Chapter 3- AC Circuits

Topics to be covered: AC waveform definitions, form factor, peak factor, study of R-L, R-
C,RLC series circuit, R-L-C parallel circuit, phasor representation in polar and rectangular form,
concept of impedance, admittance, active, reactive, apparent and complex power, power factor, 3
phase Balanced AC Circuits (Y-Δ & Δ-Y).

3.1 Introduction:
An Alternating current (a.c) is the current which changes periodically both in magnitude
and direction.
Out of all these types of waveforms, pure sinusoidal waveform is preferred for a.c systems
3.5 Important Definitions

The important terms/definitions which are frequently used while dealing with a.c circuits are
1. Alternating quantity: An alternating quantity is one which acts in alternate positive and
negative directions, whose magnitude undergoes a definite series of changes in definite intervals
of time and in which the sequence of changes while negative is identical with the sequence of
changes while positive.

2. Waveform: “The graph between an alternating quantity (voltage or current) and time is called
waveform”, generally, alternating quantity is depicted along the Y-axis and time along the X-
axis.

3. Instantaneous value: The value of an alternating quantity at any instant is called instantaneous
value. The instantaneous values of alternating voltages and current are represented by ‘e’ and ‘i’
respectively.

4. Alternation: When an alternating quantity goes through one half cycle (complete set of +ve or
–ve values) it completes an alternation.

5. Cycle: When an alternating quantity goes a complete set of +ve and –ve values, it is said to have
completed one cycle.

6. Periodic Time: The time taken in seconds by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is
known as periodic time and is denoted by ‘T’.

7. Frequency: The number of cycles completed per second by an alternating quantity is known as
frequency and is denoted by ‘f’. In the SI system, the frequency is expressed in hertz.

In India, the standard frequency for power supply is 50 Hz. It means that alternating voltage or
current completes 50 cycles in one second.

8. Amplitude: The maximum value, positive or negative, which an alternating quantity attains
during one complete cycle, is called amplitude or peak value or maximum value. The amplitude
of alternating voltage and current is represented by Em and Im respectively.
Ratings of Alternating Quantity
Root-mean-square (R.M.S.) Value or Effective value
The r.m.s. or effective value, of an alternating current is defined as that steady current which when
flowing through a given resistance for a given time produces the same amount of heat as produced
by the alternating current, when flowing through the same resistance for the same time.

Let us take two circuits with identical resistance, but one is connected to a battery and the other to
a sinusoidal voltage source. Wattmeters are employed to measure heat power in each circuit. The
voltage applied to each circuit is so adjusted that the heat power produced in each circuit is the
same. In this event the direct current ‘I’ will be equal to Im/√2 , which is termed as r.m.s. value of
the sinusoidal current.

The following method is used for finding the r.m.s. or effective value of sinusoidal waves.
Average Value : The arithmetical average of all the values of an alternating quantity over one cycle
is called average value.
In the case of a symmetrical wave e.g. sinusoidal current or voltage wave, the positive half is
exactly equal to the negative half, so that the average value over the entire cycle is zero. Hence, in
this case, the average value is obtained by adding or integrating the instantaneous values of current
over one alternation (half-cycle) only.

Let us take an elementary instant of interval dθ in the first half-cycle as shown in figure.
The average instantaneous values of current in this interval is say ‘i’ as shown

The average value can be obtained by taking the ratio of area under the curve over half cycle to
length of the base for half cycle
Form Factor: The ratio of effective value (or r.m.s. value) to average value of an alternating
quantity (voltage or current) is called form factor, i.e.

From Factor, Kf = r ms value of an alternating quantity

Average value of an alternating quantity

For sinusoidal alternating current,

Kf = 0.707Im = 1.11
0.637 Im
For sinusoidal alternating voltage,

Kf = 0.707Em = 1.11
0.637 Em

Hence, the R.M.S. value (of current or voltage) is 1.11 times its average value.

Crest or Peak or Amplitude Factor (Ka): It is defined as the ratio of maximum value to the
effective value (r.m.s. value) of an alternating quantity. i.e.,

Peak factor, Ka = Maximum value of an alternating quantity

r ms value of an alternating quantity

For sinusoidal alternating current,

Ka = Im = = 1.414
Im/√2
For sinusoidal alternating voltage,

Ka = Em = = 1.414
Em/√2

The knowledge of Crest Factor is particularly important in the testing of dielectric strength of
insulating materials; this is because the breakdown of insulating materials depends upon the
maximum value of voltage.

Phasor Representation:
An alternating quantity can be represented using
i) Waveform
ii) Equations
iii) Phasor
iv) Complex form
Complex number

Complex numbers represent in two ways:

1. Rectangular form: C x j y

Where x: is called the real part of C
y: is called its imaginary part
j 1

2. Polar form: C r 

Where ‘r’ is the magnitude of C.

Conversion between Rectangular and Polar Forms


To convert from Rectangular form to Polar form
C x j y C r 
r √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
tan -1 (x/y)

To convert from Polar form to Rectangular form:
C r C x j y
x r cos
y r sin

Phasor:
A sinusoidal alternating quantity can be represented by a rotating line called a Phasor. A
Phasor is a line of definite length rotating in anticlockwise direction at a constant angular velocity.
The waveform and equation representation of an alternating current is as shown. This sinusoidal
quantity can also be represented using phasors.

In phasor form the above wave is written as I m= Im∠0o

Draw a line OP of length equal to Im. This line OP rotates in the anticlockwise direction with
a uniform angular velocity ω rad/sec and follows the circular trajectory shown in figure. At
any instant, the projection of OP on the y-axis is given by OM = OPsinθ = Im sinωt. Hence the
line OP is the phasor representation of the sinusoidal current.

Phase: Phase is defined as the fractional part of time period or cycle through which the quantity
has advanced from the selected zero position of reference

Phase of +Em is π/2 rad or T/4 sec

Phase of -Em is π/2 rad or 3T/4 sec
Phase Difference: When two alternating quantities of the same frequency have different zero
points, they are said to have a phase difference. The angle between the zero points is the angle of
phase difference.

In Phase
Two waveforms are said to be in phase, when the phase difference between them is zero.
That is the zero points of both the waveforms are same. The waveform, phasor and equation
representation of two sinusoidal quantities which are in phase is as shown. The figure shows
that the voltage and current are in phase.
v =Vm sin ωt
i=Im sin ωt

Lagging
In the figure shown, the zero point of the current waveform is after the zero point of the voltage
waveform. Hence the current is lagging behind the voltage. The waveform, phasor and equation
representation is as shown.

v=Vm sin ωt
i=Im sin (ωt- )

Leading
In the figure shown, the zero point of the current waveform is before the zero point of the voltage
waveform. Hence the current is leading the voltage. The waveform, phasor and equation
representation is as shown.

v=Vm sin ωt
i=Im sin (ωt+ )
Steady State Analysis of A.C. circuits
The path for the flow of alternating current is called on a.c. circuit. In a d.c. circuit, the
current/flowing through the circuit is given by the simple relation I = V/R. However, in an a.c.
circuit, voltage and current change from instant to instant and so give rise to magnetic (inductive)
and electrostatic (capacitive) effects. So, in an a.c. circuit, inductance and capacitance must be
considered in addition to resistance.

We shall now deal with the following a.c. circuits:

1. AC circuit containing pure ohmic resistance only.
2. AC circuit containing pure inductance only.
3. AC circuit containing pure capacitance only.

AC through pure resistive circuit

When an alternating voltage is applied to a pure resistive circuit, electrons flow in one direction
during first-half cycle and in opposite direction during second-half cycle, thus constituting
alternating current in the circuit
Let us consider an a.c circuit with pure resistance R, as shown in figure
From equations (i) and (iii) it is apparent that voltage and current are in phase with each other
and it is represented in waveform as shown below.

Power in a pure resistive circuit

The voltage and current are changing at every instant
Power curve: The power curve for a purely resistive circuit is as shown in figure below

From the figure it is apparent that power in such a circuit is zero only at the instants a, b and c,
when both the voltage and current are zero, it is positive at all other instants. In other words,
power is never negative, so that power is always lost in a resistive ac circuit. This power is
dissipated as heat.

AC through pure inductive circuit

An inductive coil is a coil with or without an iron core and has negligible resistance. In practice,
pure inductance can never be found as inductive coil always has a small resistance. However for
the study purpose we will consider a purely inductive coil with zero resistance exited by a ac
source as shown in the figure below

On the application of an alternating voltage to the circuit containing a pure inductance, a back
e.m.f is produced due to the self inductance of the coil. This back e.m.f. opposes the rise and fall
of the current at every stage. The applied voltage has to overcome this self induced e.m.f.
Let the applied voltage be v= V m sin ωt
The self-inductance of the coil = L Henry
𝑑𝑖
Self induced e.m.f in the coil is = eL = - L
𝑑𝑡

Since the applied voltage is equal and opposite to the self induced e.m.f at every instant we have

V = - eL

Where A is a constant of integration and found to be zero from initial condition

From the expressions for the instantaneous voltage and instantaneous current flowing through a
purely inductive coil, it is clear the the current lags the voltage by п/2 as shown in the waveform
below
Inductive Reactance: ωL in the expression I m=Vm/ ωL is known as inductive reactance and is
denoted by XL, i.e., XL= ωL. If L is in Henry, ω is in radians per second, then XL is in Ohms. So,
inductive reactance plays a role of resistance.
Power: Instantaneous power is given by

The power measured by a wattmeter is the average value of ‘p’ which is zero, since average
value of a sinusoidal quantity of double frequency over a complete cycle is zero. In mathematical
form it can be expressed as

Hence the average power absorbed by a pure inductive circuit is zero.

Power Curve: The power curve for a pure inductive circuit is as shown in figure below.

This indicates that power absorbed by the circuit is zero. At the instants a, c and e, voltage is zero
so the power is zero; at instants b and d also the power is zero as the current is zero. Between a
and b voltage and current are in opposite directions, so that power is negative and energy is taken
from the circuit. Between b and c voltage and current are in same directions, so that power is
positive and energy is put back to the circuit. Similarly, between c and d, power is taken from the
circuit and between d and e it is put back into the circuit. Hence net power over a complete cycle
is zero.

AC through pure capacitive circuit

When an alternating voltage is applied across the plates of the capacitor, it charges in one
direction during first-half cycle and then charges in opposite direction as the voltage reverses
Let alternating voltage v=Vm sin ωt be applied across a capacitor of capacitance C Farad as
shown in the figure
Capacitive Reactance: 1/ωC in the expression I m=Vm/ (1/ωC) is known ascapacitive reactance
and is denoted by XC, i.e., XC= 1/ωC. If C is in Farad, ω is in radians per second, then XC is in
Ohms. So, capacitive reactance plays a role of resistance.
From the expressions for the instantaneous voltage and instantaneous current flowing through a
purely capacitive circuit, it is clear that the current leads the voltage by п/2 as shown in the
waveform below
The power measured by a wattmeter is the average value of ‘p’ which is zero, since average
value of a sinusoidal quantity of double frequency over a complete cycle is zero. In mathematical
form it can be expressed as

Hence the average power consumed by a pure capacitive circuit is zero

Power Curve: The power curve for a pure inductive circuit is as shown in figure below.

This indicates that power absorbed by the circuit is zero. At the instants a, c and e, voltage is zero
so the power is zero; at instants b and d also the power is zero as the current is zero. Between a
and b voltage and current are in same directions, so that power is positive and energy is put back
to the circuit. Between b and c voltage and current are in opposite directions, so that power is
negative and energy is taken from the circuit. Similarly, between c and d, power is put back to
the circuit and between d and e it is taken from the circuit. Hence net power over a complete
cycle is zero.

AC through series RL circuit:

Let us consider an a.c circuit containing a pure resistance R and pure inductance L, as shown in
the figure
Let , V be the r.m.s value of applied voltage
I be the r.m.s value of current

Let the , Voltage drop across R, VR=IR (in-phase with I)

Voltage drop across L, VL=IXL( Leading I by 900)

The voltage drops across these two circuit components are as shown in figure

Voltage vector
From figure vector OA indicates V R and AB indicate VL. The applied voltage V is the vector
sum of the two i.e. OB
OB is given by
OB2= OA2+AB2

Referring to the impedance triangle ABC

Z2= R2+XL2
Referring to the voltage vector we observe that the applied voltage V leads the current I by an
angle ∅

This is as shown in the waveforms below

Power :

This consists of two parts

Where, V and I are the r.m.s values
Power consumed can be represented in waveform as shown below.

AC through series RC circuit:

Let us consider an a.c circuit containing a pure resistance R and pure capacitance C, as shown in
the figure

Let, V be the r.m.s value of applied voltage

I be the r.m.s value of current
Let the, Voltage drop across R, VR=IR (in-phase with I)
Voltage drop across C, VC=IXC( Lagging I by 900)

The voltage drops across these two circuit components are as shown in figure

The capacitive reactance is negative, so Vc is in the negative direction of Y-axis, as shown in

figure

Referring to the impedance triangle ABC

Referring to the voltage vector we observe that the applied voltage V lags the current I by an
angle ∅
This is as shown in the waveforms below
Where, V and I are the r.m.s values
Power consumed can be represented in waveform as shown below.

AC through series RLC circuit

Let us consider an a.c circuit containing a pure resistance R, pure inductance L and pure
capacitance C, in series with each other across a.c supply as shown in the figure

The ac supply is given by , v=Vm sin ωt. The circuit draws a current I, there are voltage drops
across R, L and C which are given by

 Voltage drop across R, V R =I R (in-phase with I)

 Voltage drop across L, V L =I XL( VL Leading I by 900)
 Voltage drop across C, V C =I XC(Vc Lagging I by 900)

The values of I, VR, VL, Vc are r.m.s values

Referring to the voltage triangle OA represents V R, AB and AC represents inductive and

capacitive drops respectively. We observe that V L and VC are 180o out of phase.
Thus for any condition, XL > Xc or XL < XC, in general power can be expressed as

Power = Voltage X component of current in phase with voltage

P = V I Cos Ф
POWER: In an AC circuit, the various powers can be classified as

1. Real or Active power

2. Reactive power
3. Apparent power

Power Triangle : Power triangle is the representation of a right angle triangle showing the
relation between active power, reactive power and apparent power. When each component of the
current that is the active component (Icosϕ) or the reactive component (Isinϕ) is multiplied by
the voltage V, a power triangle is obtained shown in the figure below
True power/Real power/Active power: The power due to the active component of current is
called as the active power or real power. It is the power that is actually consumed or utilized in
an AC Circuit and does useful power. It is denoted by ‘P’ and measured in kilowatt (kW) or
MW.

P = V ∗ I cos
= I2 R cos

Where V= rms value of voltage

I= rms value of current
cos = power factor

Reactive power: The power due to the reactive component of current is called as the reactive
power. It is denoted by Q. Reactive power does not do any useful work. It is the circulating
power in the L and C components. The unit for reactive power is Volt Amperes Reactive (VAr).

Q = V ∗ I sin
= I2 XL sin

Apparent power: The apparent power is the total power in the circuit. It is the product of root
mean square (RMS) value of voltage and current. It is denoted by ‘S’. The unit for apparent
power is Volt Amperes (VA) and measured in KVA or MVA.
S=VI
= I2 Z
S2 = P 2 + Q2
 Power factor: It is the cosine of the angle between V and I. From the power triangle shown above
the power, the factor may be determined by taking the ratio of true power to the apparent power.

Power factor, cos = Real Power = kW

Apparent Power kVA

Or, cos = Resistance = R

Impedance Z

Importance of Power Factor: A power factor of one or "unity power factor" is the goal of any
electric utility company since if the power factor is less than one, they have to supply more current
to the user for a given amount of power use. In so doing, they incur more line losses. They also
must have larger capacity equipment in place than would be otherwise necessary. As a result, an
industrial facility will be charged a penalty if its power factor is much different from 1.

Causes of Low power factor: The reason for the low power factor is because of the inductive load.
The current in the inductive load lag behind the voltage. The power factor is therefore lagging.
The important inductive loads responsible for the low power factor are the three-phase induction
motors (which operate at a 0.8 lagging power factor), transformer, lamps and welding equipment
operate at low lagging power factors. Power factor improvement methods are used for improving
the value of power factor in a power system.

Disadvantages of low power factor

 Higher current is required by the equipment, due to which the economic cost of the equipment is
increased.
 At low power factor, the current is high which gives rise to high copper losses in the system and
therefore the efficiency of the system is reduced.
 Higher current produced a large voltage drop in the apparatus. This results in the poor voltage
regulation.

Power Factor Improvement: If the power factor is low or poor, it is necessary to improve or correct
it. It may be improved by injecting a leading current into the circuit so as to neutralize the effect
of lagging current. The power factor may be improved by using static capacitors or synchronous
motors.
Three Phase A.C Circuits:
Advantages of three phase system: In the three phase system, the alternator armature has three
windings and it produces three independent alternating voltages. The magnitude and frequency of
all of them are equal but they have a phase difference of 120o between each other. Such a three
phase system has following advantages over single phase system:

1. The output of three phase machine is always greater than single phase machine of same
size, approximately 1.5 times. So for a given size and voltage a three phase alternator
occupies less space and costs less than single phase having same rating.

2. For transmission and distribution, three phase system needs less copper or less conducting
material than single phase system for given volt amperes and voltage rating, so
transmission becomes very much economical.

3. It is possible to produce rotating magnetic field with stationary coils by using three phase
system. Hence three phase motors are self-starting.

4. In single phase system, the instantaneous power is a function of time and hence fluctuates
with respect to time. This fluctuating power causes considerable vibrations in single phase
motors. Hence performance of single phase motors is poor. While instantaneous power in
symmetrical three phase system is constant.

5. Single phase supply can be obtained from three phase but three phase cannot be obtained
from single phase.

6. Power factor of single phase motor is poor than three phase motors of same rating.

But it is found that optimum number of phases required to get all above said advantages is three.
Any further increase in number of phases cause a lot of complications. Hence three phase system
is accepted as standard poly-phase system throughout the world.

Generation of 3-phase E.M.F.

In the 3-phase system, there are three equal voltages of the same frequency but displaced from one
another by 1200 electrical. These voltages are produced by a three-phase generator which has three
identical windings or phases displaced 1200 electrical apart. When these windings are rotated in a
magnetic field, e.m.f. is induced in each winding or phase. These e.m.f.s are of the same magnitude
and frequency but are displaced from one another by 1200 electrical.

Consider three identical coils a 1a2, b1b2 and c1c2 as shown in the above figure. In this figure a 1,
b1 and c1 are the starting terminals, whereas a 2, b2 and c2are the finish terminals of the three coils.
The phase difference of 120o has to be maintained between the starts terminals a 1, b1 and c1. Now,
let the three coils mounted on the same axis, and they are rotated by either keeping coil stationary
and moving the magnetic field or vice versa in an anticlockwise direction at (ω) radians per
seconds. Three e.m.f.s are induced in the three coils respectively.
 Figure A: Three-phase e.m.f generation

When the coil a1a2, is in the position AB shown in the above figure, the magnitude and direction
of the e.m.f. s induced in the various coils is as under:

Figure B: Three-phase Sinusoidal waveform

The e.m.f. induced in the coil a 1a2 is zero and is increasing in the positive direction as shown by
the waveform represented as e a1a2.
The coil b1b2 is 120oelectrically behind the coil a 1a2. The e.m.f induced in this coil is negative and
is becoming maximum negative as shown by the wave e b1b2.
Similarly, the coil c 1c2 is 120o electrically behind the coil b1b2, or we can also say that the coil
c1c2 is 240o behind the coil a 1a2. The e.m.f induced in the coil is positive and is decreasing as
represented by the waveform e c1c2.
Phasor Diagram
The e.m.f.s induced in the three coils in a 3 phase circuits are of the same magnitude and frequency
and are displaced by an angle of 120o from each other as shown below in the phasor diagram.

These EMFs of a 3 phase circuits can be expressed in the form of the various equations given
below.

Phase sequence: The order in which the voltages in the three phase system reach their maximum
positive values is called the phase sequence.
For example, in Fig. (A) the three coils a1a2, b1b2 and c1c2, are rotating in anticlockwise direction
in the magnetic field. The coil a1a2 is 1200 electrical ahead of coil b1b2 and 2400 electrical ahead
of coil c1c2.
Therefore, e.m.f. in coil a1a2 leads the e.m.f. in coil b1b2 by 1200 and that in coil c1c2 by 2400. It is
evident from Fig (B) that ea1a2 attains maximum positive first, then eb1b2 and ec1c2 . Hence, the
phase sequence is a,b,c. The 3 phases may be numbered (1, 2, 3) or lettered (a, b, c) or specified
by colors (R Y B). By normal convention, sequence RYB is considered positive and R B Y
negative.
It is necessary to employ some systematic notation for the solution of a.c. circuits and systems
containing a number of e.m.f.s acting and currents flowing so that the process of solution is
simplified and less prone to errors. It is normally preferred to employ double-subscript notation
while dealing with a.c. electrical circuits. In this system, the order in which the subscripts are
written indicates the direction in which e.m.f. acts or current flows.

For example, if e.m.f. is expressed as Eab, it indicates that e.m.f. acts from a to b; if it is expressed
as Eba , then the e.m.f. acts in a direction opposite to that in which Eab acts.
i.e, Eba = - Eab

Similarly, Iab indicates that current flows in the direction from a to b but Iba indicates that current
flows in the direction from b to a;
i.e., Iba = -Iab.

Balanced Supply and Load

Balanced Supply: A supply is said to be balanced when the three phase voltages are equal, and
the phase difference is 1200 between one another.
Balanced load: A load is said to be balanced if the impedance of the three phases or three circuit
loads are equal.
When a balanced supply, where the three phase voltages are equal, and the phase difference is 1200
between one another, supplies balanced load, where the impedance of the three phases or three
circuit loads are equal, then the current flowing through these three phases will also be equal in
magnitude, and will also have a phase difference of 1200 with one another. Such an arrangement
is called a balanced load.

Star Connection in a 3 Phase System

In the Star Connection, the similar ends (either start or finish) of the three windings are connected
to a common point called star or neutral point. The other three conductors run from the remaining
three free terminals called line conductors. The wires are carried to the external circuit, giving
three phase, three wire star connected systems. However, sometimes a fourth wire is carried from
the star point to the external circuit, called neutral wire, forming three phase, four wire star
connected systems. The star connection is shown in the diagram below.
The finish terminals a 2, b2, and c2 of the three windings are connected to form a star or neutral
point. The three conductors named as R, Y and B run from the remaining three free terminals as
shown in the above figure.

The current flowing through each phase is called Phase current Iph, and the current flowing through
each line conductor is called Line Current IL. Similarly, the voltage across each phase is
called Phase Voltage Vph, and the voltage across two line conductors is known as the Line Voltage
VL.

Relation between Phase Voltage and Line Voltage in Star Connection

1. Line voltage is root 3 times of phase voltage.

i.e, Line voltage=√3 Phase voltage
VL= √3 Vph

2. Line Current is equal to Phase Current.

i.e, Line current = Phase current
IL=Iph
3.Power output per phase = VPh IPh cos
Total power output, P = 3VPh IPh cos
or, Power = √3 VL IL cos
Where, cos is the power factor of the load

Delta Connection in a 3 Phase System

In Delta (Δ) or Mesh connection, the finished terminal of one winding is connected to start
terminal of the other phase and so on which gives a closed circuit. The three conductors running
from the three junctions of the mesh are called Line Conductors. The connection in Delta form is
shown in the figure below.

To obtain the Delta connection, a2 is connected with b1 , b2 is connected with c 1 and c 2 is connected
with a1 as shown in the above figure. The three conductors R, Y and B are running from the three
junctions known as Line Conductors. The current flowing through each phase is called Phase Current
(Iph), and the current flowing through each line conductor is called Line Current (I L). The voltage
across each

phase is called Phase Voltage (Vph), and the voltage across two line conductors is called Line
Voltage (VL).

Relation between Phase Voltage and Line Voltage in Delta Connection

1. Line Voltage is equal to Phase Voltage

i.e, VL=Vph

2. Line current is root three times of phase current.

Line current =√3 Phase current
IL= √3 Iph

3. Power output per phase = V PhIPh cos

Total power output, P = 3VPh IPh cos
or, Power = √3 VL IL cos
Where, cos is the power factor of the load