter - Examples: Actinomycetes, many soil
bacteria
• Parasites - Live on or in a host organism - Examples: Mycobacterium tuberculosis,
Escherichia coli
• Symbionts - Live in a mutually beneficial relationship with a host - Example: Rhizobium
in legume root nodules
Modes of Nutrition
• Photoautotrophy- Light energy utilized for organic compound synthesis. Chlorophyll and
other pigments involved
• Chemoautotrophy- Inorganic chemicals as energy sources. Common in extreme
environments (hydrothermal vents)
• Photoheterotrophy- Light as an energy source, but organic compounds as carbon sources.
Not so common among bacteria.
• Chemoheterotrophy- Organic compounds as both energy and carbon sources. Most
common mode of nutrition among bacteria
Metabolic Pathways
➢ Glycolysis- Common metabolic pathway in bacteria. Breakdown of glucose to produce
energy
➢ Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)- Occurs in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes. Generates high-
energy molecules
➢ Electron Transport Chain:
• In Aerobic Respiration, Oxygen serves as the terminal electron acceptor and
maximizes ATP production
• In Anaerobic Respiration, Inorganic molecules other than oxygen serve as electron
acceptors and there is a Lower ATP yield compared to aerobic respiration
 • Fermentation an Anaerobic process in the absence of an external electron acceptor.
Produces organic acids or alcohol
Nitrogen Fixation
This is the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3). It is carried out by
nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Examples Rhizobium in legume root nodules and Azotobacter in free-
living soil bacteria
REPRODUCTION IN BACTERIA AND POPULATION GROWTH
Reproduction is essential for the survival and persistence of bacterial populations. Rapid
reproduction in bacteria contributes to population growth
Binary Fission: is the Primary mode of bacterial reproduction. It is an Asexual process that
involves the initial DNA replication and then division of the cell into two identical daughter cells
Generation Time
Generation time is the time required for a population to double in size. Factors affecting Generation
time include Nutrient availability, Environmental conditions (temperature, pH) and the Presence
of inhibitory substances
Bacterial Growth Curve
In bacterial growth, four phases exist. They are
1. Lag Phase – is a period of adjustment to new environment there’s limited or no increase in
population size
2. Logarithmic (Log or Exponential) Phase- is a rapid and exponential increase in population.
At this phase, there is maximum growth rate.
3. Stationary Phase- is the time where there is equilibrium between cell division and death.
Nutrient depletion and accumulation of waste products is witnessed at this point.
4. Death Phase- there is an exponential decrease in population size, depletion of nutrients and
buildup of toxic by-products at this phase.
V. Factors Affecting Bacterial Population Growth
• Nutrient Availability
• Temperature
• pH
• Oxygen Availability
Horizontal Gene Transfer
➢ Transformation - Uptake of DNA from the environment and incorporation of new genetic
material
➢ Conjugation- Transfer of genetic material through direct cell-to-cell contact. Involves a sex
pilus
 ➢ Transduction- Transfer of genetic material by viruses (bacteriophages)
Biofilms
Biofilm - Aggregations of bacteria in a matrix of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS). This
enhances resistance to antimicrobial agents
BACTERIAL OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTION
Opportunistic Infection is an Infection caused by microorganisms that typically do not cause
disease in healthy individuals. The microorganisms may be part of normal microbial community
in the human body (Normal Microbiota) but may become pathogenic when they exploit weakened
immune defenses found in patients that are positive for HIV/AIDS, transplant recipients, elderly
individuals
Common Opportunistic Bacterial Pathogens
➢ Escherichia coli - Normally found in the intestines but can cause opportunistic infection in
the urinary tract, bloodstream, and wounds
➢ Pseudomonas aeruginosa- is ubiquitous in the environment and can cause infection in
wounds, respiratory tract, and immunocompromised individuals
➢ Staphylococcus aureus – a common skin and nasal flora that can cause skin and soft tissue
infection, pneumonia, and bloodstream infections
➢ Streptococcus pneumoniae- Normal flora in the respiratory tract but can cause
opportunistic infections like pneumonia in susceptible individuals
Factors Contributing to Opportunistic Infections
• Immune Suppression- Weakened immune response due to diseases or medications
• Breakdown of Barriers - Disruption of skin or mucosal barriers, catheters, surgical wounds,
and medical devices as entry points.
• Changes in Microbiota- Disruption of the balance in the microbial community, Antibiotic
use leading to overgrowth of opportunistic pathogens
VI. Prevention and Control
• Immunization
• Infection Control Measures
➢ Hand hygiene, proper use of personal protective equipment
➢ Sterile procedures in medical settings
• Antimicrobial Stewardship
➢ Rational use of antibiotics to prevent antibiotic resistance
• Monitoring and Early Detection
➢ Regular screening for at-risk individuals
➢ Prompt treatment of infections to prevent complications