SCIENCE NOTES CLASS-X

KV ONGC, Agartala

SESSION: 2024-25
Prepared by TARA CHAND SAINI (TGT-SCIENCE)
 Unit and Chapter wise Distribution of the Marks
Unit Unit Included Chapters in the unit Marks
No.
I Chemical Substances- • Chemical Reaction and 25
Nature and Behaviour Equations
• Acids, Bases and Salts
• Metal and non-metals
• Carbon and its compounds
II World of Living • Life Processes 25
• Control and Coordination
• How Do Organisms
Reproduce?
• Heredity
III Natural phenomena • Light-Reflection and 12
Refraction
• Human Eye and the
Colourful World
IV Effects of current • Electricity 13
• Magnetic Effects of Current
V Natural resources • Our Environment 05
Total 80
Internal Assessment 20
Grand Total 100

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 SCIENCE
INDEX
S. Name of Chapter Page
No. No.
1. Chemical Reaction and Equations 3
2. Acids, Bases and Salts 13
3. Metal and non-metals 24
4. Carbon and its compounds 37
5. Life Processes 51
6. Control and Coordination 70
7. How Do Organisms Reproduce? 81
8. Heredity 95
9. Light-Reflection and Refraction 103
10. Human Eye and the Colourful World 122
11. Electricity 132
12. Magnetic Effects of Current 144
13. Our Environment 152

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 Chapter 01
Chemical Reactions and Equations
Chemical changes:
Chemical change in which a new substance is formed.
In the chemical changes we can observe some changes like-
• Formation of new substance.
• Change in state of the substances.
• Change in colour.
• Change in temperature.
• Evolution of a gas.
• Formation of a precipitate (insoluble substance).

Chemical reaction:
The substance (s) that undergoes chemical change is known as chemical reaction.
Chemical reactions are also known as chemical changes.
Ex. The burning of magnesium in air.
We can write above reaction like this way…
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒖𝒎 + 𝑶𝒙𝒚𝒈𝒆𝒏 → 𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒆
(Reactants in LHS) (Product in RHS)
It is a word-equation, the reactants are written on the left-hand side (LHS) with plus sign
(+) between them. Similarly, products are written on the right-hand side (RHS) with a
plus sign (+) between them.
The arrowhead point towards the products and shows the direction of the reaction.

Chemical Equation:
The symbolic representation of a chemical reaction in the form of symbols and
formulae is called chemical equation.
• Chemical equations can be made more concise and useful through presenting the
chemical formulae instead of words. Thus, a chemical equation represents a
chemical reaction.
• Chemical equation is a skeleton chemical equation for a reaction.
𝟐𝑴𝒈 + 𝑶𝟐 → 𝟐𝑴𝒈𝑶

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Balanced Chemical Equation:
• Balanced chemical equation is based on the law of conservation of mass.
• According to the law of conservation of mass, the mass neither be created nor
destroyed in a chemical reaction.
• That is, the total mass of the elements present in the products of a chemical
reaction has to be equal to the total mass of the elements present in the reactants.
• The number of atoms of each element remains the same, before and after a
chemical reaction.
• So, it is necessary to balance the skeleton chemical equation.
• This method of balancing chemical equations is called hit-and-trial method.
Example:
𝒁𝒊𝒏𝒄 + 𝑺𝒖𝒍𝒑𝒉𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 → 𝒁𝒊𝒏𝒄 𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒕𝒆 + 𝑯𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏
𝒁𝒏 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑺𝑶𝟒 → 𝒁𝑵𝑺𝑶𝟒 + 𝑯𝟐
Let’s check the number of atoms in both sides of equation. It is already a balanced
equation.
S. No. Element LHS RHS
1. Zn 1 1
2. H 2 2
3. S 1 1
4. O 4 4
Steps to Balance a Chemical Equation:
Let us try to balance the following chemical equation-
𝑭𝒆 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 → 𝑭𝒆𝟑 𝑶𝟒 + 𝑯𝟐
Step I: To balance a chemical equation, first draw boxes around each formula without
changing anything.

Step II: Now list the number of atoms of different elements present in the unbalanced
equation.
S. NO. Element In Reactants In Products
1. Fe 1 3
2. H 2 2
3. O 1 4
Step III: To start balancing with the compound that contains the maximum number of
atoms in the equation. It may be a reactant or a product.

In the present reaction, we select Fe3O4 and oxygen in it.

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 S. NO. Atoms of In Reactants In Products
Oxygen
1. Initial 1 (in H2O) 4 (in Fe3O4)
2. To balance 1x4 4

• To balance oxygen atoms, we can put coefficient 4 as 4 H 2O. Now it is as:

Step IV: As H2O, we can balance Fe and H atoms in the chemical equation.
Let us balance hydrogen atoms in the partly balanced equation. To equalise the
number of H atoms, make the number of molecules of hydrogen as four on the
RHS.
S. Atoms in In Reactants In Products
NO. Hydrogen
1. Initial 8 (in 4 H2O) 2 (in H2)
2. To balance 8 2x4

• Now the equation would be-

Step V: Now equalise Fe, we take three atoms of Fe on the LHS.

S. NO. Atoms of In Reactants In Products
Iron
1. Initial 1 (in Fe) 3 (in Fe3O4)
2. To balance 1 x3 3

• Now the equation would be-

Step VI: Finally, to check the corrections of the balanced equation, we count atoms of
each element on both sides of the equation.
𝟑𝑭𝒆 + 𝟒𝑯𝟐 𝑶 → 𝑭𝒆𝟑 𝑶𝟒 + 𝟒𝑯𝟐

Step VII: Writing symbols of physical states:

• To make a chemical equation more informative, the physical states of the reactants
and products are mentioned along with their chemical formulae.
• The solid, liquid and gaseous state of reactants and products are represented by
the notations (s), (l) and (g) respectively.

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 • If a reactant and product is present as a solution in water, it represented by
aqueous (aq).
• If precipitate (insoluble substance) formed in the reaction indicates down
arrow as (↓)
𝟑𝑭𝒆(𝒔) + 𝟒𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒈) → 𝑭𝒆𝟑 𝑶𝟒 (𝒔) + 𝑯𝟐 (𝒈)

Some other symbols and indications:

Sometimes the reaction conditions, such as temperature, pressure, catalyst etc., for the
reaction are indicated above and below the arrow in the equation. Ex.
𝟑𝟒𝟎 𝒂𝒕𝒎 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆
𝑪𝑶 (𝒈) + 𝟐 𝑯𝟐 (𝒈) → 𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑶𝑯 (𝒍)
𝑺𝒖𝒏𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
𝟔𝑪𝑶𝟐 (𝒂𝒒) + 𝟏𝟐𝑯𝟐 𝑶 (𝒍) → 𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟏𝟐 𝑶𝟔 (𝒂𝒒) + 𝟔𝑶𝟐 (𝒂𝒒) + 𝟔𝑯𝟐 𝑶 (𝒍)
𝑪𝒉𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒉𝒚𝒍𝒍

Types of chemical reactions

In the chemical reaction, the substances break and making of bonds between atoms to
produce new substances.
Chemical reactions are several types. Some of them are as:
i). Combination Reaction
ii). Decomposition Reaction
iii). Displacement Reaction
iv). Double Displacement Reaction
v). Oxidation and Reduction Reaction (Redox reaction)

i). Combination Reaction:

The reaction in which a single product is formed by two or more reactants is known
as combination reaction.
A general form of a combination reaction is:
𝑨 + 𝑩 → 𝑨𝑩
Examples of Combination reactions:
a). Reaction of Calcium oxide (Quick lime, CaO) and water:
In this reaction calcium oxide (CaO) and water combine to form slaked lime or calcium
hydroxide Ca(OH)2.
𝑪𝒂𝑶(𝒔) + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍) → 𝑪𝒂(𝑶𝑯)𝟐 (𝒂𝒒) + 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕
b). Whitewashing: Calcium hydroxide or Slaked lime Ca(OH)2 is used for white washing
walls. It reacts slowly with the carbon dioxide in air to form a thin layer of calcium

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carbonate on the walls. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is formed after two to three days of
white washing and gave a shiny finish to the walls.
𝑪𝒂(𝑶𝑯)𝟐 (𝒂𝒒) + 𝑪𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) → 𝑪𝒂𝑪𝑶𝟑 (𝒔) + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍)
c). Burning of coal:
𝑪(𝒔) + 𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) → 𝑪𝑶𝟐 (𝒈)
d). Formation of water:
𝑯𝟐 (𝒈) + 𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) → 𝟐𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍)
e). Heating of copper*:
When copper powder is heated with oxygen, the brown surface of coper powder becomes
coated with a black colour substance (CuO).
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝟐𝑪𝒖 + 𝑶𝟐 → 𝟐𝑪𝒖𝑶

Exothermic Reactions:
Reactions in which heat is released along with the formation of products are called
exothermic reactions.
The heat makes the reaction mixture warm.
Examples of Some Exothermic reactions:
a). Burning of natural gas:
𝑪𝑯𝟒 (𝒈) + 𝟐𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) → 𝑪𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) + 𝟐𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒈) + 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕
b). Respiration reaction:
• During the respiration, the glucose (C6H12O6) combines with oxygen in the cells
and provides energy.
𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟏𝟐 𝑶𝟔 (𝒂𝒒) + 𝟔𝑶𝟐 (𝒂𝒒) → 𝟔𝑪𝑶𝟐 (𝒂𝒒) + 𝟔𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍) + 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
c). The decomposition of vegetables/fruits/leaves (organic matter) into compost.

Fig: Formation of compost (composting) is an exothermic reaction

ii). Decomposition Reaction:

The reaction in which a single reactant breaks down to give simpler products are
called decomposition reaction.

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A general form of a decomposition reaction is:
𝑨𝑩 → 𝑨 + 𝑩
The decomposition reactions require energy either in the form of heat, sunlight or
electricity for breaking down the reactants.

Endothermic reaction:
Reactions in which energy is absorbed are known as endothermic reactions.
Types of Decomposition reactions: These are three types.
i). Thermal decomposition reactions
ii). Photo-decomposition reactions
iii). Electrolytic-decomposition reactions
(i). Thermal decomposition
In this decomposition, a chemical compound decomposes on heating.
a). Decomposition of ferrous sulphite:
• Ferrous sulphate crystal (FeSO4.7H2O) lose water when heated and the colour of
the crystal changes (light green to white).
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝟐𝑭𝒆𝑺𝑶𝟒 . 𝟕𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒔) → 𝑭𝒆𝑺𝑶𝟒 (𝒔) + 𝟕𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒈)

• It then ferrous oxide decomposes to ferric oxide (Fe2O3), sulphur dioxide (SO2)
and sulphur trioxide (SO3).
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝟐𝑭𝒆𝑺𝑶𝟒 (𝒔) → 𝑭𝒆𝟐 𝑶𝟑 (𝒔) + 𝑺𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) + 𝑺𝑶𝟑 (𝒈)
b). Decomposition of limestone (Calcium carbonate):
In this reaction, calcium carbonate, CaCO3 (Limestone) decomposes into calcium oxide
(Quick lime, CaO) and carbon dioxide on heating.
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝑪𝒂𝑪𝑶𝟑 (𝒔) → 𝑪𝒂𝒐(𝒔) + 𝑪𝑶𝟐 (𝒈)
Use of Quick lime:
Calcium oxide is called lime or quick lime. It is used manufacture of cement.
c). Decomposition of Lead nitrate:
In this reaction, lead nitrate (Pb(NO3)2) decomposes into lead oxide (PbO), nitrogen
dioxide (NO2) and oxygen (O2).

Colour change*: In this reaction, nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in the form of brown fumes
are released.

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 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝟐𝑷𝒃(𝑵𝑶𝟑 )𝟐 (𝒔) → 𝟐𝑷𝒃𝑶(𝒔) + 𝟒𝑵𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) + 𝑶𝟐 (𝒈)
(ii). Photo-decomposition reactions
Chemical decomposition reactants can be brought about by the absorption of light
energy, such decomposition reaction is called a photo-decomposition reaction.
a). Decomposition of Silver chloride:
The white silver chloride (AgCl) turns grey in sunlight. This is due to the decomposition
of silver chloride into silver and chlorine in the presence of sunlight.
Colour change: White silver chloride turns grey (due to the formation of Ag).
𝑺𝒖𝒏𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
𝟐𝑨𝒈𝑪𝒍(𝒔) → 𝟐𝑨𝒈(𝒔) + 𝑪𝒍𝟐 (𝒈)
b). Decomposition of Silver bromide:
Silver bromide is also decomposed by the same way as silver chloride.
Colour change: White silver bromide turns grey (due to the formation of Ag).
𝑺𝒖𝒏𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
𝟐𝑨𝒈𝑩𝒓(𝒔) → 𝟐𝑨𝒈(𝒔) + 𝑩𝒓𝟐 (𝒈)

Importance: Decomposition of silver chloride and silver bromide both reactions

are used in black and white photography.
(iii). Electrolytic-decomposition reactions
In this kind of decomposition, the compound breaks down on absorption of electric
energy, is called electrolytic decomposition reaction.
a). Electrolysis of water (based on activity 1.7):
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝒆−)
𝟐𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒂𝒒) → 𝟐𝑯𝟐 (𝒈) + 𝑶𝟐 (𝒈)
The hydrogen gas is collected at the cathode (-) while oxygen gas is collected on anode
(+). At the anode hydrogen gas is collected double than oxygen. It is because one molecule
of water has one atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen (double amount than
oxygen).
a). Electrolysis of sodium chloride:
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝒆− )
𝟐𝑵𝒂𝑪𝒍(𝒍) → 𝟐𝑵𝒂(𝒔) + 𝑪𝒍𝟐 (𝒈)

iii). Displacement Reaction:

The reactions in which one element displaces or removes another element is called
displacement reaction.
The higher reactive element can displace the lower reactive element than it.
Reactivity series: K>Na>Ca>Mg>Al>Zn>Fe>Pb>H>Cu>Hg>Ag>Au

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Hint*: (Popular Scientist Can Make All Zoo In Low Humid Country, More Silver Gold)
A general form of a displacement reaction is:
𝑨 + 𝑩𝑪 → 𝑨𝑪 + 𝑩
A is a higher reactive metal and B is a low reactive metal.
Examples of Displacement reactions:
a). Reaction of iron with copper sulphate:
In this reaction, iron (Fe) displaces copper (Cu) from copper sulphate (CuSO 4).
𝑭𝒆(𝒔) + 𝑪𝒖𝑺𝑶𝟒 (𝒂𝒒) → 𝑭𝒆𝑺𝑶𝟒 (𝒂𝒒) + 𝑪𝒖(𝒔)
B). Reaction of zinc and copper sulphate:
In this reaction, Zinc (Zn) displaces copper (Cu) from copper sulphate (CuSO 4).
𝒁𝒏(𝒔) + 𝑪𝒖𝑺𝑶𝟒 (𝒂𝒒) → 𝒁𝒏𝑺𝑶𝟒 (𝒂𝒒) + 𝑪𝒖(𝒔)
c). Reaction of lead and copper chloride:
In this reaction, Lead (Pb) displaces copper (Cu) from copper chloride (CuCl 2).
𝑷𝒃(𝒔) + 𝑪𝒖𝑪𝒍𝟐 (𝒂𝒒) → 𝑷𝒃𝑪𝒍𝟐 (𝒂𝒒) + 𝑪𝒖(𝒔)

iv). Double Displacement Reactions:

The reactions in which there is an exchange of ions between reactants are called
double displacement reactions.
A general form of a double displacement reaction is:
𝑨𝑩 + 𝑪𝑫 → 𝑨𝑫 + 𝑪𝑩
Where A and C are positively charged ions (metals) and B and D are negatively charged
ions (non-metals).

Precipitation reaction: The double displacement reaction in which a precipitated

(insoluble substance) is formed, are also known as precipitation reaction. In this reaction,
an insoluble salt (↓) is formed. It is precipitated in the bottom.
Two Examples of Double Displacement reactions:
a). Reaction between Sodium sulphate (Na 2SO4) and Barium chloride (BaCl2):
𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑺𝑶𝟒 (𝒂𝒒) + 𝑩𝒂𝑪𝒍𝟐 (𝒂𝒒) → 𝑩𝒂𝑺𝑶𝟒 (𝒔) ↓ + 𝟐𝑵𝒂𝑪𝒍(𝒂𝒒)
The other product formed is sodium chloride (NaCl) which remains in the solution.
Barium sulphate (BaSO4) is a white insoluble substance.

In above reaction, the white precipitate of BaSO4 is formed by the reaction of SO4-2 and
Ba+2.
b). Reaction between Lead (II) nitrate (Pb(NO3)2 and Potassium iodide (KI):

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In this reaction, lead iodide (PbI 2) and potassium nitrate (KNO3) are produced. Lead
iodide is a yellow precipitate in the solution.
𝑷𝒃(𝑵𝑶)𝟑 )𝟐 (𝒂𝒒) + 𝟐𝑲𝑰(𝒂𝒒) → + 𝑷𝒃𝑰𝟐 (𝒔) ↓ +𝟐𝑲𝑵𝑶𝟑 (𝒂𝒒)

In above reaction, the yellow precipitate of PbI2 is formed by the reaction of Pb+2 and I-.

(v). Oxidation-Reduction Reaction:

The reaction in which one reactant gets oxidised while the other gets reduced
during a reaction, such reaction are called oxidation-reduction.
Oxidation-reduction reactions are also known as redox reactions.
Oxidation is defined as addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen.
Reduction is defined as removal of oxygen or addition of hydrogen.
• If a substance gains oxygen during a reaction, it is said to be oxidised.
• If a substance loses oxygen during a reaction, it is said to be reduced.

Oxidising agent: The substance which provides oxygen atoms to other substance in a
chemical reaction is called oxidising agent.
Oxidising agent is reduced in the reaction.

Reducing agent: The substance which gains oxygen from oxidising agent in a chemical
reaction is called reducing agent.
Reducing agent is oxidised in the reaction.
Examples of Oxidation-reduction reactions:
a). Oxidation of copper oxide: This reaction is procced in two steps.
i-Oxidation of copper to copper oxide:
When copper powder is heated with oxygen, the brown surface of coper powder becomes
coated with a black colour substance (CuO)
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝟐𝑪𝒖 + 𝑶𝟐 → 𝟐𝑪𝒖𝑶
ii-Reduction of copper oxide to copper:
When hydrogen gas is passed over the heated copper oxide, the black coating on the
surface turns brown.
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝑪𝒖𝑶 + 𝑯𝟐 → 𝑪𝒖 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
In this reaction, the copper oxide is losing oxygen and being reduced. The hydrogen is
gaining oxygen and is being oxidised.
Hydrogen (H2) is a reducing agent. While copper oxide (CuO) is an oxidising agent.
b). Reaction of zinc oxide with carbon:

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In this reaction, carbon is oxidised to CO and ZnO is reduced to Zn.
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝒁𝒏𝑶 + 𝑪 → 𝒁𝒏 + 𝑪𝑶
c). Reaction of Hydrogen sulphide with sulphur dioxide:
In this reaction, hydrogen sulphide (Reducing agent) oxidised to water and sulphur
dioxide (oxidising agent) reduced to sulphur.
𝟐𝑯𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑺𝑶𝟐 → 𝟐𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝑺
d). Reaction of Manganese oxide with hydrochloric acid:
𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟐 + 𝟒𝑯𝑪𝒍 → 𝑴𝒏𝑪𝒍𝟐 + 𝟐𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝑪𝒍𝟐
In above reaction, HCl is oxidised to Cl2 whereas MnO2 is reduced to MnCl2.

In this reaction, MnO2 is an oxidising agent while HCl is a reducing agent.

Effects of Oxidation-reduction in Everyday life:

a). Corrosion:
The process in which metals are eaten up gradually by the action of air, moisture
or a chemical on their surface is known as corrosion.
Corrosion is a process in which a substance (specially metals) gets destructive attack by
reaction with the environment.
Examples: Rusting of iron, black coating on silver, green coating on copper.
During the corrosion of the iron, iron is oxidised by the oxygen of air in the presence of
moisture to form iron oxide (reddish brown).
Effects of corrosion:
• Corrosion causes damage to car bodies, bridges, iron railings, ships and all other
objects made of metals.
• Corrosion of iron is a serious problem. There is an enormous amount of money is
spent to replace damaged iron every year.
Prevention of corrosion: See chapter Metal and non-metal.

b). Rancidity:
The process of oxidation of fats and oil in which these react with air and water to
produce bad smell and taste, this process is called rancidity.
Prevention of rancidity:
i). By adding anti-oxidants to foods containing fats and oil.
ii). Keeping food in air tight containers helps to slow down oxidation.

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Ex. The chips are kept in air tight packing and fill nitrogen gas to prevent the chips from
getting oxidised. Nitrogen gas generally inactive gas.
iii). Refrigeration of the food.
iv). By adding hydrogen to prepare fats for a long time.
***

Chapter 02
Acids, Bases and Salts
Acids:
The substances which are sour in taste and change the colour of blue litmus to red,
are called acids.
The property (nature) of acids is called acidic.

Acids contain Hydrogen H+ ions as cation and anions such as Cl- in HCl, NO3- in HNO3,
SO4-2 in H2SO4, CH3COO- in CH3COOH.

*H+ ions are responsible for their acidic nature.

Some examples of naturally occurring acids:
S. No. Natural source Acid
1. Vinegar Acetic acid
2. Sour milk or curd Lactic acid
3. Lemon/orange Citric acid
4. Spinach/tomato Oxalic acid
5. Tamarind/unripe mangoes/grapes Tartaric acid
6. Amla/Citrus fruits Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)
7. Ant’s sting Formic acid (Methanoic acid)
8. Nettle sting Formic acid (Methanoic acid)

Bases:
The substances which are bitter in taste and change the colour of red litmus to blue,
are called bases.
Bases are also soapy in touch and corrosive.
The property (nature) of bases is called basic or alkaline.

Bases contain Hydroxide OH- ions as anion and cations such Na+ in NaOH, K+ in KOH, Ca+2
in Ca(OH)2, Mg+2 in Mg(OH)2.

*Hydroxide (OH-) ions are responsible for their basic nature.

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Salts:
The substances which are obtained by the reaction of acids and bases, are called
salts.
Ex. NaCl, CaCO3, FeSO4, CuSO4, ZnSO4, MgCl2, CaCl2, AlCl3

Acid-Base Indicators:
The substances which are used to determine whether a substance is acidic or basic
change in colour, are called indicators.

Types of indicators: Two types:

a). Natural indicators
b). Synthetic indicators

Natural indicators: These are obtained from the nature.

Ex. Litmus, Turmeric, coloured petals of red cabbage leaves, hydrangea, Petunia, China
rose and Geranium.

Litmus:
Litmus is obtained from lichen which is a symbiotic organism which belongs to
Thallophyta. Its colour is purple (mauve).
Turmeric: The yellow colour of turmeric powder changes into red in base while it
remains same yellow in acid (no change).
Red Cabbage Leaves indicator:
The original colour of red cabbage leave indicator is purple. It turns red in acid while it
turns greenish yellow in base.

Olfactory indicators:
Some other substances whose odour changes in acidic or basic media are called olfactory
indicators.
Ex. Vanilla, Onion, Clove etc.
Vanilla, Onion and Clove all these loses their smell with bases, they do not change their
smell with acids.

Synthetic indicators: These are man-made in laboratories or industries.

Ex. Phenolphthalein, Methyl orange.

S. NO. Indicator Change with acid Change with base

1. Blue litmus Red No change
2. Red litmus No change Blue
3. Turmeric (yellow) No change Red

14
 4. China-rose (light pink) Dark pink Green
5. Red Cabbage (purple) Red Greenish-yellow
6. Vanilla No change its smell Loses its smell
7. Onion No change its smell Loses its smell
8. Clove No change its smell Loses its smell
9. Methyl orange (orange) Red Yellow
10. Phenolphthalein No change (colourless) Pink
(colourless)

Chemical properties of ACIDS and BASES:

Reactions of Acids with Metals:
When an acid reacts with a metal, there is a salt formed and evolve hydrogen gas.
This reaction can be expressed as:
𝑨𝒄𝒊𝒅 + 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 → 𝑺𝒂𝒍𝒕 + 𝑯𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝒈𝒂𝒔
Ex. 𝑯𝟐 𝑺𝑶𝟒 (𝒂𝒒) + 𝒁𝒏(𝒔) → 𝒁𝒏𝑺𝑶𝟒 (𝒂𝒒) + 𝑯𝟐 (𝒈)
*Some bases also produce salt when they react with metal. But such reactions are not
possible with all metals.
𝟐𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯(𝒂𝒒) + 𝒁𝑵(𝒔) → 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝒁𝒏𝑶𝟐 (𝒔) + 𝑯𝟐 (𝒈)
(Sodium zincate)

Reaction of Metal carbonates or Metal hydrogen carbonate and Acids:

When an acid reacts with a metal carbonate or metal hydrogen carbonate, there is a salt,
carbon dioxide and water are formed.
𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆 + 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 → 𝑺𝒂𝒍𝒕 + 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 + 𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒆
𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆 + 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 → 𝑺𝒂𝒍𝒕 + 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 + 𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒆
Example:
𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟐 (𝒔) + 𝟐𝑯𝑪𝒍(𝒂𝒒) → 𝟐𝑵𝒂𝑪𝒍(𝒂𝒒) + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍) + 𝑪𝑶𝟐 (𝒈)
𝑵𝒂𝑯𝑪𝑶𝟑 (𝒔) + 𝑯𝑪𝒍(𝒂𝒒) → 𝟐𝑵𝒂𝑪𝒍(𝒂𝒒) + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍) + 𝑪𝑶𝟐 (𝒈)
Note:
i). If the carbon dioxide gas passes through lime water Ca(OH)2, a milky substances CaCO3
(white precipitate) is formed.
𝑪𝒂(𝑶𝑯)𝟐 (𝒂𝒒) + 𝑪𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) → 𝑪𝒂𝑪𝑶𝟑 (𝒔) + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍)
ii). On passing excess carbon dioxide gas, A calcium hydrogen carbonate Ca(HCO3)2
(soluble salt) is formed.
𝑪𝒂𝑪𝑶𝟑 (𝒔) + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍) + 𝑪𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) → 𝑪𝒂(𝑯𝑪𝑶𝟑 )𝟐 (𝒂𝒒)

15
Limestone, marble and chalk are different forms of calcium carbonate.

Reaction of an Acid and a Base (Neutralisation):

The reaction between an acid and a base to give a salt and water is called neutralisation.
In a neutralisation, salt and water are formed. Acid and base reaction can be expressed
as:
𝑨𝒄𝒊𝒅 + 𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 → 𝑺𝒂𝒍𝒕 + 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
Ex. 𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯(𝒂𝒒) + 𝑯𝑪𝒍(𝒂𝒒) → 𝑵𝒂𝑪𝒍(𝒂𝒒) + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍)

Some other examples of neutralisation:

a). Reaction of Metallic oxides with Acids:
In the reaction of a metallic oxide and an acid, the same products are formed. Metallic
oxides are considered as basic oxides. These change the red litmus solution to blue.
𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒆 + 𝑨𝒄𝒊𝒅 → 𝑺𝒂𝒍𝒕 + 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
Ex. 𝟐𝑵𝒂𝑶(𝒔) + 𝟐𝑯𝑪𝒍(𝒂𝒒) → 𝟐𝑵𝒂𝑪𝒍(𝒂𝒒) + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍)

b). Reaction of a Non-metallic oxide with a Base:

In this reaction, a non-metallic oxide and a base produce a salt and water. No-metallic
oxides are acidic in nature.
𝑵𝒐𝒏 − 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒆 + 𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 → 𝑺𝒂𝒍𝒕 + 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
Ex. 𝑪𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) + 𝑪𝒂(𝑶𝑯)𝟐 (𝒂𝒒) → 𝑪𝒂𝑪𝑶𝟑 (𝒔) + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍)

What happens when an Acid dissolve in water?

Acids produces Hydrogen H+ or Hydronium (H3O+) ions in presence of water.
𝑯𝑪𝒍 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 → 𝑯𝟑 𝑶+ + 𝑪𝒍−
H+ ions cannot exist alone. So, hydrogen ions combining with water molecules in
the form of H3O+ ions.
𝑯+ + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 → 𝑯𝟑 𝑶+
*The aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid can conduct electricity due to presence of
charge particles (hydrogen ions).

What happens when a Base dissolve in water?

When a base dissolve in water, it produces hydroxide OH- ions.
Ex. 𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯(𝒔) + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 → 𝑵𝒂+ (𝒂𝒒) + 𝑶𝑯− (𝒂𝒒)

𝑴𝒈(𝑶𝑯)𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 → 𝑴𝒈+𝟐 (𝒂𝒒) + 𝟐𝑶𝑯− (𝒂𝒒)

16
Alkali:
The base which can dissolve in water is known as alkali. All bases do not dissolve
in water.
Ex. Highly soluble bases: NaOH, KOH
Slightly low soluble bases: Mg(OH)2, Ca(OH)2

Dilution:
The process of mixing an acid or base with water is called dilution. And the acid or
the base is called diluted.
In this mixing, the concentration of ions (H + or OH-) are decreased.
Pre-caution during the dissolving an acid or a base in water:
The process of dissolving an acid and a base in water is highly exothermic. The glass
container may also break due to excessive heating. Adding water in a concentrate acid
may cause the mixture to splash out and cause burns.
So, acid must always be added slowly to water with constant stirring and do not
add water to the acid.

pH scale:
A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution, is called pH scale.
pH values of substances are found between 0 to 14. A pH scale can measure these values.
Generally, paper universal indicator is used for measuring pH value.

Fig: A pH scale

Acidic pH:
The range of acidic pH is 0 to 6.9.
Higher the hydrogen or hydronium ions, lower is the pH value. Lower the pH value higher
the acidic nature.
Strong acids give high H+ ions while weak acids give less H+ ions.
Ex. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is strong than acetic acid (CH 3COOH).

17
a). Strong acid: The acid which gives more H+ ions in its aqueous solution is known as
strong acid.
Ex. HCl (Hydrochloric acid); H2SO4 (Sulphuric acid); HNO3 (Nitric acid); HCLO4
(Perchloric acid); HBr (Hydrobromic acid).
a). Weak acid: The acid which gives less H+ ions in its aqueous solution is known as weak
acid.
Ex. HCOOH (Formic acid); CH3COOH (Acetic acid); HCN (Hydrocyanic acid); Hydrofluoric
acid (HF); H2S (Hydrogen sulphide) and all edible acids.

Basic pH:
The range of basic pH is 7.1 to 14.
Increasing in OH- ion concentration in the solution, higher the pH value of basic nature.
Strong Base: A base which completely ionises in water and produces a large amount of
hydroxide ions (OH-), is known as strong base.
Ex. NaOH (Sodium hydroxide); KOH (Potassium hydroxide).
Weak Base: A base which partially ionises in water and produces a small amount of
hydroxide ions (OH-), is known as strong base.
Ex. NH4OH (Ammonium hydroxide); Ca(OH)2 (Calcium hydroxide), Mg(OH)2 (Magnesium
hydroxide).
pH of some common substances:

S. NO. Substance pH value Nature

1. Gastric juice 1.2 Acidic
2. Lemon juice 2.2 Acidic
3. Tomato juice 4.3 Acidic
4. Curd 4.5 to 5.5 Acidic
5. Milk 6.7 to 6.9 Slightly acidic
6. Pure water 7.0 Neutral
7. Blood 7.4 Slightly basic
8. Milk of magnesia 10 Basic
9. Sodium hydroxide 14 Basic
Importance of pH in Everyday life:
pH plays an important role in our everyday life. Some of them are as:

18
i). In the life of plants and animals:
Our body works within the pH range of 7.0 to 7.8. Other living organisms can also survive
only in narrow range of pH change.
If the rain water has pH value less than 5.6 (known as acid rain), it may cause the lower
the pH of the water bodies. The aquatic life will affect to survive in this lower pH value.
ii). Soil fertility:
Plants require a specific pH range for their healthy growth. If it disturbed (higher or
lower) the particular plant growth will affect.
iii). Indigestion:
Our stomach produces hydrochloric acid to help in the digestion of food. During
indigestion, it releases in much quantity which causes pain in stomach.
Solution: The higher acid can be neutralised by taking a base or antacid. Ex. Milk of
magnesia (Magnesium hydroxide)
iv). Tooth decay:
Tooth decay causes when the pH of the mouth is lower than 5.5. This pH is the result of
action of bacteria on food particles remaining in the mouth after eating. The enamel
(hardest substance) of the tooth does not dissolve in water but corroded in lower pH of
mouth.
Solution: Clean by toothpaste the mouth after every eating food. The nature of
toothpaste is basic. So, it neutralises the excess acid of mouth and prevent tooth decay.
v). Self-defence of plants and animals:
Some animals and plants have self-system from other organisms.
Honeybee or red ant injects formic acid in our skin by its sting.
Solution: It can neutralise by applying a mild base (baking soda) on the affected area.
Stinging hair of nettle plant injects formic acid (methanoic acid). It causes burning
pain.
Solution: A traditional remedy is rubbing the area with the leaf of the dock plant. Its leaf
contains a base.

Salts:
Salts are formed by neutralisation reaction between acids and bases.

Types of salt on the basis of their pH:

i). Neutral salt (Normal salt): A salt which formed by a strong acid and a strong base
has pH value of 7.0.

Ex. NaCl, KCl, NaNO3, Na2SO4, K2SO4.

19
Salt which formed by a weak acid and a weak base is also generally neutral salt
has pH value of 7.0.
*(The type of salt depends on the strength of the weak acid and weak base).

Ex. (NH4)2CO3, CH3COONH4

ii). Strong salt: A salt which formed by a strong acid and a week base has pH value less
than 7.0.

Ex. NH4Cl, NaHSO4, KHSO4, CaSO4, (NH4)2SO4

iii). Basic salt: A salt which formed by a week acid and a strong base has pH value higher
than 7.0.

Ex. Na2CO3, NaHCO3, CaCO3, MgCO3

Common Salt:
Chemical Name of common salt: Sodium chloride
Chemical formula of common salt: NaCl

Preparation: It is separated from the seawater by evaporation process. It can be formed

by the combination of hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide.
𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯(𝒂𝒒) + 𝑯𝑪𝒍(𝒂𝒒) → 𝑵𝒂𝑪𝒍(𝒂𝒒) + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍)
Rock salt: Rock salt is brown in colour due to impurities. It was
formed when seas of bygone ages dried up. Rock salt is mined like
coal.

Common salt as a raw material:

Common salt is an important raw material for used to obtained
various chemicals of daily use.
Ex. Sodium hydroxide, bleaching powder, baking soda, washing soda etc.

i). Sodium hydroxide:

Chemical Name: Sodium hydroxide
Chemical formula: NaOH
Preparation: It is prepared by chlor-alkali process.

20
Brine*: The aqueous solution of sodium chloride is known as brine.
When electricity is passed through an aqueous solution of sodium chloride (known as
brine), it decomposes to form sodium hydroxide. Chlorine gas deposits on anode and
hydrogen gas deposits on cathode.
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝟐𝑵𝒂𝑪𝒍(𝒂𝒒) + 𝟐𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍) → 𝟐𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯(𝒂𝒒) + 𝑪𝒍𝟐 (𝒈) + 𝑯𝟐 (𝒈)
All products made by this reaction are useful.

Fig: Important products from chlor-alkali process

ii). Bleaching powder:

Chemical Name: Calcium oxychloride
Chemical formula: CaOCl2
Preparation: Bleaching powder is produced by the action of chlorine on dry slaked lime
Ca(OH)2.
𝑪𝒂(𝑶𝑯)𝟐 + 𝑪𝒍𝟐 → 𝑪𝒂𝑶𝑪𝒍𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
Uses of Bleaching powder:
a). It is used for bleaching cotton and linen in the textile industry.
b). It is used for bleaching wood pulp in paper industries.

21
c). It is also used for bleaching washed clothes in laundry.
d). It is used as an oxidising agent in many chemical industries.
e). It is used for dis-infecting drinking water and kill the germs of it.

iii). Baking powder:

Chemical Name: Sodium bicarbonate or Sodium hydrogen carbonate.
Chemical formula: NaHCO3
It is a mild non-corrosive base. (also mild-corrosive basic salt)
Preparation: It is prepared by the action of sodium chloride, water, carbon dioxide and
ammonia.
𝑵𝒂𝑪𝒍 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝑵𝑯𝟑 → 𝑵𝒂𝑯𝑪𝑶𝟑 + 𝑵𝑯𝟒 𝑪𝒍
Uses of Baking soda:

a). It is used as antacid. It neutralises the excess acid in the stomach and provides relief.
b). It is used for making baking powder.
c). Baking soda is also used in fire-extinguisher (soda-acid).
d). It is commonly used in kitchen for making tasty crispy pakoras.
e). It is used for faster cooking.

iv). Baking powder:

It is a mixture of baking soda and a mild edible acid (tartaric, citric acids etc.).

Chemical formula: NaHCO3 + H+ (an edible acid)

Uses of baking powder:
a). When baking powder is heated or mixed in water, the following reaction takes place.
𝑵𝒂𝑯𝑪𝑶𝟑 + 𝑯+ → 𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝑺𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝒔𝒂𝒍𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅
Carbon dioxide produced during the reaction causes bread or cake soft and spongy.
b). Formation of washing soda:
When it is heated during the cooking, the reaction takes place:
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝟐𝑵𝒂𝑯𝑪𝑶𝟑 → 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟑 + 𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶

22
iv). Washing Soda:
Chemical Name: Hydrated Sodium carbonate
Chemical formula: Na2CO3.10H2O
It is a basic salt.
Preparation: It is prepared by heating of baking soda then re-crystallisation of sodium
carbonate.
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝟐𝑵𝒂𝑯𝑪𝑶𝟑 → 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟑 + 𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
𝑹𝒆−𝒄𝒓𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟑 + 𝟏𝟎𝑯𝟐 𝑶 → 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟑 . 𝟏𝟎𝑯𝟐 𝑶
Uses of washing soda:
a). It is used as cleaning agent for domestic purposes.
b). It is used for removing permanent hardness of water.
c). It is used in glass, soap and paper industries.
d). It is also used in manufacture of borax.

Crystallisation:
The process of formation of solid crystal from a homogenous solution, is called
crystallisation.
Water of crystallisation is the fixed number of water molecules present in one formula
unit of a salt.
1
Ex. CuSO4.5H2O, FeSO4.7H2O, Na2CO3.10H2O, CaSO4 . 2 H2 O, CaSO4.2H2O

v). Plaster of Paris:

Chemical Name: Calcium sulphate hemihydrate
𝟏
Chemical formula: 𝑪𝒂𝑺𝑶𝟒 . 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
𝟐

Preparation: It is prepared by heating gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) at 373 K or 1000 C.

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 (𝟑𝟕𝟑 𝑲) 𝟏
𝑪𝒂𝑺𝑶𝟒 . 𝟐𝑯𝟐 𝑶 → 𝑪𝒂𝑺𝑶. 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝟏𝟏𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
𝟐
Storage of Plaster of Paris: Plaster of Paris is stored in a water proof container for
protecting from the water moisture. If it is kept open, it absorbs water moisture from air
and convert into hard substance gypsum. That’s why it is stored in a water proof
container.
𝟏
𝑪𝒂𝑺𝑶. 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝟏𝟏𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 → 𝑪𝒂𝑺𝑶. 𝟐𝑯𝟐 𝑶
𝟐
Uses of Plaster of Paris:

23
a). It is used for making toys.
b). It is also used for making materials for decoration and for making surfaces smooth.
c). Doctors are used it as plaster for supporting fractured bones in the right position.
Plaster of Paris then becomes gypsum again after react with water moisture in air.
𝟏
𝑪𝒂𝑺𝑶. 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝟏𝟏𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 → 𝑪𝒂𝑺𝑶𝟒 . 𝟐𝑯𝟐 𝑶
𝟐
d). It is used as fireproofing materials.
e). It is also used for making chalks.
***

Chapter 03
Metals and Non-metals
Metals:
The elements which characterized by high electrical and thermal conductivity as well as
malleability, ductility, hard, lustre, sonorous are called metals.
OR
The elements which can lose their electrons easily and having positive charge on them
during preparation of compounds are called metals.

Physical properties:
Physical properties of metals are as follows:
i). Physical State:
Almost metals are solid and hard by nature. Hardness varies from metal to metals.
ii). Malleability:
Metals can be beaten into thin sheets; this property is called malleability.
Utensils, vessels and other sheets are able to made due to this property of metals.
iii). Ductility:
The ability of metals to be drawn into thin wires is called ductility.
Due to this property, metals are used in making electric wires.
iv). Conductivity:
The ability of metals to pass current and heat is called conductivity.
v). Lustre:

24
The surface of metals is lustre. Even they can be rust but their inner surface is remained
lustre (shining).
vi). Melting point:
Metals start to melt at high temperature. So, metals have high melting points.
vi). Sonorous:
When metals strike on a hard surface, they produce a sound, this ability is called
sonorous.
S. Physical property Metal
No.
1. Highest malleable metals Gold (Au) and Silver (Ag)
2. Highest ductile metals Gold (Au)
3. Highest conductors Silver (Ag) & Copper (Cu)
4. Poor conductors Lead (Pb) & Mercury (Hg)
5. Soft metals can be cut by knife (also very low Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na)
densities and melting points) and Potassium (K)
6. Liquid at room temperature Mercury (Hg)
7. Lowest melting points can melt on palm of Gallium (Ga) and Caesium
hand. (Cs)
8. Alkali metals Li, Na, K

Non-metals:
The elements that do not conduct electricity and are neither malleable nor ductile, are
called non-metals.
OR
The elements which can gain electron easily and having negative charge on them in
during preparation of compounds are called non-metals.
Ex: Hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine, iodine, bromine
etc.
*Non-metals are either solids or gases except bromine (Br). It is a liquid at room
temperature.
*Non-metals are non-lustres but iodine (I), diamond and graphite a lustre non-metal.
*Carbon can exist in different forms; each form is called allotrope (physical properties
are different but chemical properties are same).
Ex. Diamond, graphite and fullerenes (C-60).
• Diamond has high melting point and boiling point.
• Graphite is another allotrope which is a conductor of electricity.

25
Metalloids: The elements which show properties of both metals and non-metals are called
metalloids (sum-metals). Ex. B, Si, Ge, As, Se, Sb, Te, Po etc.

Chemical properties of Metals:

1). Metals burn in air:
When metals burn in presence of oxygen, they produce metal oxide.
𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 + 𝑶𝒙𝒚𝒈𝒆𝒏 → 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒆
Nature of metal oxide: Basic
Nature of non-metal oxide: Acidic
Ex.
i). When copper is heated in air, it combines with oxygen to form a black oxide (copper
oxide).
𝟐𝑪𝒖 + 𝑶𝟐 →2CuO
ii). Aluminium forms aluminium oxide.
𝟒𝑨𝒍 + 𝟑𝑶𝟐 → 𝟐𝑨𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟑
** Important Notes:
Most metal oxides insoluble in water but some metal oxides dissolve in water and give
bases (alkalis).
Ex. K2O and Na2O
𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑶(𝒔) + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍) → 𝟐𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯(𝒂𝒒)
𝑲𝟐 𝑶(𝒔) + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍) → 𝟐𝑲𝑶𝑯(𝒂𝒒)

Amphoteric Oxides:
Some metals show both acidic as well as basic behaviour. These metal oxides react with
both acids as well as bases to produce salts and water are known as amphoteric
oxides.
Ex. Zinc oxide (ZnO) and aluminium oxide (Al2O3).
𝑨𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟑 + 𝟔𝑯𝑪𝒍 → 𝟐𝑨𝒍𝑪𝒍𝟑 + 3 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
𝑨𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟑 + 𝟐𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯 → 𝟐𝑵𝒂𝑨𝒍𝑶𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
(Sodium aluminite)
𝑨𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟑 + 𝟐𝑲𝑶𝑯 → 𝟐𝑲𝑨𝒍𝑶𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
(Potassium aluminite)

26
Reactivity of metals with oxygen:
It varies from metal to metal. Different metals show different reactivities towards oxygen.
a). Sodium (Na) and potassium (K) react so vigorously (quickly) that they catch fire if kept
in the open.
That’s why sodium and potassium are kept immersed in kerosene oil.
b). Magnesium (Mg), aluminium (Al), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb) etc. are covered with a thin layer
of oxide at ordinary temperature.
This protective oxide layer prevents the metal from further oxidation.
c). Iron (Fe) does not burn on heating but iron filings burn vigorously.
d). Copper (Cu) does not burn, but the hot metal is coated with a black coloured layer of
copper oxide (CuO).
e). Silver (Ag) and gold (Au) do not react with oxygen at any temperature.

2). Metals react with water:

Metals react water and produce metal oxide and hydrogen gas.
Metal + Water → Metal oxide + Hydrogen gas
Metal oxide are soluble in water then produce metal oxide.
Metal oxide + Water → Metal hydroxide
But all metals do not react with water. Water may be cold, hot or in form of steam.

a). Metals that react with cold water:

Na, Mg, K and Ca can react with cold water.
a). Potassium and sodium react violently with cold water and produce hydroxide,
hydrogen gas and heat energy. These are exothermic reaction.
𝟐𝑲(𝒔) + 𝟐𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍) → 𝟐𝑲𝑶𝑯(𝒂𝒒) + 𝑯𝟐 (𝒈)+ Heat energy
𝟐𝑵𝒂(𝒔) + 𝟐𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍) → 𝟐𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯(𝒂𝒒) + 𝑯𝟐 (𝒈)+ Heat energy
b). Calcium and magnesium react with cold water but not violent. The heat is not
sufficient for the hydrogen to catch fire. Hydrogen sticks with calcium hydroxide and
magnesium hydroxide. So that they float.
𝟐𝑪𝒂(𝒔) + 𝟐𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍) → 𝑪𝒂(𝑶𝑯)𝟐 (𝒂𝒒) + 𝑯𝟐 (𝒈)
𝟐𝑴𝒈(𝒔) + 𝟐𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍) → 𝑴𝒈(𝑶𝑯)𝟐 (𝒂𝒒) + 𝑯𝟐 (𝒈)

b). Metals react with steam:

Some metals like aluminium, iron and zinc do not both cold and hot water but they react
steam.

27
 𝟐𝑨𝒍(𝒔) + 𝟑𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒈) → 𝑨𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟑 (𝒔) + 𝟑𝑯𝟐 (𝒈)
𝟑𝑭𝒆(𝒔) + 𝟒𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒈) → 𝑭𝒆𝟑 𝑶𝟒 (𝒔) + 4 𝑯𝟐 (𝒈)

c). Metals that do not react with water at all.

Lead, copper, silver and gold do not react with any water.

3). Metals react with acids.

Metals react with acids to give a salt and hydrogen gas.
Metal + Dilute acid → Salt + Hydrogen
2Na(s) + 𝟐𝑯𝑪𝒍(𝒂𝒒) → 2NaCl(s) + 𝑯𝟐 (𝒈)
Notes:
a). Nitric acid (HNO3) does not react with metals. Because HNO3 is a strong oxidising
agent. It oxidises hydrogen gas (H2) produced to water (H2O) and it gets reduced to any
of nitrogen oxides (N2O, NO or NO2).
b). Magnesium (Mg) and Manganese (Mn) react with very dilute nitric acid and produce
salt and evolve hydrogen gas.
c). Magnesium (Mg), aluminium (Al), zinc (Zn) and iron (Fe) react with dilute
hydrochloric acid exothermically.

Reactivity order is Mg>Al>Zn>Fe

d). Copper (Cu) does not react with dilute HCl. No bubbles are not released and
temperature remains unchanged in the reaction.
Reason: Hydrogen is more active than copper. So, copper unable to displace it in the
reaction.

4). Displacement reaction:

Reactive metals can displace less reactive metals from their compounds in solution. This
property helps to arrange the metals in the reactivity series.
𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑨 + 𝑺𝒂𝒍𝒕 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑩 → 𝑺𝒂𝒍𝒕 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑨 + 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑩
Ex. Zn + FeS𝑶𝟒 →ZnS𝑶𝟒 + Fe
The Reactivity Series of Metals:
The reactivity series is a list of metals arranged in the order of their decreasing activities
on the base of displacement reaction.
S. No. Reactivity Metals
1. Most reactive metals K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al
2. Moderate reactive metals Zn, Fe, Pb, Cu
3. Less reactive metals Hg, Ag, Au

28
Decreasing order of reactivity: K>Na>Ca>Mg>Al>Zn>Fe>Pb> H>Cu>Hg>Ag>Au
Hint*: (Popular Scientist Can Make All Zoo In Low Humid Country, More Silver Gold)

Ionic Bond and ionic compounds:

Metal and non-metal react each other in form of ionic compounds.
OR
The compound formed in this manner by the transfer of electrons from a metal to
a non-metal are known as ionic compounds.
Ionic compounds are also known as electrovalent compounds.
The attraction force between ionic compounds is known as ionic bond.
Metals lose their electron to complete their octet while non-metals gain electron to
complete their octet (as noble gases).

Ex. Formation of sodium chloride.

Sodium (11) has 2, 8, 1 electron in its K, L, M shell. The outermost shell M has 1 electron.
If it loses one electron then it will obtain the stable octet as noble gas Neon (Ne).
While Chlorine (17) has 2, 8, 7 electrons in its K, L, M shell. It needs only one electron to
complete its octet as noble gas Argon (Ar).
If sodium and chlorine react to each other, the electron lost by sodium could be taken by
chlorine. Chlorine gets the negative charge (17 protons and 18 electrons) and sodium
gets positive charge (11 protons and 10 electrons).

Both elements attract each other and held by strong electrostatic force in form of sodium
chloride (NaCl).

Ex. Formation of Magnesium chloride:

Magnesium chloride MgCl2 is also formed as the manner of formation of sodium chloride
(NaCl).
Magnesium loses 2 electrons which gain by chlorine in form of magnesium chloride
(MgCl2). (Description of this procedure is same as Sodium chloride).

29
Formation of Sodium oxide Na2O:

Formation of Calcium oxide CaO:

General properties of Ionic compounds:

a). Physical nature:
Ionic compounds are solid and have strong force of attraction between the positive and
negative ions.
But these compounds are brittle and can break into pieces by beating.
b). Melting points and boiling points:
Melting and boiling points of ionic compounds are high. Because they are required much
energy to break the strong ionic bond.
c). Solubility:
Ionic compounds are soluble in water but not soluble in benzene, kerosene or petrol
etc.
d). Conductivity:
Ionic compounds in solid form are unable to conduct the electricity because movement
of ions in the solid is not possible.
But their liquid solution can conduct the electricity because the ions can move freely and
conduct electricity in the solution.

Occurrence of Metals:
Some Metals are obtained in the form of minerals from the earth’s crust. These minerals
are called ores.

30
Seawater also contains some soluble salts. Ex. NaCl, MgCl 2 etc.

Form of Ores of Metals:

Metals are found in form of their compounds. Ores of compounds may be found in form
of oxides, carbonates, sulphides etc.
Ores of many metals are found as oxides.
Reason: Oxygen in easily available in the nature and it is very reactive element.

Group of metals according their reactivity:

a). Metals of low reactivity:
Mercury and Copper are found as sulphides.
b). Metals of moderate reactivity:
These metals (Zn, Fe, Pb) are found mainly as oxides, sulphides or carbonates.
c). Metals of high reactivity:
These metals (K, Na, Mg, Ca, Al) are never found in nature as free state.
Note: Gold, silver, platinum, copper etc. are found in the nature as free state. Copper and
silver are also found in form of sulphides or oxides.

Some keywords:
a). Metallurgy:
A process that is used for the extraction of metals from their ores in pure form is
called metallurgy.
b). Gangue:
The large impurities present in the ores such as soil, sand etc. are known as gangue.
These are removed from the ores by differences between the physical or chemical
properties of the gangue and the ore.
c). Roasting:
The sulphides ores are converted into oxides by heating strongly in the presence of excess
air, is called roasting.
d). Calcination:
The carbonates ores are changed into oxides by heating in limited air, is called calcination.
e). Electrolysis:
The process of decomposing ionic compounds into their elements by passing a direct
electric current through the compound in a fluid form, is called electrolysis.
This method is used to extract metals sodium, magnesium, calcium and aluminium.

31
f). Cathode:
The electrode which charged negatively is called cathode.
Metals are deposited on it in electrolysis reduction.
g). Anode:
The positively charged electrode is called anode.
Non-metals are deposited at the anode.
h). Anode mud:
The insoluble impurities settle down at the bottom of the anode. Are known as anode
mud.
i). Main ores of the metals:
Mercury - Cinnabar (HgS)
Copper – Copper sulphide (Cu2S)
Zinc – Zinc sulphide (ZnS) and Zinc carbonate (ZnCO3)

Extraction of Metals:
Several steps are needed in the extraction of pure metal from its ore.

Fig: Steps involved in the extraction of

metals from ores

(A). Extracting Metals Low in the Activity Series:

These are very unreactive. The oxides of these metals can be reduced to metals by heating
alone.

a). Extraction of mercury:

32
When cinnabar (HgS) is heated in air, it converted into mercuric oxide (HgO). Then
reduced to mercury on further heating.
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝟐𝑯𝒈𝑺(𝒔) + 𝟑𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) → 𝟐𝑯𝒈𝑶(𝒔) + 𝟐𝑺𝑶𝟐 (𝒈)
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝟐𝑯𝒈𝑶(𝒔) → 𝟐𝑯𝒈(𝒍) + 𝑶𝟐 (𝒈)

b). Extraction of copper:

Copper is also obtained from its ore by just heating in air.
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝟐𝑪𝒖𝟐 𝑺 + 𝟑𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) → 𝟐𝑪𝒖𝟐 𝑶(𝒔) + 𝟐𝑺𝑶𝟐 (𝒈)
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝟐𝑪𝒖𝟐 𝑶 + 𝑪𝒖𝟐 𝑺 → 𝟐𝑪𝒖(𝒔) + 𝑺𝑶𝟐 (𝒈)

(B). Extracting Metals in the Middle of the Activity Series:

These metals are usually present as sulphides or carbonates. So, roasting or calcination
process are used to convert into oxides. It is easier to obtain a metal from its oxide as
compared to its sulphides or carbonates.

a). Extraction of Zinc:

Roasting:
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝟐𝒁𝒏𝑺(𝒔) + 𝟑𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) → 𝟐𝒁𝒏𝑶(𝒔) + 𝟐𝑺𝑶𝟐 (𝒈)
Calcination:
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝒁𝒏𝑪𝑶𝟑 (𝒔) → 𝟐𝒁𝒏𝑶(𝒔) + 𝑪𝑶𝟐 (𝒈)

Reduction:
The metal oxides are reduced by using suitable reducing agent such as carbon. Carbon
(C) reduces the metal oxide to metals.

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝒁𝒏𝑶(𝒔) + 𝑪(𝒔) → 𝒁𝒏(𝒔) + 𝑪𝑶(𝒈)

b). Extraction of Manganese:

Displacement reaction:
These are highly exothermic reaction.
Manganese oxide is heated with aluminium powder.
𝟑𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟐 (𝒔) + 4Al(s) →3Mn(l) +2A𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟑 (𝒔)+ Heat
In this reaction, aluminium is used as reducing agent because they can displace metals of
lower reactivity from their compounds.

33
Other reducing agents are sodium, calcium etc.

b). Extraction of Iron:

Thermite reaction:
Iron obtains from iron oxide (Fe2O3). In this process, aluminium is also used as oxidising
agent. Iron gets in molten state in this process. This process is called thermite reaction.
𝑭𝒆𝟐 𝑶𝟑 (𝒔) + 𝟐𝑨𝒍(𝒔) → 𝟐𝑭𝒆(𝒍) + 𝑨𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟑 (𝒔) + Heat

Importance of thermite reaction:

This reaction is used to join the railway track or cracked machine parts.

Fig: Thermite process for joining railway track

(C). Extracting Metals towards the Top of the Activity series:

In the extraction of high reactivity metals, carbon do not use.
Reasons:
Carbon cannot reduce the oxides of sodium, magnesium, calcium, aluminium.
And these metals have more affinity for oxygen than carbon.

Electrolytic reduction:
Electrolytic reduction is used for obtaining metals from their molten chlorides.
The metals are deposited at the cathode while chlorine is liberated at the anode.
Ex. 1. Extraction of Sodium from sodium chloride.
At Cathode At Anode
𝑵𝒂+ + 𝒆− → Na 𝟐𝑪𝒍 → 𝑪𝒍𝟐 + 𝟐𝒆−
Ex. 2. Aluminium is also obtained from aluminium oxide.
At Cathode At Anode
𝑨𝒍+𝟑 + 𝟑𝒆− → Al 𝟐𝑶−𝟐 → 𝑶𝟐 + 𝟒𝒆−

34
Refining of Metals:
Metals are obtained from various reduction processes are not pure. So, their impurities
can be removed by the process of electrolytic refining.
When current passes through electrolyte, the pure
metals dissolves into electrolyte then deposited on
the cathode.
In this method, the impure metal is made the anode
and a thin strip of pure metal is made the cathode.
Both electrodes are immersed in the salt of that
metal as electrolyte.
The soluble impurities go into the solution while
insoluble impurities settle down under the anode as
anode mud.
Fig: Electrolytic refining of copper

Corrosion:
Corrosion is a process in which a substance (specially metals) gets destructive
attack by reaction with the environment.
OR
The process in which metals are eaten up gradually by the action of air, moisture
or a chemical on their surface is known as corrosion.
Ex. Rusting of iron, black coating on silver, green coating on copper.
• Silver article becomes black after exposed some time in air.
Reason:
Silver reacts with sulphur present in the air to form a coating of silver sulphide.
• Copper reacts slowly with moist carbon dioxide in the air and gains a green coat.
This green substance is copper carbonate.
• During the corrosion of the iron, iron is oxidised by the oxygen of air in the
presence of moisture to form iron oxide (Fe3O4) (reddish brown).

Prevention of Corrosion (Rusting of Iron):

It can be prevented by painting, oiling, greasing, galvanising, chrome plating,
anodising and making alloys.

Galvanising: The process of coating of zinc (Zn) on the surface of iron or steel to
protect from rusting is called galvanising.

Alloying:

35
Alloying is one of the best methods of prevention of rusting and improving the properties
of a metal.
Alloying is a homogenous mixture (solution) of a metals and other metal or a non-metal.

Process of alloying:
First melting the primary metal (which required in much quantity) then dissolving the
other element in it definite proportions. After this solution cooled at room temperature.

Properties of alloys:
Properties of any metal can be changed after alloying.
• The melting point and conductivity of an alloy is decreased than that of a pure
metal.

Examples of some important alloys:

a). Stainless steel:
It is an alloy of iron. It is a mixture of pure iron, carbon (0.05%), nickel and chromium.
It is hard and does not rust.
Note: Iron is a soft and stretches easily when it hot. So, carbon (about 0.05%) is mixed
with iron for strong and hardness.
b). Amalgam:
The alloy of mercury (Hg) is called amalgam. It is a mixture of mercury with some other
metals.
c). Brass:
It is an alloy of copper (Cu).
It is a mixture of copper (Cu-66%) and zinc (Zn-34%).
d). Bronze:
It is also an alloy of copper. It is a mixture of copper (Cu-88%) and tin (Sn-12%).
e). Solder:
It is an alloy of tin (Sn-63) and lead (Pb-37%).
Solder has a low melting point. It is used for welding electric wires together.
f). Gold:
Pure gold (Au) (24 carat) is a very soft metal. It is not suitable for making jewellery. It is
alloyed with silver (Ag) or copper (Cu) to make it hard.
In India, it is called 22 carat gold. It is a mixture of gold (98%) and silver or copper (2%).
***

36
 Chapter 04
Carbon and its Compounds
Carbon:
Carbon is third most important element after oxygen and hydrogen, for the existence of
life on the earth. The Earth’s crust has only 0.02% carbon which is present in the form
of minerals (like carbonates, hydrogen carbonates, coal, petroleum etc.) and the
atmosphere has 0.04% of carbon dioxide.
Fuels like wood, kerosene, LPG, CNG, petrol etc. clothing materials, paper, rubber,
plastics, leather, drugs and dyes etc are made up of carbon.
Covalent Bond in Carbon compounds:

Covalent bond:
The bonds which formed by sharing of an electron pair between two atoms (same
or different) are known as covalent bonds.
The atomic number of it is 6. The atomic mass of it is 12. It has two isotopes: Carbon-12
(C-12) and Carbon-14 (C-14). It has 6 proton and 6 electrons in its atoms.
Electronic configuration is 2, 4.
There are 4 electrons in its outermost shell and its octet can be completed by the
following two ways:
(a). It could gain 4 electrons and form C-4. But its nucleus having 6 protons, it would be
difficult to hold on 10 electrons.
(b). It could lose 4 electrons and form C+4. But a large amount of energy is required to
remove 4 electrons. In this condition, the carbon nucleus cannot hold 6 protons and 2
electrons together.
Carbon overcomes this problem by sharing its valence electrons with other atoms
of carbon or with atoms of other elements. This bond is called covalent bond.
Other elements are also shared their electrons in this manner. The atoms of both
elements attain the noble gas configuration.

Types of covalent bond:

a). Single covalent bond:
The bond formed by sharing one electron each is called single covalent bond.
Examples: H2, F2, Cl2, HCl, H2O, NH3, CH4, C2H6
(a). Hydrogen (H2): Electronic configuration of hydrogen-
K=1

37
 (f). Sulphur (S8):

(b). Fluorine (F2):

Electronic configuration of F: 2, 7

(f). Ammonia (NH3):

(c). Chlorine (Cl2):

Electronic configuration of Cl- 2, 8, 7

(g). Methane (CH4):

(d). Hydrochloric acid (HCl):

(h). Ethane (C2H6):

(e). Water (H2O):

b). Double covalent bond:

The bond formed by sharing two electrons each is called single covalent bond.
Ex. Oxygen (O2), Ethene (C2H4), Carbon dioxide (CO2), Carbon disulphide (CS2)
(a). Oxygen (O2): It has 6 electrons in its outermost shell
M. It needs 2 electrons to fulfil the
Electronic configuration of O: 2, 6
electronic configuration of the nearest
noble gas Neon (2, 8). So, it will share 2

38
electrons with other atom of oxygen.
Together they will make double bonds
between them.

(c). Carbon dioxide (CO2):

(b). Ethene (C2H4)

c). Triple covalent bond:

The bond formed by sharing three electrons each is called single covalent bond.
Ex. Nitrogen (N2), Carbon monoxide (CO), Ethyne (C2H2), Propyne (C3H4).
(a). Nitrogen (N2):
Electronic configuration of N: 2, 5
It has 5 electrons in its outermost shell
M. It needs 3 electrons to fulfil the
(b). Carbon monoxide (CO):
electronic configuration of the nearest
noble gas Neon (2, 8). So, it will share 3
electrons with other atom of nitrogen.
Together they will make triple bonds
between them.

(c). Ethyne:

Physical properties of compounds having covalent bonds:

Compounds having covalent bonds are called covalent compounds.
(a). Melting and boiling points:
The melting and boiling points of these compounds are low. The attraction bond between
the molecules is not very strong.
(b). Conductivity: These are poor conductors of electricity. Because these compounds
have not any ion.
(c). Volatile: Covalent compounds are generally volatile in nature.

39
Allotropes of Carbon: The substances of same element have similar chemical
properties but different physical properties are known as allotropes. This ability
of that substance is called allotropy.
Three allotropes of carbon:
a). Diamond
b). Graphite
c). Fullerene (Buckminster/C-60)

Fig: Structure of diamond and graphite

Differences between diamond and graphite:

S. No. Diamond Graphite
1. It has a crystalline and cubic structure. It has a layered and hexagonal
structure.
2. It is a transparent allotrope. It is a dark grey allotrope.
3. In diamond, each carbon is bonded to In graphite, each carbon atom is
four other carbon atoms forming a bonded to three other carbon atoms
rigid three-dimensional structure. forming two-dimensional structure.
4. It is the hardest substance. It is soft and slippery substance.
5. It is an insulator of electricity due to It is good conductor of electricity
absence of free electron. due to the presence of free electron.
6. Melting point of diamond is high. Melting point of graphite is low than
Because a lot of energy required to diamond because of it, its hexagonal
break the network of strong covalent layer of carbon atoms has weak
bonds in the diamond crystal. bonds can break easily.
7. It is used in jewellery making, road It is used in making pencils and as
drilling equipment, glass cutting etc. lubricants.
c). Fullerene:
Carbon atoms arrange in the shape of a football. Other names of fullerene are C-60 and
Buckminster. Fullerene or Fullerene was named after US architect Buckminster Fuller.

Uses of fullerene:
It is used as conductor, lubricant and anti-oxidant.

Versatile nature of Carbon:

Following nature make it versatile:

40
a). Catenation:
The unique ability of carbon to form bonds with other atoms of carbon and giving
rise to large molecules, is called catenation.
These carbon compounds may have long chain of carbons, branched or arranged in rings
etc.
Ex. These compounds are known as hydrocarbons. These may be saturated compounds
(single bonds) and unsaturated compounds (double bonds).

b). Tetravalency:
Carbon atom has four valency and capable of bonding with four other atoms of carbon or
some other atoms of elements is called tetravalency. Carbon atoms are formed many
compounds react with oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, chlorine and many other
elements. These compounds are knowns as organic compound. These compounds have
specific properties.
Reason: Carbon makes strong bond with other elements because of its tetravalency and
its small size. So, its nucleus can hold on the shared pairs of electrons strongly.
∗ 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒂𝒃 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝑼𝒓𝒆𝒂 (𝑵𝑯𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝑵𝑯𝟐 ) 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎
𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝒄𝒚𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝑾𝒐𝒉𝒍𝒂𝒓).

Hydrocarbons:
The carbon compounds which contain only carbon and hydrogen are called
hydrocarbon.
Types of hydrocarbons:

A). Saturated hydrocarbons:

The hydrocarbons which contain single bond only are called saturated
hydrocarbons.
Ex. Alkanes.
General formula of alkanes: CnH2n+2 (n= No. of carbon 1, 2, 3, 4…)
Suffix of alkane: -ane

B). Unsaturated Hydrocarbons:

The hydrocarbons which contain double or triple bonds are called unsaturated
hydrocarbons.
Ex. Alkanes or alkynes.

Akenes:
The unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain double bond are called alkenes.

41
General formula of alkanes: CnH2n
Suffix of alkene: -ene

Alkynes:
The unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain triple bond are called alkynes.
General formula of alkanes: CnH2n-2
Suffix of alkyne: -yne
Table: A list of hydrocarbons till carbon-10:
No. of C Name Alkanes Alkenes Alkynes
atoms (Suffix: -ane) (Suffix: -ene) (Suffix: -yne)
C-1 Meth- Methane (CH4) - -
C-2 Eth- Ethane (C2H6) Ethene (C2H4) Ethyne (C2H2)
C-3 Prop- Propane (C3H8) Propene (C3H6) Propyne (C3H4)
C-4 But- Butane (C4H10) Butene (C4H8) Butyne (C4H6)
C-5 Pent- Pentane (C5H12) Pentene (C5H10) Pentyne (C5H8)
C-6 Hex- Hexane (C6H14) Hexene (C6H12) Hexyne (C6H10)
C-7 Hept- Heptane (C7H16) Heptene (C7H14) Heptyne (C7H12)
C-8 Oct- Octane (C8H18) Octene (C8H16) Octyne (C8H14)
C-9 Nen- Nonane (C9H20) Nonene (C9H18) Nonyne (C9H16)
C-10 Dec- Decane (C10H22) Decene (C10H20) Decyne (C10H18)

Structures of some Saturated Hydrocarbons (alkanes):

(i). Methane (CH4): (iv). Butane (C4H10):

(v). Pentane (C5H12):

(ii). Ethane (C2H6):

(vi). Hexane (C6H14):

(iii). Propane (C3H8):

Chains, Branches and Rings:

Chains, branches and cyclic compounds are may saturated or unsaturated compounds.

Skeletal structure:

42
Carbon atom can make a chain which contains many more carbon atoms. Such the
structure of carbon atoms is called skeletal.
We can arrange the carbon chain by two ways: straight chain or branched chain.

Structural isomers:
The carbon compounds which have same molecular formula but different
structures are called structural isomers.
Ex. Structural isomers of butane:

Rings (Cyclo-compounds or closed chain compounds):

Some carbon compounds can be arranged in the form of a ring, these compounds
are called cyclo-compounds.
Ex. Cyclohexane (C6H12). It is a saturated cyclic carbon compound.

Fig: Two structures of cyclohexane

Ex. Benzene (C6H6). It is an unsaturated cyclic carbon compound.

Structure of Benzene:

Fig: Three structures of benzene (C6H6)

Functional Groups:
In a hydrocarbon chain, one or more hydrogen can be replaced by some other elements.
These elements are known as heteroatoms in the form of functional groups.

43
These new compounds have specific properties than hydrocarbons.
Table: Some functional groups in carbon compounds:

Homologous series:
A series of a compounds in which the same functional group substitutes for
hydrogen in a carbon chain is called a homologous series.
A homologous series has following same characteristics:
• Solubility and other physical properties are same.
• Members of homologous series have same chemical properties.
• They have same general methods of preparation.
• They have same general formula.
A homologous series has following difference characteristics:
• The main difference between them is only -CH2- unit.
• The difference between carbon chain is by molecular mass 14 amu.
• The boiling points and melting points increase with increasing molecular
mass.
Ex. The boiling and melting point of CH3 -CH2 -CH2 -CH3 are higher than CH3 -CH2 -CH3.
Q. Arrange the following carbon compounds in ascending order of their boiling and
melting points. C2H6, C3H8, CH4, C7H16, C9H20, C8H18
Ans: CH4 < C2H6, < C3H8 < C7H16 < C8H18 < C9H20
i). Examples of homologous series of Alkanes.
(i). CH4 and C2H6.
(ii). C2H6 and C3H8.
(iii). C3H8 and C4H10.
ii). Examples of homologous series of Alkenes.
(i). C2H4 and C3H6.

44
(ii). C3H6 and C4H8.
(iii). C4H8 and C5H10.
iii). Examples of homologous series of Alkynes.
(i). C2H2 and C3H4.
(ii). C3H4 and C4H6.
(iii). C4H6 and C5H8.

Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds:

The names of carbon compounds are determined by IUPAC (International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry).
Nomenclature of carbon compounds can be done by counting number of carbons in the
carbon chain (as alkane) and identify the functional group. Remember the suffix (prefix
only for haloalkanes). Remove a vowel “a, e, I, o, u’ (if is there in the end of alkane) and
add them in the end of number of carbons.
Table: Nomenclature of organic compounds:
S. Class of Suffix Example Nomenclature
No. Compounds

1. Alkane -ane CH3-CH2-CH3 Prop + ane =

Propane
2. Halo-alkane Prefix: CH3-CH2-CH2-Cl Chloro + Propane =
Chloro- (Chloropropane) Chloropropane

Prefix: CH3-CH2-CH2-Br Bromo + Propane =

Bromo- (Bromopropane) Bromopropane
3. Alcohol -ol CH3-CH2-CH2-OH Propane + ol =
(Propanol) Propanol
4. Aldehyde -al CH3-CH2-CHO Propane + al =
(Propanal) Propanal
5. Ketone -one CH3-CO- CH3 Propane + one =
(Propanone) Propanone
6. Carboxylic acid -oic acid CH3-CH2-COOH Propane + oic acid =
(Propanoic acid) Propanoic acid
7. Alkenes -ene CH3-CH=CH2 Prop + ene =
(Propene) Propene
8. Alkynes -yne CH3-C=CH Prop + yne =
(Propyne) Propyne

Chemical reactions of carbon Compounds:

Four chemical reactions are in this section:

45
a). Combustion b). Oxidation c). Addition d). Substitution

a). Combustion:
Most Carbon compounds and allotropes of carbons burn in oxygen to give CO2, heat and
light.
Combustions are oxidation reactions.
(𝒊). 𝑪 + 𝑶𝟐 + → 𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭
(𝒊𝒊). 𝑪𝑯𝟒 + 𝑶𝟐 + → 𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 𝐎 + 𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭
(𝒊𝒊𝒊). 𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑯𝟐 𝑶𝑯 + 𝑶𝟐 + → 𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 𝐎 + 𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭
Important Notes:
• Generally saturated hydrocarbons burn with a clean or blue flame.
• Unsaturated hydrocarbons burn with yellow flame with lots of black/sooty
smoke.
• But saturated hydrocarbons in presence of insufficient oxygen, these also give
black/sooty smoke.
• Fuels such as coal and petroleum substances contain some amount of sulphur and
nitrogen in them. They release oxides of sulphur and nitrogen during combustion.
These oxides lead acid rain or environmental pollution.
• LPG has higher alkanes (saturated hydrocarbons) which burn with a clean/blue
flame or without black smoke. So, these are not polluter gas.

b). Oxidation:
carbon compounds oxidise easily. When an alcohol oxidises in presence of oxidising agent
(acidified potassium dichromate (KMnO4) or alkaline potassium permanganate
(K2Cr2O7)), it converts into carboxylic acid.
𝑨𝒍𝒌𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝑲𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 𝑶𝒓 𝑨𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝑲𝟐 𝑪𝒓𝟐 𝑶𝟕
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑶𝑯 + 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 → 𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑯

Oxidising agents: The substances which can give oxygen to other substances are
called oxidising agents.

In this reaction acidified potassium dichromate (KMnO4) or alkaline potassium

permanganate (K2Cr2O7) are act as oxidising agents.

c). Addition reaction or hydrogenation:

In the presence of some catalysts* (Ni/Pt/Pd), unsaturated hydrocarbons convert into
saturated hydrocarbons.

46
Catalysts*: The substances which increase the rate of chemical reactions without
changing themselves are called catalysts. Ex. Ni/Pt/Pd etc.
Importance of addition reaction:
Addition reaction is used in the hydrogenation of vegetable oil.
Precautions: Vegetable oils (mustard, soybean, groundnut oils) contains long
unsaturated hydrocarbon chains which are useful for our health. While animal fats
contain saturated fatty acids, which are said to be harmful for health. That’s why
dieticians’ advice to use vegetable oil for cooking.

d). Substitution reaction:

In presence of sunlight, a hydrogen atom of saturated hydrocarbons substitutes by one
chlorine atom and gives haloalkane, this reaction is called substitution reaction.
Saturated hydrocarbons are generally unreactive but they in presence of sunlight they
become very active.
𝑺𝒖𝒏𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
𝑪𝑯𝟒 + 𝑪𝒍𝟐 → 𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝒍 + 𝑯𝑪𝒍

Study of some Carbon Compounds

(A). Ethanol:
It is an alcohol which has a functional group -OH.
Other names: Alcohol, Ethyl alcohol
General formula: CH3-CH2-OH
Electron dot structure of Ethanol:

Physical properties o6f Ethanol:

S. No. Property
1. Physical state Liquid
2. Solubility Soluble in water
3. Boiling point 780 C
4. Melting point -1170 C

Preparation:
Sugarcane juice is used to prepare molasses and molasses is used to formation of ethanol
by the fermentation process.

47
Chemical reactions of Ethanol:
(i). Reaction with Sodium:
Ethanol reacts with sodium and gives sodium ethoxide (𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 𝑂𝑁𝑎) and evolution of
hydrogen gas.
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑶𝑯 + 𝟐𝑵𝒂 → 𝟐𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑯𝟐 𝑶𝑵𝒂 + 𝑯𝟐

(ii). Dehydration reaction:

When ethanol heats at 443 K (170 0C) in presence of excess H2SO4 gives ethene.
𝑯𝒐𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄. 𝑯𝟐 𝑺𝑶𝟒
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 𝑶𝑯 → 𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
Dehydrating agent: In this reaction, conc. H2SO4 acts as dehydrating agent which
removes water from ethanol.

Uses of Ethanol:
(i). It is a good solvent used in labs and industries.
(ii). It is ingredient of all alcoholic drinks*.
(iii). It is used in tincture iodine which is an antiseptic.
(iv). It is also used in cough syrup and many tonics.
(v). It is also used as cleaner fuel. If ethanol adds in petrol, the efficiency of petrol will
increase. Cleaner fuel means it does not give smoke. It gives rise only CO 2 and H2O.
Precaution*:
• Consumption of alcohol/ethanol is injurious to the health. Its large quantities in
the body tend to slow the metabolic processes and depress the CNS (central
nervous system). And it causes lack of control and co-ordination, mental
confusion, drowsiness etc.
• Methanol (CH3OH) is oxidised as methanal (formaldehyde-HCHO) in the liver. It
coagulates the protoplasm. It also affects the optic nerve, causing blindness.

Denatured alcohol: Dyes are added to colour the alcohol blue for its identification easily,
it is called denatured alcohol.

(B). Ethanoic Acid:

It is a carboxylic acid which has functional group -COOH.
Other names: Acetic acid, glacial acetic acid*.
*Acetic acid freezes during winter in cold climate. So, it is also known as glacial acetic
acid.
General formula: CH3COOH

48
Electron dot structure of Ethanoic acid:

Physical properties of Ethanoic acid:

S. No. Property
1. Physical state Liquid
2. Solubility Soluble in water
3. Boiling point 1180 C
4. Melting point 170 C
5. Nature of the acid Weak acid

Chemical reactions of Ethanoic acid:

(i). Esterification reaction:
When ethanoic acid reacts with ethanol in presence of sulphuric acid, they give an ester
(𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑪𝑯𝟐 𝑪𝑯𝟑 ).
𝑯𝒐𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄.𝑯𝟐 𝑺𝑶𝟒
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑯 + 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 𝑶𝑯 ⇔ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑶𝑶 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 𝑪𝑯𝟑 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
Importance of Esterification:
• Esters are sweet-smelling substances which are used in making perfumes and as
flavouring agents.
• Ester is used in saponification reaction which is used in preparation of soap.

(ii). Saponification: The reaction in which ester converts in alcohol and sodium salt
of carboxylic acid is called saponification.
Importance of saponification: It is used to preparation of soap.
𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑪𝑯𝟐 𝑪𝑯𝟑 + 𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯 → 𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑯𝟐 𝑶𝑯 + 𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑵𝒂

(iii). Reaction with a Base:

Acetic acid reacts with a base (NaOH) to give a sodium ethanoate or sodium acetate
CH3COONa (salt) and water.
𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑯𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑯 + 𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯 → 𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑵𝒂 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶

(iv). Reaction with Carbonates:

Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium carbonate to give rise to a salt (sodium acetate
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎), water and CO2.
𝟐𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑯 + 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟑 → 𝟐𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑵𝒂 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝑪𝑶𝟐

49
(v). Reaction with Carbonates:
Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium hydrogen carbonate to give rise to a salt (sodium
acetate 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎), water and CO2.
𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑯 + 𝑵𝒂𝑯𝑪𝑶𝟑 → 𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑵𝒂 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝑪𝑶𝟐

Uses of Ethanoic Acid:

(i). It is used in making vinegar. It is used as preservative in pickles.
5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar.
(ii). It is also used in preparation of ester which have sweet-smelling and used in making
perfumes and as flavouring agents.

Soaps and Detergents:

Soaps:
The sodium or potassium salt of long-chain carboxylic acid is called soap.
Soap is used to clean the dirt from clothes. Most dirt is oily in nature. Oil does not dissolve
in water.
A molecule of soap has two ends. One end is ionic while other carbon chain. Ionic end of
soap interacts with water outside. The carbon chain interacts with oil as given fig. This
structure is known as soap micelles. Soap micelle makes an emulsion in water. By this
way a soap micelle removes dirt in water.

Mechanisms of cleaning:
The ionic-end is known as hydrophilic end which has affinity with
water.
Carbon-end is also known as hydrophobic end which has not
affinity with water. The hydrophobic end as a ‘tail of the soap’ has
affinity with carbon chain. Fig: A micelle

Micelle: The cluster of the molecules in which hydrophilic tails becomes inside part
of it and hydrophilic end becomes outside part of cluster, this structure is called
micelle.
The dirt is collected in the centre of the micelle. So, soap in
the form of a micelle is able to clean the dirt. The micelles
stay in solution as a colloid and will not come together to
participate because of ion-ion repulsion.
The dirt suspended in the micelle is also easily rinsed away.
Nature of soap micelle: Suspension. It can scatter light. So, soap solution appears cloudy.

Detergents:

50
Detergents are generally sodium salts of sulphonic acids or ammonium salts of long
chain of carboxylic acids.
Detergents are better than soap. Soaps do not work properly in the hard water. Hard
water actually has calcium and magnesium salts which make an insoluble
substance/scum with soap. So, soaps do not work properly in the hard water or need a
large amount of soap to clean the dirt.
While detergent does not make an insoluble precipitate with calcium or magnesium of
hard water. So, the detergents are better cleaning agent than soaps.
Detergent is used to make shampoo and surf powder.
***

Chapter 05
Life processes
What are life processes?
Life processes include all the activities that are necessary for an organism to survive in
the environment.
Life process are the series of actions, such as movement, respiration, sensitivity, growth,
reproduction, excretion and nutrition that are essential for a living being to sustain.
Nutrition
The mode of taking food by an organism and its utilisation by the body is called
nutrition.
In this process, energy transfers from outside the body of the organisms (which we call
food) to the inside.
Every organism is different from other organisms by its kind of nutrition. They have their
own different digestive system.
The steps of nutrition in an organism:
These are five steps: (a). Ingestion, (b). Digestion, (c). Absorption, (d). Assimilation, (e).
Egestion
Enzymes or bio-catalysts:
The bio-catalysts which break down the complex substances into simpler ones in the
organisms are called enzymes.
Types of Nutrition:
1). Autotrophic nutrition:

51
Some organisms use simple food material obtained from inorganic sources in the form of
carbon dioxide and water, these organisms are called autotrophs and their type of
nutrition is called autotrophic nutrition.
Ex. Green plants, algae and some bacteria.
Photosynthesis:
Carbon and energy requirements of the autotrophic organisms are fulfilled by
photosynthesis.
In this process, autotrophs convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates in the
presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
𝑪𝒉𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒉𝒚𝒍𝒍 & 𝑺𝒖𝒏𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
𝟔𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝟏𝟐𝑯𝟐 𝑶 → 𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟏𝟐 𝑶𝟔 + 𝟔𝑶𝟐 + 𝟔𝑯𝟐 𝑶
Three events occur during the photosynthesis process:
a). Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
b). Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen.
c). Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.
These steps need not take place one after the other immediately.
Ex. Desert plants take up carbon dioxide at night and prepare an intermediate which is
acted upon by the energy absorbed by the chlorophyll during the day.
The Internal energy reserve:
*Carbohydrates are utilised for providing energy to the plants.
• Carbohydrates which are not used immediately are stored as internal energy
reserve in the form of starch for future use in the plants.
• While in the animals, carbohydrates are stored in the form of glycogen for future
energy need.

Stomata:
The tiny pores which present on the surface of the leaves, are called stomata. The
pore of stomata is surrounded by two guard cells.
Functions of stomata:
• Exchange of gases: Intake carbon dioxide inside and release oxygen outside during
the photosynthesis.
• Transpiration: the loss of water.
Some other parts are also involved in the exchange of the gases: Surface of the stem, roots
and leaves.
Stomata opening and closing:

52
The plant closes these stomata when it does not need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
Guard cells help in this process.
The guard cells swell when water flows into them. So, that the stomatal pore open.
When the guard cells shrink, the stomata pore close.

Absorption of other minerals by plants:

Plants take up the water and other materials/minerals nitrogen, iron, magnesium and
phosphorus from the soil by the roots.
Nitrogen is essential element. It is used in the synthesis of proteins and other compounds.
It cannot be used as directly from the atmosphere. It is used in the form of inorganic
nitrates or nitrites. It is also taken in organic form which prepared by rhizobium bacterial
(nitrogen fixation) or some fungal activities.
2). Heterotrophic Nutrition:
In heterotrophic nutrition, organisms are depended on other organisms for their
nutrition.
It depends on the availability of food material and the process by which they obtain.
Some organisms break-down the food materials outside the body then absorb it. Ex.
Saprotroph nutrition in fungi (Mushroom, bread like moulds, yeast etc.)
While some other organisms take in whole food material and break it inside their body.
Ex. Herbivores, carnivores etc.
Some organisms derive nutrition from plants or animals without killing them.
Ex. Parasitic nutrition in parasites:
a). External parasites: Cuscuta/amar-bel, ticks, lice, leeches,
b). Internal parasites: Round-worms, tape-worms etc.

Nutrition in Amoeba:

53
The nutrition in amoeba is holozoic. Amoeba is a single-celled organism. The food may be
taken in by the entire surface. It takes in food using finger-like structure Pseudopodia.
Inside the amoeba food particle forming a food-vacuole. It has digestive system which
break down the complex substances into simpler ones. Then it diffuses into the
cytoplasm. Remaining undigested food excretes out the cell.

Fig: Nutrition in Amoeba

Another single-celled organism Paramecium takes the food in at a specific-spot. Food is

moved to the spot by the movement of cilia which cover the entire surface of the cell.

Nutrition in Human Beings

The alimentary canal is basically a long tube structure. It has the following parts of it.
a). Mouth and buccal cavity
b). Oesophagus or food pipe
c). Stomach
d). Small intestine
e). Large intestine
f). Rectum
g). Anus

Fig: Human Alimentary Canal

The glands which are helpful in digestion of the food are called associated glands.
There are as:
a). Salivary glands (these glands secrete saliva)
b). Liver (It secretes bile juice)
c). Pancreas (it secretes digestive juices)

54
Mouth and Buccal cavity:
The intake food has to be processed in small and same texture of particles. This is done
by teeth. Teeth are crushed the food. The food gets wetted by the presence of saliva.
There is no any digestion in the mouth except starch breaks down in sugar by amylase
enzyme. This enzyme presence in saliva which secrets by salivary glands. Muscular
tongue helps in moving, chewing and mixing the food with saliva.
Peristaltic movement: the lining of alimentary canal has muscles that contract
rhythmically in order to push the food forward. While food moves in circle in intestines.
This movement occurs all the gut in human digestive system.
Stomach:
The food is reached in stomach from mouth through oesophagus. Oesophagus is a
muscular pipe only and there is not any digestion process.
Stomach is U shaped large organ. It can spend with food. Muscular walls of the stomach
help in mixing the food.
Digestion in Stomach:
Gastric glands (which present in the wall of stomach) secret hydrochloric acid (HCl),
mucus and pepsin (a protein enzyme).
a). Hydrochloric acid:
It kills the harmful bacteria which come along with the food.
It provides the acidic medium because pepsin enzyme works only in acidic medium.
b). Mucus protects the inner lining of stomach from the action of acid.
c). In the presence of hydrochloric acid, Pepsin breaks down the proteins into simpler
substances.
Small Intestine:
The food exits to small intestine from stomach is regulated by sphincter muscle.
Small intestine is the longest and coiling part of the alimentary canal. The length of it
depends on the food they eat.
Q. The small intestine in carnivore is smaller than herbivore. Why?
Ans. The small intestine of herbivores is longer to allow the cellulose to be digested. While
in carnivores, it is shorter because the meat is easy to digest.
Digestion in small intestine:
It is the site of the complete digestion of food.
It receives the secretions of the liver, pancreas and itself for the digestion of
carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.

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a). The food coming from the stomach is acidic.
But in the intestine, it has to be alkaline medium for the pancreatic enzymes to act on it.
Bile Juice:
Bile juice secreted by Liver. Fats are present in the small intestine in the form of large
globules. Enzymes cannot act on them. Bile juice acts on it.
Functions of Bile juice:
a). It provides the alkaline medium for this.
b). Emulsification: Bile salts break down the large globulus into smaller globules. This
process is known as emulsification and the fats are known as emulsified fats.
𝑩𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝑱𝒖𝒊𝒄𝒆
𝑭𝒂𝒕 (𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒈𝒍𝒐𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔) → 𝑬𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒂𝒕 (𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒈𝒍𝒐𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔)
Pancreatic juice:
Pancreatic juice is secreted by pancreas. It has two enzymes trypsin and lipase.
Functions of Pancreatic juice:
Trypsin: It helps to digest proteins.
Lipase: It acts on emulsified fat and break down it.
𝑳𝒊𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒆
𝑬𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒂𝒕 (𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒈𝒍𝒐𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔) → 𝑩𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒘𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒂𝒕
Intestinal Juice:
It is secreted by the glands which present on the walls of small intestinal when food is
reached in the lower part of the small intestine.
Functions of Intestinal juice:
It acts on the proteins, carbohydrates and fats and finish the digestion process here.
Proteins convert into amino acids.
Carbohydrates convert into simple sugar like glucose.
Fats convert into fatty acid and glycerol.

Absorption of Digested food

The digested food is absorbed by the finger-like projections villi present on the walls of
small intestine. They increase the surface are for absorption. The villi are richly supplied
with blood vessels which take the absorbed food to each and every cell of the body.

Assimilation: Then these cells utilise the digested food for producing energy, growth,
building up new tissue and repair of old tissues.
Larger intestine:

56
It is short but wider than small intestine. The undigested food come in the large intestine
from small intestine. Here no any digestion.
Here more villi present on the walls of it which absorb water, salts from the undigested
food. The rest material is stored in the rectum and then removed from the body through
anus on time to time.
Anal sphincter: The exit of the waste material is regulated by this muscle.

Tooth decay:
Tooth decay starts when pH becomes lower than 5.5. Tooth decay causes by the softening
of enamel and dentine due to the action of bacteria on sugars produce acids. Saliva can
neutralise the effect of the acid but a plaque covers the teeth. So, brushing the teeth after
eating removes the plaque to prevention of tooth decay. Otherwise bacteria may invade
the pulp, causing inflammation and infection.

Respiration
The process of in the oxygen and out the carbon dioxide is called breathing.
After breathing the oxygen is used to break-down the glucose completely into
carbon-dioxide, water and produce energy in the cell is called respiration.
Types of respiration
Two types: (i). Aerobic respiration (ii). Anaerobic respiration

The break-down of Glucose:

Glucose (C6H12O6) is a six-carbon compound.
The first step of break-down of glucose take place in cytoplasm. In the first step, it breaks
down inro a three-carbon compound called pyruvate and energy.
Then pyruvate breaks down depending the type of the cells.

Fig: Break-down of Glucose by various pathways

a). In yeast cell: in the yeast cell, this process is called fermentation. In the absence of
oxygen (anaerobic respiration), pyruvate break down into two-carbon compound
ethanol, carbon dioxide and produce energy.

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 𝑨𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒙𝒚𝒈𝒆𝒏
𝒊𝒏 𝑪𝒕𝒐𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒎 (𝒊𝒏 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒕)
𝑮𝒍𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆 → 𝑷𝒚𝒓𝒖𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒆 + 𝑬 → 𝑬𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒍 + 𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
b). In muscle cells: this process, the break-down of pyruvate in lack of oxygen into three-
carbon compound lactic acid. This process is also anaerobic respiration.
𝑳𝒂𝒄𝒌 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒙𝒚𝒈𝒆𝒏
𝒊𝒏 𝑪𝒚𝒕𝒐𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒎 (𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒎𝒖𝒔𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒔)
𝑮𝒍𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆 → 𝑷𝒚𝒓𝒖𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒆 + 𝑬 → 𝑳𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 + 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
Effect of lactic acid: the build-up of lactic acid in our muscles cells during playing, gym,
running activities cause cramps.
c). In mitochondria: This process take place in the presence of oxygen, the break-down
of pyruvate into carbon dioxide and water. It is called aerobic respiration. The release of
energy in aerobic process is a lot greater than in the anaerobic process.
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒙𝒚𝒈𝒆𝒏
𝒊𝒏 𝑪𝒚𝒕𝒐𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒎 (𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒐𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒂)
𝑮𝒍𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆 → 𝑷𝒚𝒓𝒖𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒆 + 𝑬 → 𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
The energy released during the above all cellular respiration is Exothermic
process.
ATP (Adenosine triphosphate):
ATP is the energy currency in our body. It is needed for cellular process.
Formation: It is released during the process of respiration. It is made by adding inorganic
phosphate (P) to ADP (Adenosine diphosphate)
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
𝑨𝑫𝑷 + 𝑷 → 𝑨𝑻𝑷
The energy is released during the break-down of glucose stored in the form of ATP
(Adenosine triphosphate). Later this energy is used for various purposes in the cell.
ATP is used in Endothermic processes in the cell to drive the reactions. ATP is
broken down giving to a fixed amount of energy (equivalent to 30.5 kJ/mol).
𝑬𝒙𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑬𝒏𝒅𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒄
𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑺𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒔 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑮𝒍𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆 → 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 → 𝑨𝑻𝑷 → 𝑼𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝑩𝒊𝒐𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔

Respiration in plants
Plants have not any organs like animals. Their every part respires independently. Root
hairs in roots, lenticels in the stem and stomata participates in this process. Plants
exchange the gases through stomata/root hairs by diffusion process.
The direction of diffusion depends upon:
a). Environmental conditions
b). The requirements of the plant.
At night, no photosynthesis due to absence of sunlight. Only respiration take place there.
So, plants release CO2 during the night.

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During the day, CO2 generating during respiration is used up for photosynthesis. Hence
there is no CO2 release in the day period. Instead, oxygen release is the major event at
this time.

Respiration in aquatic organisms:

Aquatic organisms need to use the oxygen in the dissolve form (dissolve oxygen) from
the water.
The amount of dissolve oxygen is fairly low compared to the amount in the air. So, that
the rate of breathing in aquatic organisms is much faster than terrestrial organisms.
Fish: Fish take dissolve oxygen through mouth and force it past the gills. Gills help to
provide the oxygen to the blood vessels.

Respiration in Human Beings (Human Respiratory System)

The main components of human respiratory system are as follows:
a). Nostril and nasal passage
Human beings take the oxygen through nostril.
Function of nasal passage:
i). The filtration of air, removal of dust particle by fine hairs. The lining of the mucus also
helps in this process.
b). Pharynx
c). Larynx (voice box)
d). Trachea (wind pipe)
* The presence of rings of cartilage in the throat prevent the air-passage to collapse.
e). Bronchi:
The tracheae enter into lungs, divides into two smaller tubes called bronchi.

Fig: Human Respiratory System

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f). Bronchioles:
Bronchi of both lungs are divided into several small tubes are called bronchioles.
g). Alveoli:
Finally, the bronchioles terminate in balloon-like structures
called alveoli.
Functions of alveoli:
i). Increase of surface area for exchange of gases with
blood vessels.
ii). Alveoli take CO2 from veins and provide the O2 to arteries. Fig: Alveoli

Mechanisms of breathing:
During inhalation, our ribs lift and diaphragm becomes flatten. So, that the chest cavity
becomes larger. The air is sucked in lungs and fills the expended alveoli.
At this time, blood brings CO2 in the alveoli. Both exchange the gases.
Residual volume of air:
During the breathing, some amount of air remains left in the lung, this air is called residual
volume of air.
Importance of residual volume of air:
It is necessary during the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. So that, alveoli can take
sufficient time for exchange gases.
Distribution of oxygen into the cells, tissues of body:
Distribution of oxygen into the body cannot be possible by diffusion. Because
animals/human body is large.
For this, the blood has red pigment (also known as respiratory pigment) called
haemoglobin which has high affinity with oxygen. Haemoglobin is present in the RBC
(Red Blood Corpuscles).
Haemoglobin has not affinity with carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is more soluble
in water than oxygen. It is transported in the dissolved form in the blood.

Transportation in Human Beings

Transportation means the transport of oxygen, food and waste materials in our body.

Human Circulatory System:

Circulatory means the liquid blood transport the oxygen, nutrients etc. to all the parts
cells, tissue, organs of the body and removal waste from the body.
The main parts of the human circulatory system are-

60
 • Blood
• Blood Vessels
• Lymph
• Heart

Blood
Blood consists of a fluid medium called plasma. Blood cells are suspended in the plasma.
Function of plasma:
It transports food, carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes in dissolved form.
It is three types:
i). RBC (Red Blood Corpuscles): It carries the pure oxygen, nutrients, salts etc to the
body parts.
ii). WBC (White Blood Cells): To fight against the germs.
iii). Platelets:
Platelets prevent the bleeding. When we are injured and start bleeding.
Bleeding can lead the loss of blood and reduce the efficiency of pumping system. So, that
platelet cells circulate around the body and prevent the leaks by helping clot the blood on
the spot of injury.
Blood Vessels:
These are three types:
i). Arteries:
• Arteries carry pure blood (also known as oxygenated blood, oxygen-rich blood)
from the heart to the body parts, tissue, organs etc.
• Arteries have thick, elastic walls.
• The flow of the blood through arteries with high pressure.
• Arteries have not valve inside them.
ii). Veins:
• Veins carry impure blood (also known as de-oxygenated blood, carbon dioxide-
rich blood) from tissue to the heart.
• Veins have thin walls.
• The flow of blood through veins no under pressure.
• Veins have valve inside them. So, that the flow of blood only one direction or
cannot be reverse.
iii). Capillaries:

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 • On reaching on organ or tissue, the arteries divide into smaller and smaller vessels
to bring blood in contact with all the individual cells.
• These are smallest vessels have one-cell thick walls.
• These smallest vessels exchange the materials between the blood and
surrounding cells.
• Capillaries join veins to other side to convey the impure blood away from the
organ/tissue.
*Ventricles have thick walls than the atrium because they have to pump blood into
various organs.
*Valves prevents the blood does not flow backwards when atria or ventricles contracts.

Lymph:
It is another type of fluid also involved in transportation. It is called lymph or tissue fluid.
It is similar to the plasma of blood but it is colourless and contains less proteins than
plasma of blood.
Through the pores present in the walls of the capillaries some amount of plasma, proteins
and blood cells into intercellular spaces in the tissue to form the lymph. Lymph drains
into lymphatic capillaries from intercellular spaces then passes in large lymph vessels
and then finally open into larger veins.
Functions of Lymph:
i). Lymph carries digested and absorbed fat from small intestine.
ii). It drains excess fluid from extra cellular space back into the blood.
iii). It returns proteins to the blood from the tissue spaces.
iv). Lymph acts as defensive. It also removes bacteria and tissues.

The Heart- Our pump

The heart is a muscular organ which is as big as our fist. Both types of blood come in the
heart two times. First time as oxygenated blood pump to the body. While the de-
oxygenated blood come from the body for purify from the lungs.
Structure of Heart:
Heart has four chambers.
i). Two atriums (Right and left atrium)
ii). Two ventricles (Right and left ventricle)

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Oxygen-rich blood from chamber the lungs come to the thin-walled chamber (left atrium)
of the heart on the left. The left atrium relaxes when it is collecting this blood.

Fig: Sectional view of the human heart

It then contracts, while the lower chamber, left ventricle expands. So, that the blood is
transferred to it easily.
When the muscular left ventricle contracts in its turn, the blood is pumped out to the
body.
De-oxygenated blood comes from the body to the upper chamber (right atrium) on the
right.
When it contracts, the blood passes to the lower chamber (right ventricle) which expands
at the same time.
Right ventricle pumps the impure blood to the lungs for oxygenation.

Double Circulatory System

The blood goes to the heart twice each cycle in the human beings or other vertebrates,
this is known as double circulatory system.
Importance of four chambers of heart:
The separation of right and left side of the heart is useful to keep oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood from mixing.
This is useful in animals that have high energy needs. This energy needs to maintain the
constant body temperature.

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Ex. Birds and mammals.

Fig: Schematic representation of transport and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
(Double circulation)

Three-chambered hearts:
Some animals have only three chambers in the heart.
Ex. Amphibians (crocodile) or many reptiles (snake or others).
• These animals do not use energy for the maintain their body temperature
constant. Their body temperature depends on the temperature in the
environment.
• The oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood are mixed in their hearts.
Two-chambered heart:
• The blood goes only once through the heart in these animals during one cycle.
• The blood is pumped to the gills. And gills pass the oxygenated blood to the rest of
the body.
Ex. Fishes
Sphygmomanometer: The instrument which is used in measurement of blood pressure.
Blood pressure: The force that blood exerts the wall of a vessel is called blood pressure.
We know that this pressure is much greater in arteries than in veins.
Systolic pressure: The pressure of blood inside the artery during ventricular systole
(contraction) is called systolic pressure.
The normal systolic pressure is about 120 mm of Hg.
Diastolic pressure: The pressure of blood inside the artery during ventricular diastole
(relaxation) is called diastolic pressure.

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The normal diastolic pressure is 80 mm of Hg.

Fig: Blood pressure

Hypertension: The condition of high blood pressure is called hypertension. It is caused

by the constriction of arterioles.
It causes the resistance to blood flow which can lead to the rupture of an artery and
internal bleeding.

Transportation in Plants
In plants, the gases exchange is through stomata by diffusion.
The leaves have chlorophyll which synthesis food. Food cannot be diffused from leaves
to other parts of the trees due to large distance. It is the same problem in the
transportation of water and minerals from the roots to the leaves by diffusion.
Plant bodies have a large portion of dead cells in many tissues. So, plants have low energy
needs and can use relatively slow transport system.
Two vascular tissues are involved in the transportation of plants.
Xylem: It transports the water and minerals from the roots to the leaves.
Phloem: It transports products of photosynthesis from leaves to other parts of the plant.

Transport of water:
Xylem transport the water from the roots to the leaves. It transfers the water and
minerals by simple physical forces. Xylem tissue has vessels and tracheid of the roots,
stem and leaves are interconnected to form a continuous system of water-conducting
channel reaching all parts of the plants.
Water is transported by the following three procedures:
a). The differences in the concentration of ions between root and the soil.
When the root has low concentration of ions, the roots cells take up ions from the soil.
Therefore, water moves into the roots. Then root xylem creates a column water that is
steady pushed upwards.
b). Transpiration pull: Stomata loses water continuously by transpiration. So, that leaf
has water scarcity which creates a suction called transpiration pull. It pulls water from
the roots to the leaves.

65
The loss of water in the form of vapour from the aerial parts of the plant is known as
transpiration.
Transpiration helps in the absorption and upward movement of water and minerals. It
also helps in temperature regulation.
c). Root pressure: It helps in transport of water at night. During the day stomata are
open. So, transpiration pull becomes the major force in the movement of water in the
xylem. While at the night, the effect of root pressure is more important in transport of
water.
During the day stomata are open. So, transpiration pull becomes the major force in
the movement of water in the xylem.
While at the night, the effect of root pressure is more important in transport of
water.

Transport of food and other substances:

Translocation: The process of transport of soluble products of photosynthesis from
leaves to other parts of the plant is called translocation.
Translocation process occurs in the phloem tissue by the sieve tubes with the help of
adjacent companion cells.
Commonly the movement of substances in phloem from leaves to the stem or roots. But
in spring time (all the leaves fall), this rout becomes opposite. It means the flow of the
food in the phloem is bidirectional.
In the spring season, the sugar stored in root or stem tissue would be transported
to the new developing bud which need energy to grow.
Q. What are the products which transport by phloem?
Ans. Products of photosynthesis, Sucrose, Amino acids and other products. These
substances are transported to the storage organs of roots, fruits, seeds and growing
organs.
Energy utilising by phloem:
The translocation in phloem is achieved by utilising the energy. Sucrose is transferred
into phloem using energy from ATP.
Energy increases the osmotic pressure of the phloem tissue which moves the materials
to tissue which have less pressure. According plant’s needs, phloem transfer the
materials.

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Difference between transport in xylem & phloem:

Excretion
The biological process involved in the removal of harmful nitrogenous wastes from the
body is called excretion.
These nitrogenous wastes generate by the process of metabolic activities.
The removal of these waste by simple diffusion in unicellular organisms. But in multi-
cellular organisms use specified organs perform the same function.

Excretion in Human Beings:

The human excretory system has a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, a urinary bladder
and a urethra. Kidneys are located in the abdomen, one on either side of backbone.

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Structure of nephrons:
Nephrons are the basic, structural and functional
unit of kidney. Nephrons are small tubes which
filtrate the blood.
A branch of renal artery opens in a cup-shaped
structure Bowman’s capsule. It brings blood to
the kidney. In the Bowman’s capsule artery
converts into very thin-walled blood capillaries.
The cluster of these capillaries is known as
glomerulus. The end of these capillaries is
associated with nephrons.
In the initial filtrate, such as glucose, amino
acids, salts and a major amount of water are selectively re-absorbed as urine flows
along the tube. Fig: Human Excretory System

The amount of water re-absorbed depends on-

• How much water excess water there is in the body?

• How much of dissolved waste there is to be excreted.
Formation of urine:
Formation of urine has three steps.
(a). Glomerular filtration: Nitrogen waste, glucose, amino acid, water etc. filter from the
blood into bowmen’s capsule.
(b). Tubular re-absorption: Now useful substances like glucose, amino acids, salts and
major amounts of water re-absorbed and back to the capillaries.
(c). Secretion: Selectively re rea, water and extra salts are sent to the collecting duct
which passes to the ureters.
Urine produced in each kidney passes through the ureters into the urinary bladder.
Urinary bladder is stored it until it the pressure of the expanded bladder leads to the urge

68
to pass it out through urethra. Urethra is a muscular structure and controlled by nerves
system.

Haemodialysis (artificial kidney):

The artificial kidney is known as haemodialysis. In case of kidney failure, an artificial
kidney can be used. It is a device to remove nitrogenous waste products from the blood
through dialysis.

Working of artificial kidney: It contains a number of tubes with a semi-permeable

lining, suspended in a tank filled with dialysis fluid. This fluid has the same osmotic
pressure as our blood. The patient’s blood is passed through these tubes. The nitrogenous
waste is purified in these tubes by diffusion. The purified blood back into the patient.
Similarity with our kidney: This process is similar to the function of kidney.
Difference: It is different by no re-absorption involved in this process.
In our kidney: Normally, in a healthy person, the initial filtrate in the kidneys is
about 180 litres. The volume actually excreted is only 1 litre or 2 litres because the
remaining filtrate is re-absorbed in the kidney tubules.

Excretion in Plants:
Plants use completely different strategies for excretion than those of animals. Plants
excrete their waste products by the following ways:
• Through stomata: Oxygen gas excretes through stomata.
• Through vacuoles: Many waste products are stored in the cellular vacuoles.
• Through fall of leaves: Waste products may be stored in the old leaves.
• Through soil: They excrete some waste substances into the soil.
• Through bark: Plants excrete the gum, resins through bark. These waste products
are stored in the old xylem. Gum and resins are useful product for human beings.
***

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 Chapter 06
Control and Coordination
We all are involved in many of activities in our life, also having growth, movements. All
these actions, in response to the environment. Therefore, such controlled movement
must be connected to the recognition of various events in the environment, followed by
only one correct movement in response. We have specialised tissues are used to provide
these control and coordination activities.

Coordination: The ability to use different parts of the organism together,

smoothly and efficiently is called coordination.

Movement: The ability of organisms to move certain part of body is called movement.
Locomotion: The movement of an organisms from one place to other place is called
locomotion.
Movement is the result of response to stimuli of organisms.
All the activities in animals are controlled and coordinated by the nervous tissue
and endocrine glands.
In plants, these activities are coordinated by hormones.
In this chapter we will study about Nervous system including reflex arc, human brain,
coordination in plants, hormones and endocrinal glands in human beings.

The Nervous tissue:

The specialised tissue which responsible for reception, integration and
transmission of stimuli to various parts of the body is knowns as nervous tissue.
Nervous tissue is made of an organised network of nerve cells (neurons) and is
specialised for conducting information via electrical impulses from one part of the body
to another.
The ability to respond to stimuli is present in all living cells.
𝑵𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒕𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒆 = 𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 + 𝑺𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒅 + 𝑵𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆 𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒔

Central Nervous System:

Brain and spinal cord constitute the central nervous system (CNS). They receive
information from all parts of the body, interpretation and integrate it.
𝑪𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑵𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝑺𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 (𝑪𝑵𝑺) = 𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 + 𝑺𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒅

Peripheral Nervous System:

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The communication between the central nervous system and the other parts of the
body is facilitated by the peripheral nervous system.
It consists cranial nerves (arising from the brain) and spinal nerves (arising from spinal
cord).
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑵𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝑺𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 = 𝑪𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔 + 𝑺𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔

Nerve cells or neurons:

The cells of nervous tissue are nerve cells or neurons. Neuron is the structural and
functional unit of the nervous system.
A nerve cell may be up to a metre long. Many nerve fibres together by connecting tissue
make up a nerve. The tip of nerve cells as receptors are usually located in our sense
organs (inner ear, the nose, the tongue etc.).
Gustatory receptors detect taste. These receptors are found in the tongue.
Olfactory receptors detect smell. These receptors are found in the nose.
Structure of a nerve cell: A nerve cells consists three parts: A cell body with nucleus,
cytoplasm.

• Dendrite (long thin hair-like structure).

• A long part axon.
At the nerve ending, it connects to a branch of a dendrite and make a junction called
synapse.

Fig: A nerve cell (neuron)

Procedure of function of nerve cells:
The tip of dendrite receives impulses from other neurons. Sets off a chemical reaction
that creates an electric impulse. This electrical impulse travels from dendrite to the cell
body, and then along axon to its end.
At the end of the axon nerve ending (or synapse), the
electrical impulse sets off some chemicals (like
acetylcholine). These chemicals cross the gap (synapse)
and start a similar electrical impulse in a dendrite of the
next neuron.
Fig: Neuromuscular junction

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A similar synapse finally allows delivery of such impulses from neurons to other cells,
such as muscles cells or glands.

Neuromuscular Junction: The neuromuscular junction is a synaptic connection

between the terminal end of a nerve and muscle. It is the site for the transmission of
action potential from nerve to the muscle.

How does the nervous tissue cause actions?

When a muscle receives a nerve impulse, the muscle fibre moves. Muscles cells have
special proteins called muscle protein that change the shape and their arrangement in
the cell in response to nervous electric impulses. When this happens, new arrangements
of these proteins give the muscle cells a shorter form.

Functions of nervous tissue:

• Sensation: All types of sensation like sight, smell, taste, touch, pain and other all
stimuli.
• Response: It provides responses to all types of stimuli.
• Control: It exerts control over all body activities.
• Coordination: Nervous system coordinates the functioning of different parts.
• Learned behaviour: All learned behaviour intelligence, memory, reasoning etc.
based on the nervous system.

Reflex Actions and Reflex arc:

Reflex action is a sudden, involuntary reaction of the body in response to stimuli.
Ex. touching a flame or hot/cold water.
Difference from thinking process:
Response to such stimuli is different from the thinking process. Thinking is a complex
activity and not a quick process. Many nerve impulses from neurons are involved in this
complicated interaction. The thinking tissue in our body consists of dense networks of
intricately arranged neurons. The signals of nerves coming from various parts of the body
If the brain is to instruct muscles to move, nerves must carry this signal back to different
parts of the body. If all of this is to be done when we touch hot object, it may take enough
time for us to get burn.
The response to reflex actions by the reflex arc.

What is reflex arc?

The process of detecting the signal or the input and responding to it by an output
action might be completed quickly, such connection is commonly called a reflex
arc.
OR
A reflex arc is a pathway that controls a reflex action.

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The Process of action of Neuron:
In nerves from all over the body meet in a spinal cord on their way to the brain. Reflex
arcs are formed in this spinal cord itself. This information also goes on to reach the brain.
In this process, there are three neurons are involved. First neuron is sensory neuron
(receptor), second is motor neuron and third is relay neuron.
• Firstly, the receptor detects the stimulus or sudden change in the environment.
The stimulus is received from a sensory organ.
• Then, the sensory neuron sends a signal from receptor to the relay neuron at
spinal cord.
• Relay neuron sends the signal to the motor neuron.
• Next, the motor neuron sends a signal to the effector.
• The effector produces an instantaneous response.
Ex. Pulling away of the hand from a hot object. It is also known as knee-jerk
reaction.

Fig: Reflex arc (knee-jerk reflection)

Human Brain:
Thinking involves more complex mechanisms and neural connections. These are
connected in the brain. Human brain is the main coordinating centre of the body. Brain
and spinal cord constitute the central nervous system (CNS). They receive information
from all parts of the body, interpretation and integrate it.
On average human brain weigh between 1.0 to 1.5 kg. It consists 22 bones. It is enclosed
within the skull which provides frontal, lateral and dorsal protection.

Protection of the brain:

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The human brain is enclosed in cranium (skull). The brain has three layers of membranes
called meninges. The middle membrane has fluid-filled balloon (cerebrospinal fluid). It
provides the brain further shock absorption and immunological protection. This fluid is
found till spinal cord. Spinal cord is protected by vertebral column or backbone.
It divides into three major
parts:
(i). Fore-Brain
(ii). Mid-Brain
(iii). Hind-Brain

Fig: Structure of Human Brain

i). Fore-Brain:
It is the interior part of the brain. It is the main thinking part of the brain. It consists
cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus.
Fore-brain is involved in the control of voluntary actions.
It receives sensory impulses from various receptors related to smell, emotions, hunger,
sleep, hearing, seeing etc.
This part is responded on the basis of sensory impulse receive from the receptors and
information that is already stored in the brain (memory). Then, the information is passed
on to the motor areas which control the movement of voluntary muscles. Ex. leg muscles.
Cerebrum: It is responsible for thinking, intelligence, consciousness and memory.
Thalamus: It is responsible for transmitting motor information for movement and
coordination. It is also responsible for relaying sensory information from the sense
organs.
Hypothalamus: It regulates body temperature, controls the mood and emotions and
receives impulses.

ii). Mid-Brain:
Mid-brain is involved in the control of involuntary actions. It also serves as a relay
centre for the sensory information from the ears to the cerebrum. It also connects the
brain and spinal cord.

iii). Hind-Brain:
Hind-brain consists pons, medulla, cerebellum. Hind-brains controls the involuntary
actions including blood-pressure, salivation, vomiting etc.

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Cerebellum*: It is the second largest part of the brain. Cerebellum is responsible of
voluntary actions and maintaining the posture and balance of the body. Activities
like walking in a straight line, riding a bicycle, running, swimming, picking up a pencil etc.
are possible due to cerebellum.
*Cerebellum is affected by consumption of alcohol. It is unable to work properly in drunk
person.
Medulla oblongata: It mainly controls the body’s autonomic or involuntary functions
like heartbeat, breathing, sneezing, blood circulation (transportation), vomiting,
and digestion. It also helps in maintaining the body posture. It connects pons, spinal
cortex and spinal cord.
Pons: It controls the sleep cycles and respiration.

Coordination in Plants
Plants have not nervous system as animals for controlling and coordinating the activities
of the body.
Plants show two different types of movement:
A). One independent of growth (Nastic movement)
B). Other dependent on growth (Tropism movement)

A). Movements which independent of growth:

This type of movements is called nastic movements or non-directional movements.
Ex. Immediate response to stimulus in touch-me-not plant:
When we touch the leaves of sensitive plant (‘touch-me-not’ plant or chhui-mui or
Mimosa pudica), they begin to fold up and droop.
It means a touch has occurred must be communicated. The plants also use electric-
chemical. By this way the information conveys from cell to cell. Plant cells change shape
by changing amount of water in them, resulting in swelling or shrinking. Therefore,
the leaves change their shapes.

B). Movement due to Growth or Directional movements:

Directional changes are called tropic movements.
Tropic movements are the one which occurs in the direction of the → stimulus. A tropic
movement may be towards or away from the stimulus.
The movements due to growth are as follows:

a). Phototropism:
When a plant part moves in response to light, it is called phototropism.
Phototropism is two types:

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i). Positive phototropism:
The shoot grows or bends towards light, it is positive phototropism.
ii). Negative phototropism: The root of a plant moves away from the light; this is
negative phototropism.

Fig: Different types of directional movements

b). Geotropism: When a plant part moves in response to gravity, it is called

geotropism.

Fig: Geotropism

It is also two types:

i). Positive geotropism:
The roots of a plant move in a downward direction, it is called positive geotropism.
ii). Negative geotropism:
Stem or shoot moves in the upward direction, so it shows negative geotropism.

c). Chemotropism:
When a plant part moves in response to chemical stimulus, it is called chemotropism.
Chemical acts as stimulus.
Ex. The growth of pollen tube towards the ovule during fertilisation in a flower is called
positive chemotropism.

d). Hydrotropism:

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When a plant part moves in response to water, it is called hydrotropism.
Water acts as stimulus.
Ex. Roots of a plant move towards water. Roots show positive hydrotropism.

e). Thigmotropism:
When a plant part shows directional
movement in response to the touch of an
object, it is called thigmotropism.
Ex. Tendrils of a plant (pea) climb
towards any support which they touch.
Fig: Thigmotropism

f). Heliotropism:
The movement of sunflowers in response to day or night is quite slow. This type
movement is called heliotropism.
If a plant party moves in response to sunlight during daytime or seasonally, is called
heliotropism. Ex. Sunflower.
Phototropism is the general response of a plant towards light while heliotropism
is movement in response of sunlight during daytime or seasonal.

Coordination in animals’ v/s Coordination in Plants

In animal bodies, there are carefully controlled directions to growth. So, controlled
movements can be either slow or fast. If fast response, the medium of transmission must
be move rapidly. Electrical impulses are excellent means for this. But there are limitations
to use of electrical impulse.
• They reach only those cells that are connected by nervous tissue, not reach and
every cell.
• Once an electrical impulse is generated in a cell, the cell will take some rest in its
mechanism.
That’s why most multicellular organisms use another mechanism of coordination. That is
Chemical communication.
Plants also use this mechanism. They coordinate their behaviour against environment
changes with the help of chemical compounds (hormones). The stimulated cells release a
chemical compound. This chemical compound diffuses all around the cell. Other cells are
also able to show the response to chemical.

Plant Hormones (Phytohormones):

In plants these chemical compounds are called plant hormones or phytohormones.

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Different plant hormones help to coordinate growth, development, response to the
environment, cell division etc. Plant hormones control directional growth of plants.
These hormones are synthesised at places away from where they act and simply diffuse
to the area of action.

Types of plant hormones:

i). Auxins, ii). Gibberellins, iii). Cytokinin, iv). Abscisic acid

i). Auxins: Auxins hormone synthesises at the tip of the plant shoot. When growing
plants detect light, it synthesised at the shoot tip.
Functions of Auxins:
• It helps the cells to grow longer.
• They also help in the growth process.
Q: When a plant keeps in the window, the plant
appears to bend outside the window or towards
the light. Why?
A: When light coming from one side of the plant,
auxin diffuses towards the shady side of the shoot.
This concentration of auxin stimulates the cells to
grow longer on the side of the shoot which is away
from the light. Thus, the plant appears to bend
towards light.
Fig: Movement of Auxin hormone

ii). Gibberellins:
These hormones are also like auxins. Gibberellins hormones are responsible for the cell
growth in the stem, seed germination and flowering.
iii). Cytokinins:
Cytokinins promote cell division. Cytokinins also promote the opening of the stomata.
These hormones are present in greater concentration in areas of rapid cell division. Ex.
fruits and seed.
iv). Abscisic acid*: (also known as inhibit hormone)
It is one example of hormone which inhibits growth in the plant. It effects the leaves
wilting (weak or falling), detachment of fruits and flowers. It also promotes dormancy in
seeds.
*Cytokinin and Abscisic acid hormones are opposite to each other. Cytokinin breaks
the seed dormancy while abscisic acid promotes the seed dormancy.

Hormones in Animals:

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Hormones are chemicals secreted by endocrinal glands. These glands secret hormones
directly into blood and transported to the respective organs, where they act by regulating
various metabolic process. Hormone secret by glands in precise quantities.

Target organ: The organ affected by the hormone is called the target organ. The target
cells have specific receptors to recognize the respective hormones.

Endocrinal glands: These are ductless glands. These glands are belonged to the
body’s control system and their hormones regulate the functions of cells and tissues.

Types of endocrinal glands:

i). Pituitary gland; ii). Pineal gland; ii). Hypothalamus; iii). Thyroid gland; iv). Parathyroid
gland; v). Thymus gland; vi). Pancreas; vii). Adrenal gland; viii). Testis and ovaries.

Fig: Location of endocrinal glands in human being

i). Pituitary gland:

Pituitary gland is situated in the brain. It’s size of a pea. It secrets Growth hormone (GH).
Function of Growth hormone:
It regulates growth and development of the body. In the deficiency of this hormone in
childhood, it leads to dwarfism. If this hormone secrets in large amount, the growth will
extremely tall in the person.

ii). Thyroid gland:

It is a brownish red gland situated at the front of the neck.
It secrets thyroxin hormone.
Thyroxin hormone regulates carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism in the body for
balancing the growth.
Iodine is essential for the synthesis of thyroxin hormone.

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Goitre: The deficiency of iodine in our diet, it may cause the goitre. Swollen neck is the
symptom of this deficiency disease.

iii). Adrenal glands:

Adrenal glands are situated on the both of kidneys. Adrenal glands secret adrenaline
hormone.
It is also known as ‘stress hormone’. The target organ of this hormone is heart.
In the situation of danger or threat. Adrenaline hormone secrets immediately by adrenal
glands. As a result,
• the heart beats faster, resulting in supply of more oxygen to our muscles.
• The blood to the digestive system and skin is reduced due to contraction of
muscles around arteries in these organs.
• The breathing rate also increase because of contractions of the diaphragm and the
rib muscles.
All these responses together, our body enables to face the danger situation.

iv). Pancreas gland:

Pancreas secrets digestive juice during the digestion. It also acts as endocrine gland. It is
situated just below the stomach and above the small intestine. It secrets insulin hormone.
It helps in regulating blood sugar levels in the body.
If it is not secreted in proper amounts, the sugar level in the blood rises causing many
harmful effects (like diabetes or hyperglycaemia).
If the sugar levels in blood rise, they are detected by the cells of the pancreas which
respond by producing more insulin. As the blood sugar level falls, insulin secretion is
reduced.

v). Testis or ovaries:

These are specific glands in the male and female body.

Testis: These are specific to males. These are located in abdominal cavity (outside of the
body). These produce testosterone hormone that is responsible for male sex characters.
It also responsible for changes during the puberty.

Ovaries: These are specific to female. Ovaries secret egg also in the female.
They secret oestrogen and progesterone hormones in the female. These hormones are
important for reproduction, female sex characters, pregnancy, menstruation, menopause
etc.
Table: Main Endocrine glands, their hormones and functions.
S. Name of Name of Hormone Functions
No. Endocrine gland

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 1. Pituitary gland Growth hormone Regulates body growth
2. Thyroid gland Thyroxine Regulates body metabolism
3. Adrenal gland Adrenaline Regulate heart beat and blood
pressure
4. Pancreas gland Insulin & Glucagon Regulates blood sugar level
5. Testis Testosterone Development of sperms and
male characteristics
6. Ovaries Oestrogen and Development of eggs and female
Progesterone characteristics

Important notes: Except pituitary gland, all the glands are occurred as a pair in the
human body. Pituitary gland occurs without a pair.
***

Chapter 07
How Do Organisms Reproduce?
Reproduction:
• Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce new individuals
of the same species.
• Reproduction is necessary for the survival and increase in the population of a
species. If organisms do not reproduce, their population decreases and species
will become extinct.
• Reproduction is also important for keeping the generation continuously after an
organism.
Do organisms create carbon copies of themselves?
• The DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid) molecules in the chromosomes in the
nucleus is responsible for the transfer of characters from the parents to the of
springs. It contains genes which have all the information of parents and transfer
to next generation.

Variation:
• During reproduction the reproductive cells produce two copies of the DNA which
separate into two cells. The DNA copies will be similar but not identical to each
other. So, the new individuals are slightly different from their parents, these
differences are known as variation. This is the basis for variation and evolution
of new species.

The Importance of variation:

• It is important for maintaining the body designs of different organisms to survive
in the existing environment.

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 • It adjusts themselves to the changes in the environment. If organisms cannot
adjust themselves to the changes in the environment, then their species will
become extinct.
• It supports the organisms to survive in the changing environment.
• Variation is thus useful for the survival of species over time.
• Variation is the basis of evaluation of species.
Ex. If there were a population of bacteria living in temperate waters, and if the water
temperature were to be increased by global warming, most of these bacteria would die,
but few variants resistant to heat would survive and grow further.

Modes of reproduction:
There are two main types of reproduction in living organisms.

1). Asexual reproduction:

Asexual reproduction is reproduction in which new individuals are produced from a
single parent.

2). Sexual reproduction:

Sexual reproduction is reproduction in which two individuals are involved to produce a
new individual.

Asexual reproduction:
Types of Asexual reproduction:
Fission, Budding, Regeneration, Fragmentation, Spore formation, Vegetative propagation
etc.

1). Fission:
Fission is an asexual reproduction by which a unicellular organism divides and
forms two or more new individuals.
Fission is found in unicellular organisms.
Fission is of two types.
• a). Binary fission
• b). Multiple fission

a). Binary Fission:

In this method an organism divides and forms two individuals. First the nucleus divides
and forms two nuclei. Then the cytoplasm divides and forms two daughter cells.
Eg. Amoeba, Paramaecium etc.

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 Fig: Binary fission in Amoeba

Some unicellular organisms show somewhat more organization of their bodies, which
have a whip-like structure at one end of the cell. Binary fission in these organisms occur
in a definite orientation in relation of these structure.
Ex. Leishmania (Kala-azar parasite)

b). Multiple fission:

In this method one organism divides into many daughter cells.
Eg. Plasmodium (Malarial parasite)

2). Fragmentation:
In this method the body of a simple multicellular organism breaks up into smaller pieces
on maturation and each fragment develops into new individuals.
Eg. Spirogyra algae
Limitations of Fragmentation:
Fragmentation cannot be possible in the other multicellular organisms. They cannot
simply divide cell by cell. Because their cells are organized as tissue, and tissues are
organized into organs. Cell-by-cell division would be impractical for them. So, they need
to use more complex way of reproduction.

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 Fig: Fragmentation in spirogyra

3). Regeneration:
• In this method a part of the body if the organism if cut or broken can develop
into a new individual.
• Regeneration is carried out by only specialized cells. These cells proliferate
(develop) and make large number of cells. Then these cells undergo change to
become various cell types and tissues. If a cell has not specialized cell, it will not
cable to grow into full organism.
Eg. Hydra, Planaria, Star fish etc.

Fig: Regeneration in Planaria Fig: Regeneration in Hydra

Limitations of regeneration:
Commonly regeneration is not considered as reproduction. Since most organisms would
not normally depend on being cut up to be able reproduce. They have other mode of
reproduction.

4). Budding:
• In this method a bud like projection is formed on the body of the organism.
• The bud then develops into a new individual after repeated cell division. When
fully mature, it separates from the parent and forms an independent individual.

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 Eg. Hydra, Yeast etc.

Fig: Budding in Hydra

Fig: Budding in Yeast

4). Spore formation:

• In this method, the tiny blob-on-a-stick
structures are developed on the organisms.
These blobs are called sporangia produce
tiny cells called spores. Spores are
protected by a thick wall.
• When the spores come in contact with a
moist surface, it develops into new
individuals.
• It is found mainly in the fungi.
Eg. Rhizopus, Mucor, Penicillium etc. Fig: Spore formation in Rhizopus

5). Vegetative propagation:

In this method new plants are produced from the vegetative parts of the plant like root,
stem or leaf.
• From modified roots – Dahlia, Sweet potato, Carrot etc.
• From stem – Potato (tuber), Onion, Garlic, Sugarcane, Rose etc.
• From rhizomes- Ginger, Turmeric etc.
• From leaf – Bryophyllum, Begonia etc.

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Importance of vegetative propagation:
• The new produced plants are genetically similar enough to the parent plant to
have all its characters.
• Plants produced by vegetative propagation can bear flowers and fruits earlier than
those produced from seeds. It also helps in the propagation of plants which do not
produce seeds like rose, jasmine banana, orange etc.
• Vegetative propagation can also be done artificially by cutting, layering, grafting
etc. in the horticulture and agriculture sectors.

Cutting: A part of stem is cut and the cut end grow into new plant when placed in moist
soil.
Ex. Rose, guava, sugarcane, grapes, litchi etc.
Grafting: The stem of a plant is cut and then fitted on another strong plant and covered
with grafting wax. Grafting is mainly used in fruits tree and ornamental plants.
Ex. Mango, apple, oranges, grapes, ziziphus (jhadi ber) etc.
Layering: The lower branch of the stem kept under the soil till it develops roots then cut
for grow independently a new plant.
Ex. Jasmine and mint.

Advantages of asexual reproduction:

Since sexual reproduction needs only a single parent to produce a new individual, it has
some advantages like it requires less energy, the organisms mature rapidly, it allows
for the survival of the species, it is a simple process of the reproduction.

Disadvantages of asexual reproduction:

• The new organisms have short life span, the limited diversity of the organisms, no
change in the organisms (same copy of the parent), the new organisms may not
able to adapt the changing environment.
• Individuals produce by asexual reproduction have less variation than sexual
reproduction.

Sexual Reproduction:
In this modes of reproduction, two individuals are involved for produce the new
individual.

Importance of Sexual reproduction:

• Individual has more variations.
• Combining variations from two or more individuals would thus create new
combinations of variations. Each combination would be novel, since it would
involve two different individuals (parents).

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 • In sexual reproduction, new individual gets half-half set of chromosomes from
mother and father. So, that the new individual has more variations.
Q. Stability of DNA in a species is ensured during sexual reproduction.” Justify the
statement.
A. During the reproduction, the half chromosomes come from mother and remaining half
chromosomes come from father. Thus, these half chromosomes (as germ-cells) combine
during the sexual reproduction to form of a new individual.

Germ-cells:
The reproductive cell containing only one set of dissimilar chromosomes are known as
germ-cell or gamete.

Types of germ-cells or gametes:

• Male Germ cell: Male gametes are motile.
In the plants, it is known as pollen grain and in the animals, it is called sperm.

• Female Germ cell: These are large and contains the food-stores. It is known as
egg or ovule in plants or animals. It is non-motile and larger than male germ cell.

Sexual Reproduction in flowering plants

Reproductive parts of a flower
• The stamen and pistil are the reproductive parts of the flower.

• Stamen is the male reproductive part. It produces pollen grains in the anther
which contains the male germ-cell (male gamete).

• Pistil is the female reproductive part. It produces ovules in the ovary which
contain the female germ-cell (female gamete).

Fig: Structure of a flower

Pollination:
The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a flower is called
pollination.

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It is two types- Self-pollination and cross-pollination.

Self-pollination: It takes place by wind, water,

birds or insects. If the pollen grains are transferred
from the anther to the stigma of the same flower it is
self-pollination.

Fig: Self-pollination

Fig: Cross-pollination

Cross-pollination: If it is transferred from the anther of one flower to the stigma of

another flower it is cross-pollination.

Pollinators: Pollination takes place by some agent insects (including honeybees,

butterflies or beetles etc.), birds or animals etc. and some physical factors wind, water
etc.

Fertilisation:
The fusion of male and female germ-cells is called
fertilisation.
In the flowering plants, the fertilisation is called double
fertilisation.
One nucleus of pollen fertlises the egg and other nucleus
of pollen fertilizes the polar nuclei. So, this type
ferilisation is called double fertilization.
𝑴𝒂𝒍𝒆 𝑮𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆 + 𝑭𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒆 𝑮𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆 → 𝒁𝒚𝒈𝒐𝒕𝒆

𝑨𝒏𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒏 𝒏𝒖𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒖𝒔 + 𝑷𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒏𝒖𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒊 → 𝑬𝒏𝒅𝒐𝒑𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒎 ∗

*Endosperm provides nutrients to the developing embryo.
• After the pollen lands on a suitable stigma. Its germ-cell reaches to the female
germ-cell which are in the ovary through pollen tube. Pollen tube is developed by
pollen.
Post-fertilisation:
• After fertilisation, the zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the
ovule. The ovule develops a tough coat and is gradually converted into seed.

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 • The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
• Other parts of the flower like sepals, petals, stamens, style and stigma may shrivel
and fall off.

Seed germination:
The seed contains the future plant or embryo which
develops into a seedling under appropriate
conditions, this process is known as germination.

Fig: Seed gemination

Reproduction in human beings

During adolescence, there are many changes brought in the body. These changes are two
types primary changes and secondary changes. Primary changes are related to physical,
social, emotional, cognitive. While secondary changes are related to internally in the
body.
Primary changes are growth in our body- heights, teeth, changes in the voice, increasing
the weight, changes of skin, growth of the sexual organs etc.
Secondary changes are changes related to the internal like hormones secretion,
development of reproductive maturity.
• Teenager: The age group between 13 to19.
• Adolescence: The life-stage in which a young person develops from a child into
an adult.
• Puberty: The period during adolescence is called puberty.
• It is the period during which adolescents reach sexual maturity and become
capable of reproduction.
The sexual made of reproduction means the germ-cell from two individuals have to join
together.
• It can happen by the external release of germ-cells from the bodies of individuals
(as flowering plants/in frogs).
• It can also happen by two individuals joining their bodies together for internal
transfer of germ-cell for fusion/fertilisation (in animals)

Male reproductive system:

The male reproductive system consists 3). Urethra
of…
4). Seminal vesicles
1). A pair of testes
5). Prostate glands
2). Vas Deferens

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6). Penis

Fig: Male reproduction system

Testis:
• A pair of testes are located outside the abdominal cavity in scrotum. Scrotum is a
sac like structure.
• The reason of location of outside: Sperm formation requires a lower temperature
than the normal body temperature (370C).

Functions of Testis:
• Producing sperms (male germ-cells/gametes)
• Producing testosterone (the primary male sex hormone): It helps in formation of
sperms in testis. It also helps in development of secondary sexual characters in
boys.

Function of Vas Deferens:

The vas deferens pass the sperms from testis to urinary bladder.
After that urethra provides the common passage for both the sperms and urine.

Seminal and Prostate Glands:

There are two glands the seminal and the prostate glands are situated along the path of
the vas deferens.

Functions of Seminal and Prostate glands:

These adds fluids in the sperms which makes their transport (as lubricants) easier and
provides nutrition. Now the mixture of sperms and fluids are known as semen.

Sperms: The sperm is a tiny structure that consist of mainly genetic material and a long
tail that helps them to move towards the female germ-cell (egg).

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Female Reproductive system:
The female reproductive system consists
of…
1). A pair of ovaries
2). Oviducts or fallopian tubes.
3). Uterus
4). Cervix
5). Vagina
Fig: Female reproduction system

Ovaries:
The ovaries are two oval-shaped organs that lie to the upper right and left of the uterus.

Functions of ovaries:
• They produce, store, and release eggs (female germ-cell) into the fallopian tubes
in the process called ovulation.
• The ovaries are also produced female sex hormones such as estrogen and
progesterone.
• The secretion of these hormones causes a girl to develop into a sexually mature
woman.
When a baby girl is born, her ovaries contain hundreds of thousands of eggs, which
remain inactive until puberty begins.
• Toward the end of puberty, girls begin to release eggs as part of a monthly period
called the menstrual cycle.
• About once a month, during ovulation, an ovary sends a tiny egg into one of the
fallopian tubes or oviducts.

Fallopian tubes:
Both sides of ovaries, there are two fallopian tubes (oviducts). Fallopian tubes provide
the place for fertilisation of sperm and egg.

Uterus:
There are two fallopian tubes, each attached to a side of the uterus. Both oviducts unite
into an elastic bag-like structure known as the uterus. This uterus opens into vagina
through the cervix.

Function of Uterus:
• Zygote gets implanted in the lining of the uterus and starts dividing.

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 • It implants the zygote and gives nutrition the developing embryo through
placenta.
Placenta:
The lining thickness and supply the rich blood to nourish the growing embryo. This
blood is supplied with the help of a special tissue called placenta.
Placenta is a disc which is embedded in the uterus wall.

Functions of Placenta:
• It contains villi on the embryo’s side of the tissue which absorbs the mother’s
blood.
• Villi provides the large surface area for absorption of the glucose and blood.
• The waste substances which produce by developing embryo are removed by
placenta into mother’s blood.
• The development of the child inside the mother’s body (uterus) takes
approximately nine months (270 days).
• The child is born by the help of the rhythmic contractions of the muscles in the
uterus.

Vagina:
The vagina is a muscular, hollow tube that extends from the vaginal opening to the
uterus.
• It has muscular wall; the vagina can expand and contract.
• The vagina's muscular walls are lined with mucous membranes, which keep it
protected and moist.

Functions of Vagina:
• The sperms enter through the vaginal passage during sexual intercourse.
• It's the pathway through which a baby leaves a woman's body during childbirth.
• It's the route through which menstrual blood leaves the body during periods.

Fertilisation:
Fertilisation is the process of fusion of male and female gametes. It
happens in the fallopian tube (oviduct).
𝑭𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑴𝒂𝒍𝒆 𝒈𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆 + 𝑭𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒆 𝒈𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆 → 𝒁𝒚𝒈𝒐𝒕𝒆
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒎 + 𝑬𝒈𝒈 → 𝒁𝒚𝒈𝒐𝒕𝒆 → 𝑬𝒎𝒃𝒓𝒚𝒐 → 𝑭𝒐𝒆𝒕𝒖𝒔 → 𝑩𝒂𝒃𝒚
Fig: Fertilisation (fusion of sperm and egg)

• The sperms enter through the vaginal passage during sexual intercourse.

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 • After that, they travel towards and reach the oviduct (fallopian tube) where they
encounter the egg and success to fertilise it.
• The fertilised egg is known as zygote.
𝒁𝒚𝒈𝒐𝒕𝒆 → 𝑬𝒎𝒃𝒓𝒚𝒐 → 𝑭𝒐𝒆𝒕𝒖𝒔 → 𝑩𝒂𝒃𝒚

Fig: Stages of developing embryo

If the egg is not fertilised?

• In case of egg is not fertilised, it lives for one day.
• Uterus prepares itself every month to receive a fertilised egg. Thus, its lining
becomes thick and spongy. This is required for the nourishing the embryo.
• This lining is not needed any longer. So, the lining slowly breaks and comes out
through the vagina as blood and mucous.

Menstruation: The cycle of come out the blood and mucous takes place roughly every
month is known as menstruation.
• It usually lasts for 2 to 8 days.

Reproductive Health
The sexual maturation does not necessary mean that the body or the mind is ready for
sexual acts or having and bringing up children. There are different kinds of pressure for
taking the responsibilities. So, it should be taken some points in mind before enter the
taking responsibilities and bear a child.
Before the reproduction, everyone must aware about the reproductive health. These are
as:

a). Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs):

The severe diseases transmit through sexual contact. They may be bacterial infections
like gonorrhea and syphilis etc. or viral infections like warts and HIV-AIDS.
HIV = Human Immuno deficiency virus.

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AIDS = Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome.

b). Prevention of pregnancy (Contraception):

The methods which prevents the pregnancy in the women is called contraceptive
methods, and this process is called contraception.
The sexual act may lead to pregnancy. Pregnancy demands on the body and the mind of
the woman. If she is not ready for it, her health will be adversely affected. Therefore, many
ways have been devised to avoid pregnancy.
Pregnancy can be prevented by three main contraceptive methods. They are barrier
methods, chemical methods and surgical methods.

i). Barrier methods:

These methods consist of using condoms, loops, cervical caps, Copper T etc. These are
placed in the uterus to prevent pregnancy. These can cause side effects due to irritation
of the uterus.

ii). Chemical methods:

Chemical methods consist of taking drugs like oral pills, vaginal pills etc. These can
change the hormonal balance. They can cause side effects too.

iii). Surgical methods:

There are two methods: Vasectomy and tubectomy.

a). Vasectomy:
Surgical method in man is called Vasectomy. In this method, removing or tying a small
part of vas deferens.

b). Tubectomy:
Surgical method in female is called Tubectomy. In this method, removing or tying a small
part of fallopian tube.

Illegal sex-selective abortion:

Some people misuse the surgery in the removal of the child if they do not want. By this
action, the child ratio is declining.

c). Standard of living:

The reproduction is the process by which organisms increase their populations.
• The rates of birth and death in a given population will determine its size. The size
of human population is a cause of concern for many people. This is because an
expanding population makes harder to improve everybody’s standard of living.
• However, if inequality in society is the main reason for poor standards of living
for, many people.

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 ***

Chapter 08
Heredity and Evolution
Some important terms:
(a). Heredity:
Heredity means the process of transfer of traits/characters from one generation to the
next generation.
(b). Genetics:
A branch of the biology which deals with the study of genes, variations, heredity in
organisms is called genetics.
It is to help our understanding of heredity by knowing how offspring inherit
characteristics from their parents.
(c). Inheritance: The process by which traits are passed from one generation to the next
generation is called inheritance.
(d). Genes:
Gene is the basic unit of heredity. Genes are transferred characters from parents to their
offspring.
Every gene control one particular characteristic feature in living organisms. Genes are
found in DNA. These are segments of the DNA.
*Mendel called factors to the genes.
(e). Chromosomes:
These are long threads present in the nucleus of every cell. Chromosomes are made-up
of DNA and protein.
Half chromosomes come from father while half chromosomes come from mother in an
offspring.
(f). Cross:
The process of fertilisation doing by artificially is called cross.
Types of cross:
Monohybrid cross:
A type of cross in plants which has only one pair of characters. Ex. cross between tall plant
(TT) and dwarf plant (tt).
Dihybrid cross:

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A type of cross in plants which has two pairs of characters.
Ex. Cross between tall plant and round seed (TTRR) and dwarf plant and wrinkled seed
(ttrr).
(g). F1 generation:
The first generation is called F1 generation. It comes out immediately from a cross of the
first set of parents.
(h). F2 generation:
The second generation which come out after self-crossing of one parent of F1 generation.
(i). Traits:
A trait is a distinct variant of a phenotype character of an organism. It may be inherited
or environmentally determined.
Traits are two types:
Dominant trait:
The trait which expresses itself in organisms in every possible combination.
It denoted by capital letter.
Ex. Tall trait (T).
Recessive trait:
The trait which can express itself only when two copies of the recessive gene are present.
It is denoted by small letter.
Ex. Dwarf trait (t).
Acquired trait:
The trait which develops by an individual and cannot be passed on to future generations
is called acquired trait.
Ex. Talents like dancing, singing; sports skills, bodybuilding of a wrestler.
Inherited trait:
The trait that are inherited from the parents to the offspring is called inherited trait.
Ex. Hair, eye colour, height, body colour etc.
(j). Phenotype:
The external appearance of the individual is called phenotype.
(k). Genotype:
The genetic constitutes of an organism is called genotype.

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(l). Progeny:
The offspring produced as a result of reproduction of the parents is called progeny.
(m). Allele:
One of two or more possible forms of a gene that are found at the same place (locus) of a
chromosome.
An allele is a variant form of a gene.
Expressing allele of a gene by two ways:
Homozygous:
The group of two identical alleles of the same gene is called homozygous.
Ex. Tallness (TT) or Dwarfness (tt)
Heterozygous:
The group of dissimilar alleles of the different gene is called heterozygous.
Ex. Mixed or hybrid (Tt)
(n). Sex chromosomes:
A pair of chromosomes which present in the germ-cells (gamete) is called sex
chromosomes.
Sex chromosomes are usually denoted as X (in female) or Y (in male). An offspring gets
one-one sex chromosome from both parents.
Sex chromosomes are also responsible for determination of the sex of offspring.
(o). Autosomes:
Other chromosomes than of a pair of sex chromosomes are called autosomes.
Autosomes are found in somatic cells. These are responsible for other physical characters
of organisms.
(p). Haploid cell:
The cell has only half chromosomes (one set). It is denoted by n.
(q). Diploid cell:
The cell has complete chromosomes (two sets of chromosomes). It is denoted by 2n.

Variation:
The changes which occur during the copying of DNA or any other reasons are
known as variations.

Reasons of variations:
(i). Errors in DNA copying.

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(ii). Interaction of genes with environmental changes.
(iii). Different combinations of genetic material.
(iv). Mutation.
Variation is the degree by which offspring differ from their parents. These variations may
be helpful if organisms able to survive in the changed environment or harmful if
organisms not suited to the changed environment. This concept is known as survival of
the fittest.
Accumulation of variations over a long period of time leads the evolution.

Importance of variations:
(i). It forms the basis of heredity.
(ii). It causes adaptations due to which organisms can easily adjust to its changing
environment.
(iii). Accumulation of variations forms the basis of evolution.

Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884):

Mandel was a priest of a church in Austria. He was also known as “Father of Genetics”.
He experimented on garden pea (Pisum sativum) between 1856 to 1863. Then he
published them in a science journal. But no one understood them because his
experiments were beyond their knowledge. Mendel had good knowledge of science and
mathematics. So, he kept his all record of results. And got success to find out the results.
List of characters studied by Mendel in garden pea:
S. Characters Dominant factor Recessive factor
NO.
1. Plant height Tall (T) Dwarf (t)
2. Flower colour Violet (V) White (v)
3. Flower position Axillary (A) Terminal (a)
4. Seed colour Yellow (Y) Green (g)
5. Seed texture Round (R) Wrinkled (r)
6. Pod colour Green (G) Yellow (y)
7. Pod texture Inflated (I) Constructed (i)

Mendel worked on inheritance traits and formulated basic principles of genetics or laws
of inheritance. These laws laid the foundation of Genetics. These three laws are: Law of
dominance, Law of segregation, Law of independent assortment.

Reasons of selection of Garden pea by Mendel:

He selected the garden pea (Pisum sativum) for his experiment due to the following
reasons:
(i). Garden pea flowers are self-pollinated but can be easily cross-pollinated.

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(ii). It is very easy to grow pea plants.
(iii). It is an annual plant and results of experiment can be obtained within the year.
(iv). Many seeds are produced per pea plant.
(v). Pure breeding varieties of pea are available.
(vi). Garden pea was available in seven characteristics.

(A). Monohybrid cross:

A cross between two parents taking the alternate traits of one single character, is called
monohybrid cross.
Ex. A cross between tall and dwarf pea plants.
Monohybrid ratio:
F1 generation: 100% plants are hybrid tall (Tt).
F2 generation:
(i). Phenotype ratio: 3:1 (tall: dwarf).
(ii). Genotype ratio: 1:2:1 (pure tall: mixed tall: pure dwarf)
Note: Remember the ratio. The ratio will same in any monohybrid cross.

Fig: Monohybrid cross

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Other example: A cross between pea plants having yellow seeds and green seeds.

Fig: Monohybrid cross

Q. A cross made between two pea plants produces 50% tall and 50% short pea plants.
The gene combination of the parental pea plants must be?
Ans. 50% tall pea plants have the gene combination either TT or Tt. 50% short plants
have gene combination tt. It means their parents should Tt and tt.

(B). Dihybrid cross:

Fig: Dihybrid cross

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A cross between two parents taking into consideration alternative traits of two different
characters, is called dihybrid cross.
Ex. A cross between pea plants having round, yellow seeds and wrinkled, green seeds.
Dihybrid ratio:
F1 generation: 100% plants are hybrid round, yellow (RrYy).
F2 generation:
(i). Phenotype ratio: 9:3:3:1 (Round yellow: Round wrinkled: Dwarf round: Dwarf
wrinkled).
(ii). Genotype ratio: 1:2:1: 2:4:2: 1:2:1
Note: Remember these ratios. These ratios are same in any dihybrid cross having
any two characters.
Other example: A cross between two pea plants having tall, round seeds (TTRR) and
dwarf, wrinkled seeds (ttrr).

Gene Expression in offspring:

(A). On the basis of genes:
Cellular DNA is the information source for making proteins in the cell. A section of DNA
that provides information for one protein is called the gene for that protein.
The particular trait (like tall) in the plant depends on the amount of a particular plant
hormones.
If The plant hormone release in good amount, then that hormone will be made the
enzyme. Plant will show the particular trait (tall) due to the efficiency of the enzyme.
If the enzyme is less efficient, the amount of the hormone will be less and the trait will be
recessive (dwarf).

(B). On the basis of Mendelian experiments:

According Mendelian experiments, both parents contribute a copy of same gene. Each
germ cell (pollen or egg) must have only gene set (n). During the fertilisation, both sets
meet and make one complete set of chromosomes (2n) in the progeny/offspring.
Such a mechanism of inheritance explains the results of the Mendel experiments, and is
used by all sexually reproducing organisms.

Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance:

(i). Law of paired characters or factors:
Each gene presents in a pair.
(ii). Law of Dominance:

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In the F1 generation, there is recessive traits are always dominated by dominant traits.
(iv). Law of Segregation:
The alleles of an individual separate during the formation of gametes.
(v). Law of Independent Assortment:
The alleles of two or different genes get sorted into gametes independently of one
another.

Sex Determination:
Different species use very different strategies for this.

(A). Genetically Gene Determination:

In human being, the sex of the individual is determined by genetically.
The total chromosomes in a cell are 46. These 46 chromosomes are in two pairs like
44 (autosomes) + 2 (sex chromosomes).
In male, these are as (genotype): 44 + 2 (XY)
In female, these are as (genotype): 44 + 2 (XX)
Chromosomes in a female germ cell (egg) are as: 22 + X. It is always same
Chromosomes in a male germ cell (sperm) are as: 22 + X or 22 + Y

Fig: Sex determination in human beings

In female, both XX chromosomes are perfect pair of sex chromosomes. Means both are
same-sized chromosomes. While in male has mix-matched pair of sex chromosomes (XY).
Y is the a short-sized chromosome than X chromosome.

Sex determination in human beings:

The genes inherited from both parents. Half chromosomes are come from male and half
chromosomes come from female in the offspring. But the sex of the children determines
by the chromosomes of male. Because both chromosomes in female are same (XX) while
father has different chromosomes (XY).

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If a child who inherits an X chromosome from her father will be a girl. If one who inherits
a Y chromosome from him will be a boy.

(B). Environmental Sex determination:

Some organisms depend on the environment. Following some examples are not
genetically determined.
(i). In some reptiles, the temperature determines whether the fertilised eggs will make
male or female.
Ex. Some lizards, turtle, alligator etc.
If the fertilised eggs of red-eared slider turtle are incubated below 280 C, the eggs give rise
to male. If the fertilised eggs are incubated at 30 0 C or above, the eggs give rise to female.
(ii). Snail, individuals can change sex.
***

Chapter 09
Light- Reflection and Refraction
Light
Light is one type of energy which sensation of vision.
Light is necessary for vision. An object reflects light that falls on it, when we received it
by our eyes, enables us to see things.
Light travels in a straight line.
The visible light: The segment of the electromagnetic spectrum that human eye can
view, is called visible light.
The wavelength of visible light from 380 nm to 700 nm.

The speed of light in vacuum: 3 x 108 m/s

Optics: The branch of physics which deals with light and its phenomenon is known as
optics.

Reflection of Light:
The phenomenon of return back of the light from a surface is called reflection.

Law of Reflection of Light:

Each surface of smooth surface (or mirror) reflects most of the light falling on it. All types
of reflecting surfaces obey the law of reflection of light. These laws are as:
a). The angle of incident is equal to the angle of reflection.

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b). The incident ray, the normal to the mirror at the point of incident and the reflection
ray, all lie in the same plane

Types of Mirrors:
Plane mirror, spherical mirrors etc.

Plane Mirror:
Image formed by a plane mirror:
• Virtual and erect.
• The size of image is equal to the object.
• Image is as far behind the mirror as the equal to that of the object is in front of it.
• Image is laterally inversion.

Spherical Mirrors:
The mirrors whose reflecting surfaces are spherical, are called spherical mirrors.

These are curved mirrors.

Types of spherical mirrors:

Two types
a). Concave mirror b). Convex mirror

a). Concave Mirror:

The spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved inwards, is called concave mirror.
It is also known as converging mirror.

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 • When the concave mirror is placed very close to the object, a magnified and virtual
image is obtained.
• However, if we increase the distance between the object and the mirror then the
size of the image reduces and a real image is formed.
• Thus, the images formed by the concave mirror can be small or large or can be real
or virtual.

b). Convex mirror:

The spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved outwards, is called convex
mirror.
It is also known as diverging mirror.

Some important terms:

i). The Pole (P):
The centre of the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is a point called the pole.
It is represented by the letter P.
ii). The Centre of curvature (C):
The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror forms a part of a sphere. This sphere has a
centre, this point is called the centre of curvature of the spherical mirror.
It is represented by the letter C.
*But it is not a part of the mirror. It lies outside its reflecting surface.
In concave mirror: The centre of curvature lies in front of it.
In convex mirror: It lies behind of the convex mirror.
iii). The Radius of curvature (R):
The radius of the sphere of which the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror forms a part,
is called the radius of curvature of the mirror.
It is represented by the letter R.

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In the fig. PC is equal to the radius of curvature.
Fig: Concave mirror Fig: Convex mirror

iv). The Principal Axis:

A straight line passing through the pole and the centre of curvature of a spherical mirror,
is called the principal axis.
*The principal axis is normal to the mirror at its pole.
v). The Principal Focus of the mirror (F):
All the reflecting rays meeting at a point on the principal axis of the mirror, this point is
called the principal focus of the mirror.
It lies midway between the pole (P) and the centre of curvature (C).
It is represented by the letter F.
vi). The Focal length (f):
The distance between the pole (P) and the principal focus (F) of a spherical mirror is
called the focal length.
It is represented by the letter f.
vii). Aperture (MN):
The diameter of the reflecting surface of spherical mirror is called its aperture.
Distance MN represents the aperture.

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Relationship between Radius of curvature (R) and Focal length (f):
The radius of curvature (R) of a spherical mirror is found to be equal to twice the focal
length (f).
𝑹 = 𝟐𝒇
𝑹
𝒇=
𝟐
Representation of Images formed by Spherical Mirrors using Ray
Diagrams:
The intersection of at least reflected rays give the position of image of the point object.
All these images are followed the laws of reflection.
These ray diagrams are as follows:

i). A ray parallel to the principal axis:

In case of concave mirror: After reflection, the ray will pass through the principal focus
(F).
In case of convex mirror: After reflection, it will appear to diverge from the principal
focus.

Fig: A ray parallel to the principal axis will pass through principal focus

ii). A ray passing through the principal focus:

In both of mirrors, after reflection, the ray will emerge parallel to the principal axis.

Fig: A ray passing through principal axis

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iii). A ray passing through the centre of curvature:
In both mirrors. After reflection, the ray is reflected back along the same path.

Fig: A ray passing through the centre of curvature

Ex. The light rays come back along the same path because the incident rays fall on the
mirror along the normal to the reflecting surface.

iv). A ray incident obliquely to the principal axis, towards a point pole
(P):
In this case, the ray is reflected obliquely. The incident and reflected rays follow the laws
of reflection at the point of incidence (point P), making equal angles with the principal
axis.

Fig: A ray passing obliquely to the principal axis

Images formed by Concave Mirror:

Table: These image formation by a concave mirror for different positions of the object.

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a). At affinity:
Position of object: At infinity
Position of image: At F (principal focus)
Size of image: Highly diminished or point-sized
Nature of image: Real and Inverted

b). Object at beyond C:

Position of object: Beyond C
Position of image: Between F and C
Size of image: Diminished (smaller than object)
Nature of image: Real and Inverted

c). Object at C:
Position of object: At C
Position of image: At C
Size of image: Same size as object
Nature of image: Real and Inverted

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d). Object between C and F:
Position of object: Between C and F
Position of image: Beyond C
Size of image: Enlarged (Large than object)
Nature of image: Real and Inverted

e). Object at Principal Axis (F):

Position of object: At F (Principal Focus)
Position of image: At infinity
Size of image: Highly enlarged (Much larger)
Nature of image: Real and Inverted

f). Object between P and F:

Position of object: Between F and P
Position of image: Beyond the mirror
Size of image: Enlarged (large than object)
Nature of image: Virtual and erect

Uses of Concave Mirrors:

Concave mirror is also known as converging mirror. It is used in….
a). Torches. The reflecting surface of torches.
b). Search-lights.
c). Headlights of the vehicles.
d). Shaving mirror. To see the larger images of the face.
e). Dentists. Dentists use these mirrors to see large images of the teeth of patients.
f). Concentrate sunlight in Solar furnaces: Large concave mirrors are used to concentrate
sunlight to produce heat in solar furnaces.

Images formation by a Convex Mirror:

For this here only two positions of the object are studied.
• When the object at infinity.

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 • When the object between at infinity and the pole (P).

a). Object at infinity.

Position of object: At Infinity
Position of image: At F (behind the mirror)
Size of image: Diminished (smaller than object)
Nature of image: Virtual and erect

b). Object is between at infinity and pole (P).

Position of object: Between infinity and the pole (P).
Position of image: Between P and F (behind the mirror)
Size of image: Diminished
Nature of image: Virtual and erect

Uses of Convex Mirrors:

These are also known as diverging mirrors.
a). Convex mirrors are commonly used as rear-view (wings) mirrors in the vehicles.
These mirrors are fitted on the sides of the vehicles, because they always give an erect,
diminished image. So, the drivers enable to see large area of traffic behind them to
facilitate safe driving.
b). Convex mirrors are also good security device they provide the large portions of the
store while monitoring from a single location.
Ex. In ATM and as CCTV camera

Sign Convention for Reflection by spherical Mirrors:

This set of sign convention is known as New Cartesian Sign.
In this convention, the pole (P) of the mirror is taken as the origin.
The principal axis of the mirror is taken as the X-axis (X’X) of the coordinate system.

The conventions are as follows:

i). The object is always placed to the left of the mirror. In this side, the light from the object
falls on the mirror from the left-handed side.
ii). All distances parallel to the principal axis are measured from the pole of the mirror.
iii). All the distances measured to the right of the origin (along + x-axis) are taken as
positive (+) while those measured to the left of the origin (along – x-axis) are taken as
negative (-).

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iv). Distances measured perpendicular to and above the principal axis (along + y-axis) are
taken as positive (+).
v). Distances measured perpendicular to and below the principal axis (along -y-axis) are
taken as negative (-).

Fig: The New Cartesian Sign Convention for Spherical mirrors

So, using above rules, the values are taken as follows.

a). It may note that the height of the object is taken to be positive (+). It is above
the principal axis.
b). The height of the image should be taken as positive for virtual images.
c). The height of the image should be taken negative for real images.

Mirror Formula:
The relationship between the object distance (u), the image distance (ν) and the focal
length (f) is expressed as the mirror formula.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+𝒖=𝒇
𝝂

Where u is the distance of the object from its pole.

𝜈 is the distance of the image from its pole.

f is the focal length.
This formula is valid in all situation for all spherical mirrors for all positions of the object.

Magnification:
Magnification is expressed as the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the
object.
It is expresses by the letter m.
𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆
Magnification =
𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕

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 𝒉′
m= 𝒉

Magnification produced by a spherical mirror gives the relative extent which image of an
object is magnified with respect to the object size.
The magnification is also related to the object distance (u) and the image distance (ν). It
can be expressed as:
𝒉′ 𝝂
Magnification = =-𝒖
𝒉

The positive sign in the value of the magnification indicates that the image is virtual.
While the negative sign indicates that the image is real.

Refraction of Light
When the light passes obliquely one medium to another medium, the direction of
propagation of light in the second medium changes, the phenomena is known as
refraction of light.
OR
The phenomena of bending of light when it passes through one medium to another
medium, is known as refraction of light.
Ex.
• Twinkling of stars,
• The displacement of pencil partially immersed in water.
• The rising of coin keeping in the bottom of water-filled glass.
Refraction of light through a glass slab.
Refraction of light is one of the common natural phenomena. We can experience this
phenomenon through optical instruments such as magnifying glasses, lenses and prisms.
What happens during refraction of light through a glass slab?
a). When light travels from air into glass, the slows down and changes direction slightly.
b). When light travels from a less dense medium (like air known as rarer) to a denser
medium (glass), the refracted light bends towards the normal line.
c). When refracted light travels from a denser medium (glass) to less medium (air), bends
away from the normal line.
d). In the end, the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray.

Summary of Activity 10.1:

In the given figure, the light ray (EO) changes its direction at points O to O’. O is situated
in the air while O’ is situated in the glass. NN’ is normal line of air and glass media. MM’ is
normal line of glass and air.

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The glass slab ABCD, AB is the air-glass interface and CD is the glass-air interface.
Interface where two media meet to each other.

Fig: Refraction of light through a rectangular glass slab

The light ray enters at point O from a rarer medium to a denser medium (air to glass).
The light ray bends towards the normal. At O’, the light ray enters a denser to the rarer
medium (glass to air). The light here bends away from the normal line.
EO is obliquely incident on the surface AB called incident ray.
OO’ is the refracted ray.
O’H is the emergent ray.
The emergent ray is parallel to the direction of incident ray. The reason of this:
The extent of bending of the ray of light at the opposite parallel faces AB (air-glass
interface) and CD (glass-air interface) of the rectangular glass slab is equal and opposite.
This is why the ray emerges parallel to the incident ray.

Rules of refraction of light:

a). The incident ray, refracted ray, and the normal to the interface of two media at the
point of incident all lie on the same point.
b). The ratio of the sine of angle of incidence (sin i) to the sine of the angle refraction (sine
r) is a constant. This is also known as Snell’s law of refraction.
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊
= 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
This constant value is called the refractive index of the second medium with respect to
the first medium.

The Refractive Index:

Consider a ray of light travelling from medium 1 to medium 2. Let ν1 be the speed of light
in medium 1 and ν2 the speed of light in medium 2.

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 Fig: Medium 1 (rarer) and medium 2 (denser).

a). The refractive index n21

The refractive index of medium 2 with respect of medium 1 is given by the ratio of the
speed of light in medium 1 and the speed of light in medium 2. This is usually known as
n21.
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝟏 𝝂𝟏
n21 = =
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝟐 𝝂𝟐

b). The refractive index n12

This is the refractive index of medium 1 with respect of medium 2 is represented by n12.
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝟐 𝝂𝟐
n12 = =
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝟏 𝝂𝟏

*Absolute Refractive Index of the medium:

If medium 1 is vacuum or air, then the refractive index of medium 2 is considered
with respect to vacuum, this called absolute refractive index of the medium.
Absolute refractive index of a medium is simply called its refractive index.

It is expressed by n2.
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒄
n2= 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝟐 = 𝝂

Here, c is the speed of light in air.

ν is the speed of light in medium 2.

Table: Refractive index of some material media.

Refraction by Spherical Lenses:

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A transparent material bound by two surfaces, of which one or both surfaces are
spherical, forms a lens.
Spherical lenses are two types:
a). Convex lens b). Concave lens

a). Convex lens:

The lens which has two spherical surfaces, bulging outwards is called convex lens. It is
also called double convex lens.
It is thicker at the middle and thinner at the edges.
It is also known as magnifying lens or converging lens. It converges light rays.

b). Concave lens:

The lens which has two spherical surfaces, curved inwards, is called concave lens. It is
also called double concave lens.
It is thicker at the edges and thinner at the middle.
It is also called diverging lens because it diverges light rays.

Some Important terms of Spherical lenses:

i). The Optical Centre (O):
The central point of a lens is called optical centre.
It is represented by the letter O.
ii). The Centres of curvature (C):
Each spherical surface of a lens forms a part of a sphere.
These spheres have two centres, are called the centres of curvature of a lens.
It is represented by the letter C1 and C2.
Here in the present chapter, C1 is presented by 2F1. And C2 is presented by 2F2.
iii). The Principal Axis:
A straight line passing through the two centres of curvature of a lens, is called the
principal axis.

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iv). The Principal Focus of the lens (F):
The light rays after refraction from the lens, appearing to meet on the principal axis, this
point is called the principal focus.
A lens has two principal foci.
They are represented by the letter F1 and F2.
v). The Focal length (f):
The distance of the principal focus from the optical centre of a lens is called the focal
length.
It is represented by the letter f.
vi). Aperture (MN):
The effective diameter of the circular outline of a spherical lens is called its aperture. MN
represents the aperture.

Image Formation in Lenses using Ray Diagrams:

Three ray diagrams are there which formed by lenses. These diagrams help to study the
nature, position and relative size of the image formed by lenses. These are as follows:

a). If a ray of light passing parallel to the principal axis:

If a ray of light from the object passing parallel to the principal axis, after refraction from
a convex lens, passes through the principal focus on the other side of the lens.
In case of a concave lens, the ray appears to diverge from the principal focus located on
the same side of the lens.

b). If a ray of light passing through a principal focus:

If a ray of light passing through a principal focus, after refraction from a convex lens, will
emerge parallel to the principal axis.

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 In case of concave lens, the ray of light appearing to meet at the principal focus after
refraction. It emerges to parallel to the principal axis.

c). If a ray of light passing through the optical centre:

If a ray passing through the optical centre, the ray It will emerge without any deviation.

Image Formation by Convex Lens

The ray diagrams for the image formation in a convex lens for some positions are shown
in the table.
Table: Nature, position and relative size of the image formed by a convex lens for
various positions of an object:
S. Position of the Object Position of the Image Relative size of Nature of the
NO. the Image Image
1. At infinity At Focus F2 Highly Real and inverted
diminished
2. Beyond 2F1 Between F2 and 2F2 Diminished Real and inverted
3. At 2F1 At 2F2 Same size Real and inverted
4. Between F1 and 2F1 Beyond 2F2 Enlarged Real and inverted
5. At Focus F1 At infinity Highly Real and inverted
enlarged
6. Between F1 and O On the same side of Enlarged Virtual and erect
the lens as the object

a). At affinity:
Position of object: At infinity
Position of image: At F2
Size of image: Highly diminished or point-sized
Nature of image: Real and Inverted

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b). Object at beyond 2F1:
Position of object: Beyond 2F1
Position of image: Between F2 and 2F2
Size of image: Diminished (smaller than object)
Nature of image: Real and Inverted

c). Object at 2F1:

Position of object: At 2F1
Position of image: At 2F2
Size of image: Same size as object
Nature of image: Real and Inverted

d). Object between F1 and 2F1:

Position of object: Between F1 and 2F1
Position of image: Beyond 2F2
Size of image: Enlarged (Large than object)
Nature of image: Real and Inverted

e). Object at Focus F1:

Position of object: At Focus F1
Position of image: At infinity
Size of image: Highly enlarged (much larger)
Nature of image: Real and Inverted

f). Object between Focus F1 and

Optical centre O:
Position of object: Between F1 and O
Position of image: On the same side of the object
Size of image: Enlarged
Nature of image: Virtual and erect

Image Formation by Concave Lens:

Table: Nature, position and relative size of the image formed by a convex lens for
various positions of an object:

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S. No. Position of the object Position of the Relative size Nature of the Image
image of the image
1. At infinity At Focus F1 Highly Virtual and erect
diminished,
point-sized
2. Between infinity and Between focus F1 Diminished Virtual and erect
Optical centre and optical
centre O
a). Object at infinity:
Position of object: at infinity
Position of image: at Focus (F)
Size of image: Highly diminished, point-sized.
Nature of image: Virtual and erect

b). Object between Infinity and

Optical Centre:
Position of object: Between infinity and O
Position of image: Between F and O
Size of image: Diminished
Nature of image: Virtual and erect

Sign Convention for Spherical Lenses:

Sign convention for spherical lenses is same as spherical mirrors. Except the
measurement are taken from the optical centre (O).
Focal length (f) of the convex lens is positive.
Focal length (f) for the concave lens is negative.

Lens Formula:
This formula gives the relationship between object-distance (u), image-distance (ν) and
the focal length (f).
This lens formula is valid in all situations for any spherical lens.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
- =
𝝂 𝒖 𝒇

Magnification:
The magnification is also same as spherical mirrors.
It is the ratio of the height of the image (h’) and the height of the object (h).

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 𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒉′
Magnification = 𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 = 𝒉

Magnification is also related to the object-distance (u) and image-distance (ν).

𝒉′ 𝒗
Magnification (m) = =𝒖
𝒉

Power of Lens:
The degree of convergence and divergence of light rays achieved by a lens is expressed
in terms of its power.
The reciprocal of the focal length of a lens is known as power of lens.
It is expressed by the letter P.
𝟏
𝑷=
𝒇

The SI unit of power of a lens is ‘dioptre’.

Dioptre is denoted by the latter D.
If focal length (f) is expressed in metre, then the power of lens is expressed in dioptres.
I dioptre is the power of a lens whose focal length is 1 metre.
1D = 1 m-1
*The power of a convex lens is positive.
**The power of a concave lens is negative.

Uses of power of lens:

Eye specialists (Opticians) prescribe corrective lenses indicating their powers.
Ex.
a). The prescribed lens has power equal to +2.0. This means the lens prescribed is
convex.
1
The focal length of the lens (f) = 𝑃

𝟏
𝒇= = +𝟎. 𝟓𝒎
+𝟐. 𝟎
b). The prescribed lens has power equal to -2.5. This means the lens prescribed is
concave.
1
The focal length of the lens (f) = 𝑃

𝟏
𝒇= = −𝟎. 𝟒 𝒎
−𝟐. 𝟓
The Combination of lenses:

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The main purpose of the combination of the lenses is to increase the magnification and
sharpness of the image. So, that many optical instruments consist of a number of lenses.
Now the net power (P) of the total consisted lenses is:
𝑷 = 𝑷 𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 + 𝑷 𝟑 + ⋯
During eye-testing, the opticians are used this combination by putting several different
combinations of corrective lenses of known power in contact inside the testing
spectacles’ frame.
Ex. A combination of two lenses of power +2.0D and +0.25D is equivalent to a single lens
of power +2.25D.
Uses of the combination of lenses:
i). To design lens system to minimise certain defects in images produced by a single lens.
Ex. Camera, microscopes and telescopes.
Imp. Q: One-half of a convex lens is covered with a black paper. Will this lens
produce a complete image of the object?

Ans: Yes. It will form a complete image. If half of the convex lens is covered with a black
sheet of paper, the lens will produce a complete image. Because every part of a lens forms
an image. Only two light rays require to converge for formation of image. However, the
intensity of the image will be less and the image formed will be less bright as
compared to the one formed by a complete lens.
***

Chapter 10
The Human Eye and the Colourful World
HUMAN EYE:
The human eye is one of the most valuable and sensitive sense organs. It enables us to see
the wonderful things around us. The human eye is just a camera. The eyeball is
approximately spherical in shape with diameter of about 2.3 cm.

Internal Structure of the human eye:

The main parts of the human eye include:

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i). Cornea: Front curved section of the eye. It helps in refraction of light.
ii). Iris: It is an opaque diaphragm behind the cornea that controls the size of the pupil.
It is also colourful part of the eye providing the colour to the eye.

Fig: Internal structure of the human eye

iii). Pupil: An opening in the centre of iris that changes its size to control amount of
light entering the eye. In bright light, the iris contracts the pupil to allow light to enter
the eye. In dim light, the iris expands the pupil to allow light to enter the eye.
iv). Eye Lens: It is transparent, crystalline, biconvex structure, present behind the pupil.
It focuses light rays onto the retina. It is made of fibrous and jelly-like material. The eye
lens forms an inverted and real image of the object on the retina.
v). Ciliary Muscles: These help to modified the curvature of the lens to some extent.
vi). Retina: Retina is a delicate membrane having enormous number of light-sensitive
cells. The surface of retina consists light sensitive receptors known as ‘Rods’ and ‘Cones’.
Rods are responsible for vision at low light and Cones are responsible for vision at bright
or higher light.
vii). Yellow Spot (Fovea): In this point of retina, the highest sensitive cells are found.
viii). Blind Spot: In this region, no sensitive cells are found.
ix). Aqueous Humour: A water like fluid, fills the front of the eye between the lens. It
keeps proper eye pressure.
x). Vitreous Humour: The space between the lens and retina filled with the gel like
Vitreous humour. It provides nutrients to the eye and helps eye keeps its shape.
xi). Optic Nerve: A bundle of nerve fibres that carries messages from the eyes to the
brain. These nerves enter the eyeball at the blind spot.

WORKING OF HUMAN EYE:

The light-sensitive cells of retina get activated upon illumination and generate
electrical signals after entering the light in to eye through pupil and lens. These signals
are sent to the brain via the optic nerves. The brain interprets these signals, and
finally, processes the information so that we perceive objects
POWER OF ACCOMMODATION
The ability of the eye lens to adjust its focal length is called accommodation. The
power of accommodation for a person with normal eye sight is around 4 Dioptre

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 The process by which the ciliary muscles change the focal length of an eye lens, so that
the image of the distant object is clearly formed on the retina. Ciliary muscles help in
accommodation.

i). When Ciliary muscles are in relax:

When muscles are relaxed, the lens becomes thin. Thus, focal length increases. This
enables us to see distant objects clearly.
Far point of the eye:
The farthest distance, at which an object can be seen clearly by the eye is called the far
point of the eye. The far point of the eye is infinity.

ii). When Ciliary muscles are in contract:

When muscles are in contract, the focal length decreases. The lens then becomes
thicker. This enables us to see nearby objects clearly.
The focal length of the eye lens cannot be decreased below a certain limit.
Least distance of distinct vision:
The nearest distance, at which eye can see the objects clearly and distinctly without any
strain is called the least distance of distinct vision. It is also known as near point of the
eye.
The near point of the eye is 25 cm.

DEFECTS OF VISION
The defects of vision of eye may arise due to the gradually lose its power of
accommodation. Three defects of them are:
1. Myopia (near-sightedness)
2. Hypermetropia (far-sightedness)
3. Presbyopia
4. Cataract
Defect Definition and Symptoms Causes Correction
Myopia • Affected person can see -Excessive curvature Concave lens
nearby objects but cannot of cornea (Diverging lens) of
see distant objects suitable power
-Decrease in focal
distinctly.
length of lens
• Image is formed before
retina. -Elongation of eye
• Far point becomes less than ball
infinity.

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Hypermetropia • Affected person can see -Increase in focal Convex lens
distant objects clearly but length of lens (Converging lens)
cannot see nearby objects of suitable power
-Eye ball becomes
distinctly.
smaller
• Image is formed behind the
retina.
• Near point becomes more
than 25 cm
Presbyopia • In old age, affected person is -Gradual weakness of Bi-focal lens
difficult to see the nearby ciliary muscles. (Upper is concave
objects and distinct objects lens and lower is
-Decreasing the
comfortably. convex lens)
flexibility of eye lens
-Reducing ability of
lens to change the
curvature.

Cataract • At old age crystalline lens - It may cause partial Cataract surgery
becomes milky and cloudy or complete loss of
vision

REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH A PRISM

Prism is a transparent optical material, which refracts light and must have at least two faces
with an angle between them. A triangular glass prism has two triangular bases and three
rectangular lateral surfaces. These surfaces are inclined to each other.

125
When a ray of light enters the prism, it bends towards the normal, because light is
entering from a rarer medium to a denser medium. Similarly, when the light emerges
from the prism, it follows the laws of refraction of light.
The rectangular surfaces are known as refracting surfaces (ABC).
The line along which the refracting surfaces meet is called the refracting edge.
The angle between its two lateral faces is called the angle of the prism.
The angle between initial direction of incident ray and emergent ray is called angle
of deviation.

Fig: Refraction of light through a prism

DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT BY A PRISM

The phenomenon of splitting of white light into its constituent seven colours,
when passed through a prism is called dispersion of white light.

The sequence of these seven colours is VIBGYOR (Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow,
Orange, Red).
Red light (wavelength around 700 nm) deviates least.
Violet light (wavelength around 380 nm) deviates maximum.
Spectrum: The band of the coloured components of a white light beam is called its
spectrum.

RECOMBINATION OF THE SPECTRUM OF WHITE LIGHT

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Observation: Sir Isaac Newton was the first to use a glass prism to obtain the spectrum
of sunlight. This observation gave Newton the idea that Sunlight is made up of seven
colours.
He tried to split the colours of the spectrum of white light further by using another similar
prism but placed inverted position. This allowed all the colours of spectrum to pass
through the second prism. He found the white light emerging from the other side of the
second prism.
Reason: This is because the bending of light produced by the second prism is equal and
opposite to the refraction produced by the first prism.

Fig: Newton’s double prism experiment

RAINBOW FORMATION
A rainbow is a spectrum of Sunlight in nature appearing in the sky after a rain. A
rainbow is always formed in a direction opposite to that of the Sun.
In this process, the tiny water droplets act like prism. When the sunlight passed
through the water droplets, the sunlight is dispersed and convert into seven colours.

Fig: Formation of rainbow

Reasons of formation of rainbow:

(i). Refraction of light (two times)
(ii). Total Internal reflection
(iii). Dispersion of light (two times)
The sunlight refracts and disperse the sunlight, then reflect it internally and finally
refracted it again when it comes out of the raindrop.

127
ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION
Atmospheric refraction is the shift in apparent direction of a celestial object caused by
the refraction of light rays as they pass through Earth’s atmosphere.
Reason of atmospheric refraction: The physical conditions of the air are not
stationary. The hotter air is lighter air (less dense) than the cooler air (denser) above
it. The hotter air has a refractive index slightly less than the cooler air.
So apparent position of the object becomes fluctuates. The apparent position of the
object is just above the correct position of the object.
Some phenomenon of atmospheric refraction:
(i). Twinkling of stars
(ii). Advance sunrise and delayed sunset

(i). TWINKLING OF STARS:

Stars twinkle due to atmospheric refraction. Stars are very far away from the earth.
Hence, they are considered as point sources of light. When the light coming from
stars enters the earth’s atmosphere, it gets refracted at different levels because of the
variation in the air density at different levels of the atmosphere.

Fig: Twinkling of star

When the star light refracted by the atmosphere comes more towards us, it appears
brighter than when it comes less towards us. Therefore, it appears as if the stars are
twinkling at night.

Planets are not twinkle:

Reason: Because they are much closer to the earth and they are considered source
of a large-point sized. The total variation in the light coming on the earth becomes
average out to zero means nullifying the twinkling effect.

(ii). ADVANCE SUNRISE AND DELAYED SUNSET:

The Sun is visible to us about 2 minutes before the actual sunrise and about 2 minutes
after the actual sunset due to atmospheric refraction.

128
The bending of light passing through the horizon, the apparent position of the Sun
appears above the horizon.
The apparent flattening of the Sun’s disc at sunrise and sunset is also due to the same
phenomenon (atmospheric refraction).

Fig: Atmospheric refraction effects at sunrise and sunset

SCATTERING OF LIGHT
The phenomenon in which the path of a beam of light passing through a colloid,
it path becomes visible is called scattering of light.
Basically, it involves absorption of light by the molecules followed by re-radiation in
different directions.
The small particles (molecules, tiny water droplets and dust particles) scatter the blue
light, whose wavelength is shorter. While the larger size particles scatter the light of
longer wavelength (red light).
Therefore, in the scattered light, the short wavelengths predominate, the sky appears
blue.
Some phenomenon of scattering of light:
(I). Tyndall effect
(ii). Blue colour of sky

(i). TYNDALL EFFECT:

The phenomenon of scattering of light by the colloidal particles gives rise to
Tyndall effect.
The earth’s atmosphere is a heterogeneous mixture of minute particles. These
particles include smoke, tiny water droplets, suspended particles of dust and
molecules of air. When a beam of light strikes such fine particles, the path of the beam
becomes visible. The light reaches us, after being reflected diffusely by these particles.

(ii). BLUE COLOUR OF SKY:

The blue colour of the sky is due to scattering of Sunlight by the molecules of the
atmosphere. In this event, the size of molecules of air and other fine particles in the
atmosphere is smaller than the larger wavelength of visible light. So, these particles

129
are more effective in scattering light of shorter wavelengths at the blue end than
light of longer wavelengths at the red end. The red light has 1.8 times more
wavelength than blue light. So, blue light is scattered more predominantly by the fine
particles in air than red light. The scattered blue light enters our eyes.

If the earth had no atmosphere:

There would not have been any scattering. Then, the sky would have looked dark. The
sky appears dark to passengers flying at very high altitudes, as scattering is not
prominent at such heights.

130
***

131
 Chapter 11
Electricity
Electricity is one of the forms of energy which flows in the closed wire. Electricity has an
important place in modern society. It is controllable and convenient form of energy for
variety of uses in homes, schools, hospitals, industries and so on.

Charge:
The charge is an intrinsic property of matter by virtue of which it can exert
electromagnetic force.
Charges are two types- Positive charge and negative charge.
If a net charge Q, flows across any cross-section of a conductor in time t, then current I,
through the cross-section is ….
𝑸
𝑰 =
𝒕
SI Unit of electric charge- Coulomb (C).

It is equivalent to the charge contained in nearly 6 × 1018 electrons.

An electron possesses 1.6 × 10-19 C.

Electric Circuit:
A continuous and closed path of an electric current is called an electric circuit.

Fig: Electric circuit

Conductors:
The materials in which electrons can move freely are called conductors.
Ex. All metals are conductors.
Insulators:
The materials in which electrons cannot move freely are called insulators.
Insulators do not have any free electrons to move.
Ex. Wood, rubber, cardboard, clothespin, plastics, glass etc.

132
OR
Substances which offer comparatively less opposition to the flow of current is known as
conductors and substances which offer larger opposition are insulators.

Electric current:
A stream of electrons moving through a conductor constitutes (metallic wire) an
electric current.
It can also be expressed by…
“The amount of charge flowing through a particular area in unit time, is called
electric current.”
Conventionally, in an electric circuit the direction of current is taken opposite to the
direction of flow of electrons, which are negative charges.

Fig: The direction of electron and electric current.

Electric current is expressed by a unit is called Ampere (A). It named after Andre-
Marie Ampere in his honour.
One ampere is constituent by the flow of one coulomb of charge per second.
𝟏𝑪
𝟏𝑨 =
𝟏𝒔
Other small quantities of current are expressed in

1). Milliampere (1 mA = 10 10-3 A)

2). Micro milliampere (1 μA = 10-6 A)

Ammeter:
An instrument which is used in measurement of electric
current in a circuit is called ammeter.
It is always connected in series in a circuit.

Fig: Ammeter

133
Symbols of some commonly used components in circuit diagrams:

Electric Potential and Potential Difference

Electric potential:
The amount of work needed in bringing a unit positive charge from reference point
to a specific point is called electric potential.
The movement of charges is done against the electric field.
Potential difference:
The difference of electric pressure in the metallic wire, is called potential
difference.
The electrons move in the metallic wire only if there is a difference of electric pressure.
It may be produced by a battery.
The electric potential difference between two points in an electric circuit carrying some
current as the work done to move a unit charge from one point to the other.
𝑾
𝑽 =
𝑸
V= Potential difference
W= Work done
Q= Charge
The SI unit of electric potential difference is volt (V). It named after Alessandro Volta in
his honour.

134
One volt is the potential difference between two points in a current carrying conductor
when 1 joule of work is done a charge of 1 coulomb from one point to the other.
𝟏 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆
𝟏 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕 =
𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃
OR
𝟏𝑱
𝟏 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕 =
𝟏𝑪
1 V= 1 J C-1
Measurement of potential difference:
– The potential difference measured by an instrument called voltmeter.
– It is always connected in parallel across the points between which the potential
difference is to be measured.

Fig: Voltmeter and its parallel arrangement in a circuit

Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law talks about the relationship between potential difference (V) across a
conductor and the current (I) through it.
The statement of this law is:
The potential difference (V) across the ends of a given metallic wire in an electric
circuit is directly proportional to the current flowing through it, provided its
temperature remains the same.
𝑉 ∝ 𝐼
OR
𝑉
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐼

OR
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
R= It is a constant for the given metallic wire at a given temperature and is called
resistance.

135
 – It is a property of a conductor to resist the flow of charges through it.
– The SI unit of resistance (R) is Ohm.
– It represents by Ω.
Graphical Expression of Ohm’s law:
According ohm’s law I= V/R
According this law the, Electric potential difference (V) is
directly proportional to current (I). In the given graph,
current (I) and the potential difference (V) is a straight line
that follows ohm’s law. When current is increased through
a wire, the potential difference across the wire increases
linearly.
Fig: Graphical expression of Ohm’s law

According Ohm’s law

If the potential difference across the two ends of a conductor is 1 V and the current
through it is 1 A, then the resistance R, of the conductor is 1 Ω.
𝑽
𝑹 =
𝑰
𝟏 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕
𝟏 𝑶𝒉𝒎 =
𝟏 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆
𝑽
𝑰 =
𝑹
The current (I) through a resister is inversely proportional to its resistance (R)
𝟏
𝑰 ∝
𝑹
If the resistance is doubled the current gets halved (half).
If the resistance is half the current gets doubled.
In many practical cases it is necessary to increase or decrease the current in an electric
circuit.
A component used to regulate current without changing the voltage source is called
variable resistance.

Rheostat:
This device which is used to change the resistance in the circuit, is called Rheostat.
The flow of current is different for different components.
It is due to that certain component offer an easy path for the flow of electric current
while the others resist the flow.

136
In the electric current, the electrons are not completely free to move within conductors.
They are restrained by the attraction of the atoms among which they move.
– Thus. motion of electrons through a conductor is retarded by its resistance.
Conductors:
A substance that offers a low resistance is called conductors.
Insulators:
A substance which offers a higher resistance is called insulators.
An insulator of the same size offers even higher resistance.
Wood, rubber and plastic are insulator. Rubber is used to make handles of electric
components like tester. Electricians also wear rubber hand gloves while working with
electricity to protect them from electric shocks.

Resistor:
Those substances which have comparatively high resistance, are called resistors.
Ex. Resistors are mainly made of alloys like nichrome, manganin and constantan.
These resisters reduce the current in the circuit.
The reading of ammeter depends on the wire, its length, thickness, cross-section,
types of material of conductors and temperature.
– When the length of the wire is doubled, the reading of ammeter will be decreased
one-half.
– The ammeter reading is increased when a thicker wire of the same material and
the same length is used in the circuit.
– A change in ammeter reading is observed when a wire of different material of the
same length and the same area of cross-section is used.
– 𝑹 ∝ Ɩ
OR
𝟏
– 𝑹 ∝𝑨

– By combination of both equation

Ɩ
– 𝑹 ∝𝑨

OR
Ɩ
𝑹 = ῥ
𝑨

137
Resistivity:
ῥ (rho) is a constant of proportionality and it is called the electrical resistivity of
the material of the conductor.
– The SI unit of resistivity is ohm metre.
– It is denoted by Ω m.
– Resistivity is a characteristic property of the material.
– The metals and alloys have very low resistivity in the range of 10-8 Ω m to 10-6 Ω
m.
– They are good conductors of electricity.
– Insulator like rubber and glass have resistivity of the order of 1012 Ω m to 1017
Ω m.
– Both the resistance and resistivity of a material vary with temperature.
– The resistivity of an alloy is generally higher than of its constituent metals.
Alloy do not oxidise/burn readily at high temperature. So, these alloys are
commonly used in electric heating devices like electric iron, toasters,
Electric rod, electric heater, Geysers, etc.
– Tungsten (W) is used almost exclusively for filaments of electric bulbs because
tungsten has high melting point.
– Copper (Cu) and aluminium (Al) are generally used for electric transmission
lines because they have low resistivity.
Difference between Resistance & Resistivity:
S. No. Resistance Resistivity
1. Resistance is the physical property of Resistivity is the physical property
a substance because of which it of a particular substance which is
opposes the flow of current. having particular dimensions.

2. Resistance is directly proportional to Resistivity is only proportional to

the length and temperature while it is the nature and temperature of the
inversely proportional to the across- particular material.
sectional area of the material.
3. It is presented by R. It is presented by ῥ

4. Formula of Resistance 𝑅 =
𝑉
Formula of resistivity ῥ = 𝑅
𝐴
𝐼 Ɩ
Ɩ
OR 𝑅 = ῥ 𝐴
5. The SI unit of resistance is Ohm (Ω) The SI unit of Resistivity is Ohm
meter (Ω m)

6. It is used in sensors, fuses, heaters, It is used in quality control test.

electric iron etc.

138
Arrangement of resistors in a circuit
There are two methods of joining of resistors together.
– i). In Series
– Ii). In Parallel

Series arrangement:
When several resistors are joined in series, the resistance of the combination (Rs) equal
the sum of their individual resistance R 1, R2, R3, and is thus greater than any individual
resistance.
The value of the current in the ammeter is the same, independence of its position in the
electric circuit. It means that in a series combination of resistors the current is the same
in every part of the circuit of the same current through each resister.

Fig: Resisters in series

The total potential difference across a combination of resistors in series is equal to the
sum of potential difference across the individual resistors. That is
V = V1 + V2 + V3
Applying the Ohm’s law to the entire circuit, we have
– 𝑽= 𝑰𝑹
Then applying Ohm’s law to the three resistors separately…
– V1 = I R1
– V2 = I R2
– V3 = I R3
– From equation V = V1 + V2 + V3
– I R = I R 1 + I R2 + I R 3
OR
𝑹𝒔 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑
When several resistors are joined in series, the resistance of the combination (Rs)
equal the sum of their individual resistance R 1, R2, R3.

Parallel arrangement:

139
When a group of resistance joined in parallel (Rp) is equal to the sum of the reciprocals
of the individual resistances.

Fig: Resisters in parallel

The total current I, is equal to the sum of the separate currents through each branch of
the combination of parallel combination.
I = I1 + I2 + I3
By applying Ohm’s law to the parallel combination of resistors, we have
𝑽
– 𝑰 = 𝑹𝒑

On applying Ohm’s law to each resistor, we have

– I1 = V/R1
– I2 = V/R2
– I3 = V/R3
Now by the help of all above equations
V/Rp = V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3
OR
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝑹𝒑 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑

Thus, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a group of resistance joined in

parallel (Rp) is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.
Difference between Series & Parallel arrangement of resistances in circuits
S. No. Series Arrangement Parallel Arrangement
1. In an electrical circuit, components In an electrical circuit, components
are arranged in a line. are arranged parallel to each other.

2. The same of current flows through all The current flowing through each
the components. component combines to from the
current flow through the source.

140
 3. The voltage across each resistor is The voltage across each of the
different even through the current resistors is the same even the
flow is the same through of them. polarities are the same.

4. If one component breaks down, the One other component will function
whole circuit will burn out or effect. even if one component breaks
down. Each has its own
independent circuit.
5. If V1 is the total voltage then it is If Vt is the total voltage, then it is
equal to V1 + V2 + V3 equal to V1 = V2 = V3
6. It is used in automatic house-heating It is used in our homes parallel
equipment like water heaters, well circuit is used.
water pump, lamps, freezers,
refrigerators etc.

Heating Effect of Electric Current

A configuration of resistors only connected to a battery, the source energy continually
gets dissipated entirely in the form of heat, this is known as the heating effect of
electricity current.
OR
Due to the resisting nature of the conductor results in the rise in heat level of conductor
with time, this phenomenon is the heating effect of the electric current.
Consider a current I flowing through a resistor of resistance R. The potential difference
across it be V. The flow of charge Q flows across in time t.
– The work done in moving the charge Q through a potential difference V is VQ.
– Therefore, the source must supply energy equal to VQ in time t.
– Hence the power input to the circuit by the source is
𝑄
𝑃=𝑉
𝑡
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
𝑄
we know that ( = 𝐼)
𝑡

The energy supplied to the circuit by the source in time t, then P

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡
The energy gets dissipated in resistor as heat produced in time t is
𝐻 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡
Applying Ohm’s law (V=IR)

𝑯 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝒕

141
This is known as Joule’s law of heating.
According this law, the heat depends on:
(i). Directly proportional to the square of current for a given resistance.
(ii). Directly proportional to the resistance for a given current
(iii). Directly proportional to the time for which the current flows through the resistor.

Practical applications of Heating Effect:

Some following electric devices are worked on the principle of heating effect.
1). The electric laundry iron, electric toaster, electric iron, electric kettle, electric
heaters etc.
2). The electric bulb:
Physical properties of filament & bulb:
(i). The filament of bulb is made by a strong metal with high melting point. Ex. Tungsten.
(ii). The melting point of tungsten is high (3380 0C).
(ii). The electric bulb should be thermally isolated.
(iii). For insulating support, the electric bulb is usually filled chemically inactive
nitrogen and argon gases to prolong the life of filament.
3). The electric fuse:
Heating effect of electric circuit is also used in the electric fuses of electric circuits. It is
placed in series with the flow devices.

Properties of electric fuse:

(i). It is made of a metal or an alloy of appropriate melting point. Ex. Aluminium, copper,
iron, lead etc.
(ii). It melts and breaks the circuit if a current larger than a specified value flows
through the circuit, the temperature of the fuse wire increases.
(iii). The fuse wire is usually encased in a cartridge of porcelain or similar material with
metal ends.
(iv). The fuses used for domestic purposes are rated as 1 A, 2 A, 3 A, 5 A, 10 A etc.
Q. How do decide the rate of fuse wire?
A. Fuse wire can be decided by calculate the current value by the formula of P=VI
If an electric device consumes 1 kw per hour (1000 watt) and operated at 220 V then
current (I).
𝑃
𝐼=
𝑉

142
 1000
𝐼=
220
= 4.54 𝐴
It is nearby 5. So, the rate of fuse wire will use 5 A.

Electric Power (P):

Power is the rate of doing work. It is the rate of consumption of energy.
𝒘
𝑷=
𝒕
The rate at which electric energy is dissipated or consumed in an electric circuit,
this is also termed as electric power.
This formula is used to calculate the mechanical power.
𝑬
𝑷=
𝒕
Here Energy in joule and time in second.
Power can be calculated as:
𝑉
𝑃= 𝑡
𝑉×𝐼×𝑡
𝑃= (we know that 𝑤 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 × 𝑡)
𝑡

𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰
OR
𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 (we know that V=IR)
OR
𝑽𝟐
𝑷= (we know that I=V/R)
𝑹

SI Unit of Power:
The SI unit of electric power is watt (W). It is the small unit of power. The larger
unit of it is kilowatt.
With time, the unit of electric energy is watt hour (W h) or kilowatt (kWh).
It is the power consumed by a device that carries 1 A of current when operated at
a potential difference of 1 V. thus
1 W = 1 volt x 1 ampere
1W=1VA
One-watt hour is the energy consumed when 1 watt of power is used for 1 hour.

143
The commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt hour (kW h). It is commonly known
as UNIT.
1 kilowatt = 1000 watt
1 kW h = 1000-watt x 3600 second
= 3.6 x 10 6 watt second
= 3.6 x 10 6 joule
Horse power: Power is also expressed in horse power (hp).
1 horse power = 746 watt
***

Chapter 12
Magnetic Effects of Electric Current
When we keep a compass near a current carrying conductor, compass needle deflects. It
means that the electric current through the copper wire has produced a magnetic effect.
Thus, we can say that electricity and magnetism are linked to each other.

𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 → 𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒔𝒎

𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 − 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

Hans Christian Oersted:

He played a crucial role in understanding electromagnetism. In 1820 he accidentally

discovered that a compass needle got deflected when an electric current passed through
a metallic wire placed nearby. Through this observation Oersted showed that electricity
and magnetism were related phenomena. The unit of magnetic field strength is named
the Oersted in his honor.

His research later created technologies such as the radio, television and fiber optics.

Magnet and its properties:

• Any substance that attracts iron and iron like objects is defined as magnet. When
a wire carries an electric current, it behaves as a magnet.
• A free suspended magnet always points towards the north and south direction.
• The pole of a magnet which points toward north direction is called north pole or
north-seeking.
• The pole of a magnet which points toward south direction is called south pole or
south seeking.
• Like poles of magnets repel each other while unlike poles of magnets attract each
other.

144
Magnetic Field and Field Lines:

• The region surrounding a magnet, in which the force of the magnet can be
detected, is said to have a magnetic field.
• Magnetic field is a vector quantity that has both direction and magnitude.

Characteristics of field lines:

• Field lines are closed curves.

• The direction of the magnetic field is taken to be the direction in which a north
pole of the compass needle moves inside it.
• The field lines emerge from north pole and merge at the south pole.
• Inside the magnet, the direction of field lines is from its south pole to its north
poles. Thus, the magnetic field lines are closed curves.
• The relative strength of the magnetic field lies in the field lines. There is now any
filed line is found to cross each other. If they do cross to each other, then the
compass needle point towards north and south direction will not possible.

Fig: Field lines around a bar magnet. See the direction of the field lines (it is north to
south) and south to north (inside)

Magnetic Field due to a Current-Carrying Conductor:

If the current flows from north to south, the north pole of the compass needle would
move towards the east (fig a).

If change of the direction of the current from south to north, the compass needle moves
in opposite direction (towards west) (fig b). It means that the direction of magnetic field
produced by the current is also reversed.

Magnetic Field due to a Current through a Straight Conductor:

145
When current is passed through a straight current-carrying conductor, a magnetic field
is produced around it. Using the iron filings, we can observe that they align themselves in
concentric circles around the conductor.

If the current is increased, the deflection in the needle also increases. It means the
magnetic field increases as the current through the wire increases.

If the compass is moved from the the copper wire (current remains the same), the
deflection in the needle decreases. It means the magnetic field decreases as the distance
from it increases.

The magnetic field as concentric circle around a current-carrying straight wire become
larger and larger as the compass move away from it.

Fig: The magnetic field (as concentric circles) around a straight conducting wire

Fig (a): The direction of magnetic field lines is anticlockwise if the current passes upward.
Fig (b): The direction of magnetic field lines is clockwise if the current passes downward.

Right-Hand Thumb Rule:

146
If a current carrying conductor is held by right hand, keeping the thumb straight and if
the direction of electric current is in the direction of thumb, then the direction of
wrapping of other fingers will show the direction of the field lines of the magnetic field.

Fig: Right-hand thumb rule

This rule is also called Maxwell’s corkscrew rule.

If we consider ourselves driving a corkscrew in the direction of the current, then the
direction of the corkscrew is the direction of the field lines of the magnetic field.

Magnetic Field due to a current through a Circular Loop:

If the circular coil has n turns, the magnetic field produces n times as large as that
produced by a single turn. This is because the current in each circular turns the same
direction, and the field due to each turn then just adds up. (it means magnetic field also
increases, with increased more n turns on coil)

Fig: Magnetic field produced by a

Fig: Magnetic field lines due to current current-carrying circular coil
through a circular loop

The field lines of the magnetic field in the form of concentric circles become larger and
larger as the current move away from the wire.

147
if there is a circular coil having n turns, the field produced is n times as large as that produced
by a single turn. This is because the current in each circular turn has the same direction, and
the field due to each turn then just adds up.

In the middle of the circular loop, the arc of these big circles would appear as straight
lines.

By applying the right-hand rule, it is easy to check that every section of the wire
contributes to the magnetic field lines in the same direction within the loop.

Magnetic Field due to a Current in a Solenoid:

A coil of many circular turns of insulated copper wire wrapped closely in the shape
of a cylinder is called a solenoid.

Fig: Field lines of the magnetic field through and around a current carrying solenoid. A
current-carrying solenoid coil is used to magnetise steel or soft iron inside it as
electromagnet.

The pattern of the magnetic field lines around a current-conductor is similar to a bar
magnet. One end of the solenoid behaves as a magnetic north pole, while the other
behaves as the south pole.

The field lines inside the solenoid are in the form of parallel straight lines. This indicates
that the magnetic field is the same at all points inside the solenoid. That is, the field is
uniform inside the solenoid.

A strong magnetic field produced inside a solenoid can be used to magnetize a piece
of magnetic material, like soft iron, when placed inside the coil. The magnet so
formed is called an electromagnet.

The strength of the magnetic field in the solenoid depends upon:

i). The number of turns in the solenoid.

ii). Strength of the current.

iii). Nature of the material kept inside it.

148
Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field:

Andre Marie Ampere (a French scientist) suggested that the magnet must also exert an
equal and opposite force on the current-carrying conductor.

The direction of the force on the conductor depends upon the direction of current and the
direction of the magnetic field. The displacement of the rod is largest when the direction
of current is at right angles to the direction of the magnetic field.

Activity:

1). Take a small aluminium rod AB (of about 5 cm). Using two connecting wires suspend
it horizontally from a stand, as shown in Fig.).

2). Place a strong horse-shoe magnet in such a way that the rod lies between the two poles
with the magnetic field directed upwards. For this put the north pole of the magnet
vertically below and south pole vertically above the aluminium rod (Fig.).

3). Connect the aluminium rod in series with a battery, a key and a rheostat.

4). Now pass a current through the aluminium rod from end B to end A.

5). It is observed that the rod is displaced towards the left. It also notices that the rod gets
displaced.

6). Reverse the direction of current flowing through the rod and observe the direction of
its displacement. It is now towards the right.

Fig: A current-carrying rod, AB, experiences a force perpendicular to its length and the
magnetic field

A force is exerted on the current-carrying aluminium rod when it is placed in a magnetic

field. So, the rod is displaced. The direction of force is also reversed when the direction
of current through the conductor is reversed.

Now change the direction of field to vertically downwards by interchanging the two poles
of the magnet. It is once again observed that the direction of force acting on the current-
carrying rod gets reversed. It shows that the direction of the force on the conductor
depends upon the direction of current and the direction of the magnetic field.

149
Experiments have shown that the displacement of the rod is largest (or the magnitude of
the force is the highest) when the direction of current is at right angles to the direction of
the magnetic field. In such a condition we can use a simple rule to find the direction of the
force on the conductor that is Fleming’s left-hand rule.

Example of devices that use current-carrying conductors and magnetic fields-

Electric motor, electric generators, loudspeakers, microscopes and measuring

instruments.

Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule:

According this rule, stretch the thumb, forefinger and middle finger of the left-hand such
as they are mutually perpendicular. If the first finger points in the direction of magnetic
field and second finger in the direction of current, then the thumb will point in the
direction of motion or the force acting on the conductor.

Fig: Fleming’s Left-hand rule

Alternating Current: A current, which changes direction after equal interval of time, is
called alternating current (AC). This device called AC generator.

Direct Current: The current which does not change in the direction with the time, is
called direct current.

To get a direct current, a split-ring type commutator must be used. With this
arrangement, one brush is at all times in contact with the arm moving up in the magnetic
field, while the other in the contact with are moving down. In this process a unidirectional
current is produced. The generator is thus called a DC generator.

Differences between AC and DC:

The direct-current always flows in the one direction whereas the alternating current
reverses its direction periodically.

Most power stations constructed these days produce AC. In India, the AC changes
direction after 1/100 second, that is frequency of AC is 50 Hz. An important advantage of
AC over DC is that electric power can be transmitted over long distance without much
loss of energy.

Differences between AC and DC:

150
 S. Alternative Current (AC) Direct Current (DC)
No.
1. In AC the flow of current changes its It flows in a single direction steadily.
direction backwards periodically.

2. Electrons in AC keep changing its Electrons only move in one direction,

directions backward and forward. that is forward.
3. AC is safe to transfer longer distance DC cannot travel for a very long
even between two cities, and maintain distance. It loses electric power.
the electric power.
4. The frequency of AC is dependent upon DC has no frequency of zero frequency.
the country. But generally, the
frequency is 50 Hz or 60 Hz.
5. The source of availability for AC current The source of availability for DC
is AC generator. current is either battery,
electrochemical cell or photovoltaic
cell.
6. The loss of energy during the The loss of energy is high. But it is not
transmission in AC voltage is low. preferred for a distance.

Domestic Electric Circuits:

In our homes we receive supply of electric power through a main supply (also called
main) either supported through overhead electric poles or by underground cables. In our
country, the potential difference is 220 V. In houses, each appliance is connected to
separate switch. They are arranged parallel to each other.

There are three types of wire.

i). Red insulated wire: It is called live or positive wire.

ii). Black insulated wire: It is called neutral or negative wire.

Both these wires pass into an electricity meter through a main fuse. Through the main
switch they are connected to the line wires in the house.

These wires supply electricity to two separate circuits within the house.

Two separate circuits are used…

First is 15 A current rating circuit for applications with high power rating such as Geysers,
air coolers etc.

The second is 5 A current rating circuit for bulbs, fans etc.

iii). Green insulated wire: It is called earth wire. It is usually connected to a metal
plate deep in the earth near the house. This is used for safety measure for appliances that
have metallic body ex. Electric press, toaster, table fan, refrigerator etc.

151
Importance of Earth wire:

The metallic body of appliances is connected to the earth wire, which provided a low-
resistance conducting path for the current. It is transferred any leakage of current to the
metallic body of the appliance to the ground. By this process, we users get protection from
the electric shock.

Fig: A schematic diagram of one of the common domestic circuits

Importance of Electric Fuse:

Electric fuse is an important component of all domestic circuits. Fuse prevents the
damage to the appliances and the circuit due to overloading. In this condition, the fuse
melts and breaks the electric circuit.

Short-circuiting: It can occur when live wires and neutral wires comes into direct
contact. In such situations the current in the circuit abruptly increases, this is called
short-circuiting.

Over-loading: Over-loading is caused by connecting too many appliances to a single

socket.

***

Chapter 13
Our Environment
Environment:
All the physical surroundings on the earth are called environment.
It includes everything living and non-living things. It covers every part of the earth like
atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere etc.

Ecosystem:

152
The interaction of all the living organisms and non-living constituents in a
particular place is called ecosystem.
Types of ecosystems:
Two types-
1). Natural Ecosystem:
Natural ecosystem is also two types.
a). Terrestrial ecosystem: Mountain, grassland, desert, coastal and forest ecosystem.
b). Aquatic ecosystem: Oceans, ponds, lakes, marshy, rivers etc.
2). Artificial ecosystems or Man-made ecosystems:
These are made by man for his benefits or his recreational.
Ex. Gardens, crop fields, aquarium etc.

Components of an Ecosystem:
An ecosystem consists of biotic components and abiotic components.
Biotic components:
The living things of an ecosystem is called biotic ecosystem.
Ex. Plants, animals and micro-organisms.
Abiotic components:
The non-living things are called abiotic components.
Abiotic components consist physical factors.
Ex. Temperature, rainfall, wind, soil, minerals etc.

Food Chain:
A series of organisms feeding on one another at various biotic levels is known as
food chain.
OR
Food chain is the simpler and linear relationship between the producer and the
consumers of different trophic levels.
Sun is the source of energy in the ecosystem.
A generalised food chain:
𝑺𝒖𝒏 → 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒔 → 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒓 𝟏 → 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒓 𝟐 → 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒓 𝟑
Ex.
𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒔𝒔 → 𝑹𝒂𝒃𝒃𝒊𝒕 → 𝑯𝒂𝒘𝒌

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 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 → 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 → 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒈 → 𝑺𝒏𝒂𝒌𝒆 → 𝑯𝒂𝒘𝒌
𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔/𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 → 𝑫𝒆𝒆𝒓 → 𝑳𝒊𝒐𝒏
Examples of some Aquatic food chains:
𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒕𝒐𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒌𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒔 → 𝒁𝒐𝒐𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒌𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒔 → 𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒇𝒊𝒔𝒉 → 𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒔𝒉 → 𝑺𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒌
𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒕𝒐𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒌𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒔 → 𝒁𝒐𝒐𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒌𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒔 → 𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒇𝒊𝒔𝒉 → 𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒔𝒉

Fig: Some examples of terrestrial food chains

Food Web:
A food web is a network of food chains which establish a network of relationships
between various species.
OR

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The network of several interlinked food chains is known as food web.

Fig: Food web, containing of many food chains

A food web consists more than two food chains. A healthy food web lies in the length and
complexity of food chains. Each organism is generally eaten by two or more other kinds
of organisms which in turn are eaten by several other organisms.

Difference between food chain and food web:

S. No. Food chain Food web
1. Food chain is a series of organisms Food web consists of a number of
feeding on one another. interlinked food chain.
2. The members of higher trophic Members of higher trophic level have
level have only single organism for more options of organism for feeding.
feeding.
3. Food chain do not have any cross Food web has many cross linkages.
linkage.
4. The entire food chain gets affected There is no effect on other organisms in
if any organism dies in it. the food web if any organism dies in it.
5. It has maximum of 5-6 populations It has many populations of different
of different species. species.

All the biotic components can be categorised as follows:

a). Producers:
The living organisms which produce their own food are called producers. These are also
known as autotrophs.
Ex. All green plants and Blue-green algae etc.

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Producers produce their own food by photosynthesis process. These absorbs the water
and minerals from the soil while takes carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere. All the
consumers are depended on producers directly or indirectly.
b). Consumers:
Those organisms which depend directly or indirectly on producers for their food are
called consumers.

Types of consumers:
As per their feeding habits these are four types-Herbivores, Carnivores, Omnivores,
parasites etc.
But as per the level in food chain, they are three categories- Primary consumers,
secondary consumers, tertiary consumers.
Primary consumers (herbivores): Those organisms which eat plants are called
herbivores. These are first organisms which eat the plants, so these are also known as
primary consumers.
Ex. Goat, sheep, horse, cow, elephant, deer, grasshopper, seed eating birds (dove, pigeon,
parrot), butterfly, rabbit, giraffe etc.
Secondary consumers (Primary carnivores): Those organisms which eat the
herbivorous are called secondary consumers.
Ex. Lion, tiger, crocodile, peacock, eagle etc.
Tertiary consumers (Secondary carnivores): Those organisms which eat other
carnivores are called tertiary consumers.
Ex. Snake, big fish, eagle, peacock etc.
Small carnivores: The small animals which eat herbivores are called small carnivores.
Ex. Lizards, frog etc.
Big or top carnivores: These eat the small carnivores. These are also called tertiary
consumers.
Omnivores: Those organisms which can eat the plants or plant products and herbivores
are called omnivores.
Ex. Cat, dogs, bear, human etc.
Parasites: Those organisms which live on the body of host and take food from it are
called parasites.
These are two types-External parasites or internal parasites.
Ex. Lice, cuscuta (amar-bel), virus, bacteria etc.
Decomposers: Those organisms which convert the dead remains of the plants and
animals into simpler substances are called decomposers.

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Ex. Bacteria, fungi, earthworms etc.
Decomposers break down the complex organic substances into simple inorganic
substances that go into the soil and are used up once more by the plants. These help in
the replenishment of natural reservoirs and for cleaning environment. They also increase
the fertility through this process.
Q. What will happen if decomposers are not there?
A. Decomposers play a very important role in the ecosystem. They help to clean the
environment. The also helps to replenishment of the nutrients in the ecosystem. They
break down the complex organic substances (organic wastes) into simpler inorganic
substances (compost). By this way they help to increase the soil fertility.
Trophic level: Each step or level of the food chain is known as trophic level.
Trophic level 1: Producers (green plants and blue-green algae) are come the first trophic
level.
Trophic level 2: Herbivores come in the second trophic level.
Trophic level 3: Small carnivores that eat the herbivores are come in the third trophic
level.
Trophic level 4: Big carnivores that eat other carnivores are come in the fourth trophic
level.

Energy Flow in the ecosystem and food chain:

10% law of energy:
According this law, only 10% of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level
from one trophic level.
Rest of energy is either utilized for its own metabolic activities or is lost in the
environment as heat.

Some important points:

Sun is the ultimate source of energy on the earth. Green plants capture about 1% of the
energy of sunlight and convert it into food energy through photosynthesis.
When green plants are eaten by primary consumers, they get only 10% of the energy of
green plants. Other 90% of the energy is lost as heat to the environment. Some amount
of energy goes into digestion and in doing work, growth and reproduction.
An average of 10% of the food eaten is turned into its own body and made available for
the next level of consumers.
The highest energy is got by herbivores because they feed upon the green plants. The loss
of energy in each step is so great that very little usable energy remains after four trophic
level or to the higher-level consumers. That’s why a food chain is found only till fourth
trophic level.

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The flow of energy in the ecosystem:
• The transfer of energy is unidirectional.
• The energy that captured by the green plants (autotrophs) does not revert back to
the sun.
• The energy which passes to the consumers does not come back to the back to the
plants.

Fig: The flow of energy in an ecosystem Fig: An example of 10% transfer of

energy in a food chain

Fig:10% transfer of energy in a food chain

Bio-Magnification (Biological Magnification):

The process of accumulation of chemicals in the individuals of higher trophic level is
called bio-magnification.
Human is situated on the top of food chain. So, he receives higher concentration of these
harmful chemicals. The result of this, human affects by various health problems.
Ex. The using of pesticides, insecticides and other chemicals to protect the crops from
diseases and pests. These are harmful to other organisms and affects through ground
water, plant produces like fruits, vegetables. These transfer one organism to other
through food chain. Because these are non-biodegradable and these get accumulated
progressively at each trophic level.

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We affect to our Environment:
We affect to our environment through our activities. These activities change the
environment around us.
Two environmental problems which are affected by our activities.
A). Ozone depletion
B). Waste disposal

(A). The depletion of ozone layer:

Ozone (O3) is a gas which found in the stratosphere of atmosphere. Mainly it occurs height
between 15 to 37 km. Its high concentration is found between 25 to 37 km above the
earth. This layer is also known as ozone layer.
It is known as earth’s protective umbrella. It supports the life on the earth.

Nature of Ozone gas:

Ozone gas is a deadly poison. But it is not found in the earth’s surface.

Fig: Ozone layer

Formation of Ozone gas:

It is formed by three atoms of oxygen. The formation of ozone gas by two stages.
a). UV radiation reacts on oxygen (O2) and breaks it into free oxygen (O).
𝑼𝑽
𝑶𝟐 → 𝑶 + 𝑶
b). These free oxygens then combine with oxygen gas to form ozone.
𝑶𝟐 + 𝑶 → 𝑶𝟑 (𝑶𝒛𝒐𝒏𝒆)

Functions of Ozone gas:

It protects the earth from the harmful UV radiation coming from the sun. These UV rays
are highly damaging to organisms. So, it is known as life supporter of the Earth.

Ozone Depletion:

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The decreasing of amount of ozone in the atmosphere is known as ozone depletion.
Depletion of the ozone is also known as ozone hole.
It began to drop sharply in 1980s due to increasing of using CFC (Chlorofluorocarbons)
which are used in refrigerators and in fire extinguishers.
The substances which deplete the ozone gas are called ozone depleting substances
(ODS).
Ex. CFCs, HCFCs, Halons etc.
One molecule of chlorine breaks down the ozone gas for 115 years.

Effects of ozone depletion:

a). Skin cancer in human being
b). Cataract
c). Many diseases in plants

Prevention of ozone depletion:

In 1987, the UNEP (The United Nations Environmental Programme) succeeded an
agreement to freeze CFCs production at 1986 levels.

(B). Waste disposal:

Increasing of waste problem is one of the biggest problems in the world. Every day the
waste materials are increasing around us.
Reasons of the increasing of waste materials:
a). Increasing of the population and improvements in our life-style:
We generated the high amount of waste material around us.
b). Changes in attitude also have a role to play with more and more things we use
becoming disposable.

What can we do?

The biodegradable waste is not a problem, but the actual problem from the non-
biodegradable waste. Because it cannot be degraded by the natural process.
It affects us and environment.
It can pollute the air if we burn it,
it pollutes the water and aquatic animals if we throw it in water bodies,
it pollutes the ground water if we landfill it.
It also pollutes the soil and its fertility.

Solutions of waste disposal:

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a). By preventing the above activities.
b). Through awareness about environment, scientific attitude, concern for community
health and personal health.
c). Other solutions- by follow the 5Rs. Recycle, reuse, refuse, reduce, recover.
d). Changes in packaging (environmental-friendly) have resulted in much of our waste
becoming non-degradable.

Differences between Biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes:

S. NO. Biodegradable wastes Non-biodegradable wastes
1. These wastes can be broken down These wastes cannot be broken down
into simpler substances by the into simpler substances by the action of
action of micro-organisms. micro-organisms.
2. They get recycled. So, these do not They cannot be recycled. So, they
need any dumping sites. require dumping site.
3. These are obtained from living These are obtained from non-living
things. things.
4. They cause minimum They cause environmental pollution.
environmental pollution.

***

Speak Five Lines to Yourself Every Morning.

i). I am the Best.
ii). I can do it.
iii). I am Winner.
Iv). Today is my Day.
V). God is always with Me.
-A P J Abdul Kalam

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