SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

Chapter One
Effects of Lenses on Parallel Rays
THIN LENSES of Light
Introduction  When a parallel beam of light is
 A lens is generally a transparent directed towards a convex lens,
material with at least one the rays are converged at a
curved surface. point and then diverge as they
 Lenses are usually made of continue, [figure 1.2 (a)].
glass, clear plastic or perspex.
 When a parallel beam of light is
 They are usually found in
cameras, spectacles and even directed towards a concave
the human eye. lens, the rays diverge as if
 A lens works by refracting the they are from a point in front of
light traversing it. the lens, [figure 1.2 (b)]

Types of Lenses
 There are two types of lenses,
namely:
(a) Convex (converging) lens,
(b) Concave (diverging) lens
 Convex lenses are thickest at
the middle while concave
lenses are thinnest at the
middle, [figure 1.1 (a) and (b)].

Figure 1.2

Definition of Terms
1. Centre of Curvature, C
 This refers to the centre of the
sphere of which the surface of
the lens is part.
 Since a lens has two surfaces, it
Figure 1.1 has two centres of curvature,
[figure 1.3 (a), (b) and (c)].
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5. Principal Focus, F
(a) For a converging lens, it is the
point on the principal axis to which
rays parallel and close to the principal
axis converge after refraction, [figure
1.4 (a) and (b)].

Figure 1.3

2. Radius of Curvature, r
 This refers to the radius of the
sphere of which the surface of
Figure 1.4
the lens is part, [figure 1.3 (a),
(b) and (c)].
(b) For a diverging lens, it is the point
on the principal axis from which rays
3. Principal Axis
parallel and close to the principal axis
This refers to the imaginary line
appear to diverge after refraction by
passing through the centres of
the lens, [figure 1.5 (a) and (b)].
curvatures, (figure 1.4 and 1.5).

4. Optical Centre, O
This refers to the point on the
principal axis midway between the
surfaces of the lens, (figure 1.4 and
1.5).

Note:
Any ray of light passing through this
point passes on undeviated.

Figure 1.5
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Note:
(i) A lens has two principal foci, one
on either side.
(ii) The principal focus of a
converging lens is real while that of
a diverging lens is virtual.
(iii) Rays that are parallel and close to
the principal axis or make very small
angles with the principal axis are
known as paraxial rays.
(iv) Rays that are parallel and far
away from the principal axis are
known as marginal rays.

6. Focal Length, f Figure 1.6

This is the distance between the
optical centre and the principal focus, RAY DIAGRAMS
[(figure 1. 4 (a) and 1.5(a)]. There are three important rays that
are used in diagrams for the location
Note:
The focal length of a converging lens of images formed by lenses:
is real while that of a diverging lens (i) A ray of light parallel to the
is virtual. principal axis
 For a convex lens, this ray
7. Focal Plane passes through the principal
This is a plane perpendicular to the
focus after refraction by the
principal axis and passing through the
lens, [figure 1.7(a)].
principal focus, [figure 1.6 (a) and
 For a concave lens, this ray
(b)].
appears to emerge from the
principal focus after refraction
by the lens, [figure 1.7 (b)].

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Figure 1.7

(ii) A ray of light passing (or

appearing to pass) trough the
principal focus
This ray emerges parallel to the
principal axis after refraction by the Figure 1.9
lens, [figure 1.8 (a) and (b)]
Summary of Image Formation by
Lenses
(i) Real rays and real images are
drawn in full lines.
(ii) Virtual rays and virtual images are
drawn in broken lines.
(iii) To locate the image, two (or
three) rays from the tip of the object
are drawn to the lens.

Note:
(I) The point where the rays (real or
virtual) intersect after refraction by
the lens gives the tip of the image.
Figure 1.8 (II) If the object stands and is
perpendicular to the principal axis,
(iii) A ray of light passing through then the image will also be
the optical centre
perpendicular to the principal axis.
This ray passes on undeviated, [figure
(III) To complete the image, a line is
1.9 (a) and (b)]
drawn perpendicular to the principal
axis from the tip of the image.

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(IV) If the object is slanting, then two

rays drawn from two different points,
one of which is the tip of the object
are used to locate the corresponding
points on the image. By joining these
points and extending the line to meet
the principal axis, the image is Figure 1.12
obtained, (figure 1.10)
CHARACTERISTCS OF IMAGES
FORMED BY LENSES

1.Converging Lenses

(a) Object at infinity

Figure 1.10

(V) Incase the object traverses the

principal axis, then the tips are used
to locate the position of the image,
(figure 1.11).

Figure 1.11

(VI) Converging and diverging lenses

are represented by the symbols shown Figure 1.13
in [figure 1.12 (a) and (b)]  The parallel rays from the
respectively. object converge after refraction
by the lens, [figure 1.13 (a) and
(b)]
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 The image formed is: (i) Real

(i) Real (ii) Inverted
(ii) Inverted (iii) Same size as the object.
(iii) Diminished (iv) Formed at 2F, on the
(iv) Formed at F, on the other other side of the lens.
side of the lens.  This set-up is used in the
 This set-up is used in the terrestrial telescope.
objective lens of a telescope.
(d) Object between 2F and F
(b) Object beyond 2F

Figure 1.16
Figure 1.14
 The image formed is:
 The image formed is: (i) Real
(i) Real (ii) Inverted
(ii) Inverted (iii) Larger than the object.
(iii) Diminished (iv) Formed beyond 2F, on the
(iv) Formed between F and other side of the lens.
2F, on the other side of the  This set-up is used in the:
lens. (i) Projectors,
 This set-up is used in the: (ii) Microscope objective lens
(i) Camera (iii) Photographic enlarger.
(ii) Human eye.
(e) Object at F
(c) Object at 2F

Figure 1.15 Figure 1.17

 The image formed is:

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 The rays emerge parallel after 2. Diverging Lenses

refraction by the lens.
 The image formed is formed at
infinity.
 This set-up is used in the:
(i) Searchlights
(ii) Spotlights

(f) Object between F and the lens

Figure 1.19

 The rays diverge after

Figure 1.18 refraction.
 When produced backwards, the
 The rays diverge after rays intersect at a point, M
refraction.  For all object positions, image
 If the rays are produced formed is always:
backwards, they meet at a (i) Virtual.
point, M. (ii) Erect.
 The image formed is: (iii) Diminished.
(i) Virtual. (iv) On the same side of the
(ii) Erect (or upright) lens as the object but nearer to
(iii) Larger than the object. the lens.
(iv) On the same side of the  This set-up is used in the:
lens as the object but beyond (i) Spectacles to correct short-
F. sightedness.
 This set-up is used in the: (ii) Galilean telescope as
(i) Magnifying glasses, eyepiece.
(ii) Microscopes lenses, (iii) Peephole (concave lenses
(iii) Spectacles correction for have a large field of view).
long-sightedness.

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Linear Magnification, m of a Lens (c) The scale should be simple to use

 This is defined as the ratio of but it should make the diagram fill
height of the image to the most of the sheet of squared paper.
height of the object.
Example 1
Magnification, m =
An object 10 cm high is placed 25 cm
from a converging lens of focal length
10 cm. By
m=
scale drawing, find the position, size
 It is also defined as the ratio of and nature of the image.
the distance of the image from Scale:
the lens to the distance of the Horizontal: 1 cm rep 5 cm.
object from the lens. Vertical: 1 cm rep 5 cm.
m=

m=

 Thus, m =

 Magnification has no units

since it is a ratio of two lengths.
Figure 1.20
Scale Drawings of Ray Diagrams
 Ray diagrams can be drawn to The image is:
scale using squared paper. (a) 6.5 cm tall
 The following points should be (b) 16.5 cm from the lens, on the
noted: opposite side of the lens
(a) The lens is represented by a line at (c) Real
right angles to its axis. (d) Diminished
(b) The scale for the horizontal axis (e) Inverted
does not need to be the same as that
for the vertical axis (object and Example 2
image), but both scales should be An object 1 cm high is placed 2 cm
given on the diagram. from a converging lens of focal length
3 cm.
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Find, by graphical construction, the

position, size and nature of the image.
Scale:
Horizontal: 1 cm rep 1 cm.
Vertical: 1 cm rep 1 cm.

Figure 1.22

The image is:

(a) 0.6 cm tall
Figure 1.21
(b) 1.4 cm from the lens, on the
The image is: same side as the object
(a) 3 cm tall (c) Virtual
(b) 6 cm from the lens, on the same (d) Diminished
side of the lens (e) Erect
(c) Virtual Example 4
(d) Magnified Figure 1.23 shows a graph of
(e) Erect magnification against object distance,
for an object placed in front of a lens
Example 3 of focal length 20 cm.
An object 2 cm high is placed 5 cm
from a diverging lens of focal length 2
cm.
Find, by graphical construction, the
position, size and nature of the image.
Scale:
Horizontal: 1 cm rep 1 cm.
Vertical: 1 cm rep 1 cm.

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Figure 1.23  In this case, the Real – is –

Using the graph; positive sign convention is
(a) State the effect on the size of the used.
image when the object distance is  In this sign convention;
increased from 25 cm. (1 mark) (a) The distances from the lens
The image size decreases. to real objects, images and
(b) Determine the: focuses are positive values, and
(i) Distance between the object and (b) The distances from the lens
the lens when the image is same size to virtual objects, images and
focuses are negative values.
as the object. (2 marks)
When magnification, m = 1, image Symbols for Distances in the Real –
size, v = object size, u. Hence u = 40 is – positive Sign Convention
cm. All distances are measured from the
optical centre of the lens:
(ii) Image distance when the object
distance is 25 cm. (3 marks) (a) The focal length, f is the distance
When u = 25 cm, m = 3.5. from its optical centre, O to its
Since m = ⇒ v = m x u principal focus, F.
(i) f is positive for a converging lens
v = 3.5 x 25 which has a real focus,
v = 87.5 cm (ii) f is negative for a diverging lens
which has a virtual focus.
The Lens Formula
 Experimental results show that (b) The object distance, u is the
the relation between the focal distance from the optical centre of a
length f, object distance u and lens to the object and is usually
image distance v, for all thin positive.
lenses (convex and concave) is (c) The image distance, v is the
distance from the optical centre of the
given by the formula: lens to the image (positive or
= + or rearranged f = negative)

 When doing calculations on Example 5

lenses, it is necessary to adopt a An object is placed 15 cm in front of a
particular system of giving convex lens of focal length 10 cm.
positive and negative values to Calculate the:
distances. (a) Image distance.

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Solution m=
= +
m=
f = 10 cm and u = 15 cm m=3
= +
Example 7
= - = = An object of height 10 cm stands in
v = 30 cm front of a diverging lens of for length
30 cm and at a distance of 20 cm from
(b) Magnification. the lens. Determine:
m= (a) the image distance.
Solution
m=
= +
m=2
f = ⁻30 cm and u = 20 cm
Example 6 = +
An object is placed 4 cm in front of a
convex lens of focal length 6 cm. = - = =
Determine the: v = ⁻12 cm
(a) Image distance. The negative sign implies that the
Solution image is virtual.
= + Thus, a virtual image is formed 12
f = 6 cm and u = 4 cm cm from the lens and on the same
side as the object.
= +
(b) the height of the image.
= - = =⁻ =

v = ⁻12 cm =
The negative sign implies that the
x= = 6 cm
image is virtual.
Thus, a virtual image is formed 12
cm from the lens and on the same (c) m =
side as the object.
m=
(b) Magnification. m = 0.6 or

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m=
Example 9
m= 0.6 A real object of height 1 cm placed 50
mm from a converging lens forms a
Example 8
A lens forms an image that is four virtual image 100 mm from the lens.
times the size of the object on a (a) Determine the:
screen. The distance between the (i) Focal length of the lens. (3 marks)
object and the screen is 100 cm when u = 50 mm, v = ⁻100 mm
the image is sharply focused. = + and f =
(a) State, with reason the type of lens
f=
that is used in this experiment.
Solution f=
The lens used is a converging lens.
This is because the image formed is f = 100 mm
real.
(ii) Magnification. (2 marks)
(b) Calculate the: m=
(i) Object distance.
m=
m=
m=2
=4 (b) On the grid provided, draw to
v = 4u scale the ray diagram for the set-up, to
show how the image is formed.
u + v = 100
(3 marks)
u + 4u = 100
5u = 100
u = 20 cm

(ii) Image distance.

v = 100 – 20
v = 80 cm

(iii) Focal length of the lens

= +
Figure 1.24
= + = =
f = 16 cm

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DETERMINATION OF THE  The image formed is real,

FOCAL LENGTH OF A inverted and diminished.
COVERGING LENS  The distance between the lens
The following experiments illustrate and the screen gives a rough
some of the methods used. estimate of the focal length of
the lens. This is because
EXPERIMENT 1.1: To estimate the parallel rays from infinity are
focal length of a converging lens by converged at the focal point on
focusing a distant object. the screen.
Apparatus
EXPERIMENT 1.2: To determine
Metre rule, convex lens, a lens holder,
the focal length of a converging lens
screen, plasticine by plane mirror method
(a) Non-parallax method

Apparatus
Plane mirror, retort stand and clamp,
optical pin, glass rod, cork, metre
rule, convex lens

Figure 1.25

Procedure
 Mount a convex lens on a lens
holder and fix a metre rule on a
bench using plasticine.
 Place a white screen at one end
of the metre rule (figure 1.25).
Figure 1.26
 Move the lens to-and-fro along
the metre rule to focus clearly Procedure
the image of a distant object,  Set up the apparatus as shown
like a tree or window frame. in figure 1.26.
 Measure the distance between  Adjust the pin until there is no
the lens and the screen. parallax between the object pin
and its image.
Results

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 Measure the distance between Procedure

the lens and the pin using a  Set the apparatus as shown in
metre rule. figure 1.27 (a). The illuminated
object consists of cross-wires
Result
mounted on a circular hole in a
The distance between the lens and the
pin gives the focal length of the lens. cardboard.
 Adjust the position of the lens
(b) Using an illuminated object and a along the metre rule until a
plane mirror sharp image of the cross-wires
Apparatus is formed alongside the object
Plane mirror mounted on a mirror cross-wires on the plane mirror,
holder, metre rule, convex lens, lens figure 1.27 (b).
holder, source of light, cardboard  Measure the distance, f between
with cross-wires at its centre. the lens and the cardboard
(cross-wires) and then repeat
the experiment several times.

Results
The average distance is the focal
length of the lens.

Explanation
 Rays of light from the object
are converged by the lens into a
parallel beam of light, striking
the mirror perpendicularly.
 The plane mirror reflects back
the parallel beam, passing it
through the lens again where it
is converged to the principal
focus to form the image in the
same plane as the object.
 Since parallel rays converge to
the principal focus, the distance
between the optical centre of
Figure 1.27 the lens and the front of the

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source of light is the focal (v) The average distance is the focal
length of the lens. length.

Example 10
EXPERIMENT 1.3: To determine
Describe, with the aid of a labeled
the focal length of a converging lens
diagram an experiment to determine
using the lens formula method
the focal length of a lens when
Apparatus
provided with the following
Metre rule, convex lens, lens holder,
apparatus; an illuminated object, a
source of light, cardboard with cross-
convex lens, a lens holder, a plane
wires at its centre, screen
mirror, a cardboard with cross-wires
at the centre and a metre rule.
(5 marks)

Figure 1.29

Figure 1.28 Procedure

 Set up the apparatus as shown
(i) Place the lens between the object in figure 1.29 such that the
and the plane mirror such that the object is at the zero centimeter
distance between the object and the
mark.
lens is greater than the focal length.
(ii) Adjust the lens distance until a  Set up the object distance by
sharp image of the object is formed placing the lens at a reasonable
besides the object on the plane distance, say for example, 80
mirror. cm mark.
(iii)Measure the distance between  Adjust the screen until a sharp
the lens and the plane mirror. image is obtained on the screen.
(iv) Repeat the experiment several  Determine the object and image
times. distances, u and v respectively.

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 Repeat the experiment for other Results

values of u and obtaining the
corresponding values of v.
 Record your results as shown in
table 1.
Table 1
Object Image
distance, distance,
u (cm) v (cm)

Figure 1.30

Note:  The graph is a straight line

Two different straight line graphs can slanting from top left to bottom
right that does not cut any of
be drawn from the results in table 1 to
the axes.
determine the focal length of the lens.  The straight line is therefore
(a) Graph of against extrapolated so as to cut the x -
Table 2 and – y axes as shown in figure
Object Image 1.30.
distance, distance,
(cm⁻1) (cm⁻1) Calculations
u (cm) v (cm)
Using the lens formula, = +

At x-axis intercept, = 0.

Therefore, =

At y-axis intercept, = 0.

Therefore, =

Thus, the intercepts on the and

axes are both equal to .

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The value of f can therefore be (b) Use the graph to determine the
determined. focal length of the lens.
Example 11 Intercept on axis = 6.8 x 10⁻2 cm⁻1
In an experiment to determine the
focal length of a converging lens Therefore, = 6.8 x 10⁻2 cm⁻1
using the lens formula method, a
f= f = 14.71 cm
student obtained the results in the
table 3.
Alternatively;
Table 3 Intercept on axis = 6.5 x 10⁻2 cm⁻1
Object Image
Therefore, = 6.5 x 10⁻2 cm⁻1
distance, distance,
(cm⁻1) (cm⁻1)
u (cm) v (cm) f= f = 15.38 cm
20 60.0 0.050 0.017
25 37.5 0.040 0.027 (b) Graph of (u + v) against (uv).
30 30.0 0.033 0.033
35 26.3 0.029 0.038 Table 4
40 24.0 0.025 0.042 Object Image (u + uxv
45 22.5 0.022 0.044 distance, distance, v) cm = (uv)
u (cm) v (cm) cm2
(a) Use the values in table 3 to plot a
graph of against .

Results

Figure 1.31

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In an experiment to determine the

focal length of a converging lens
using the lens formula method,
several values of image distance, v
corresponding to different values of
object distance, u were determined
and a graph of (u + v) against (uv)
plotted as shown in figure 1.33.

Figure 1.32
 The graph is a straight line that
does not cut the axes.
 The straight line is therefore
extrapolated to pass through the
origin as shown in figure 1.32.
The lens formula = + can be re-
arranged as follows:
=
Figure 1.33
f(u + v) = uv
u+v= Use the graph to determine the focal
length of the lens.
u + v = (uv) Gradient (or slope) =
This equation compares with the =
equation of a straight line y = mx + c
The gradient (or slope) of the graph is =

f= f = 5 cm
= slope
Relationship between Magnification
The value of f can therefore be and Focal Length of a Lens
determined  Consider the lens formula
Example 12 = + .

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 Multiplying each term by v (ii)The gradient (or slope) of the

gives: graph is i.e., gradient (or slope) =
= +
Example 13
= +1 In an experiment to determine the
 But = magnification, m focal length of a converging lens
using the lens formula method, the
 Therefore, = m + 1 following data in table 5 was
obtained:
 Hence, m = - 1 Table 5
m= v-1 Image distance, v Magnification,
 This equation is of the form (cm) m
y = mx + c. 13.3 0.3
15.0 0.5
 Thus, a graph of m (y-axis) 16.7 0.7
against v is a straight line that 20.0 1.0
cuts the vertical axis at ⁻1, 30.0 2.0
figure 1.34.
(a) Plot a graph of magnification, m
(y-axis) against the image distance, v
(cm).

Figure 1.34

Note:
(i) The x-axis intercept gives the
Figure 1.35
focal length, f of the lens, i.e x-axis
intercept = f

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(b) Use the graph to determine the (v) The focal length of the lens is
focal length of the lens. obtained by calculating the average
Focal length, f = intercept on v-axis of the values of f in (iv).
f = 10 cm
(b) State the reason why the set-up
Alternative method; would not work if the lens were
Slope of the graph = replaced with a diverging lens.
(1 mark)
= = f = 10 cm Diverging lens form virtual images
that cannot be formed on the
screen.
Example 14
Figure 1.36 shows an experimental EXPERIMENT 1.4: To determine
set up consisting of a mounted lens L, the focal length of a converging lens
a screen S, a metre rule and a candle. by displacement method

Apparatus
Metre rule, convex lens, lens holder,
source of light, cardboard with cross-
wires at its centre, screen

Figure 1.36

(a) Describe how the set-up may be

used to determine the focal
length, f, of the lens. (5 marks)
(i) The candle is placed at a
distance, u from the lens and the
screen position adjusted until a
sharp image is obtained. Figure 1.37
(ii) The image distance, v between
the lens and the screen is measured. Procedure
 Estimate the focal length, f of
(iii) The process is repeated for
the lens by using a distant
other values of u and v.
object.
(iv) For each set of values of u and
 Set up the apparatus as shown
v, the focal length, f is calculated
in figure 1.37 (ensure that the
using the lens formula
distance between the object and
= + .

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the screen is equal to, or more = +

than 4f.
 Obtain the image of the = +
illuminated object on the screen
when the lens is at position L1. =
 Without changing the position =
of the object on the screen,
move the lens to position L2, =
where another clear but
f=
diminished image is formed on
the screen.  Since s and d are known, f can
 Measure the object distance, u be found.
and the image distance, v for  This method is useful for
positions L1 and the new measuring the focal length of a
distances u’ and v’ for position lens that is not accessible.
L2.  From the above equation,
 Determine the displacement, d. s2 – d2 = (4f)s.
 The experiment is repeated for  Thus, a graph of (s2 – d2)
different values of s. against s is a straight line
passing through the origin.
Results and calculations
 The slope of the graph is 4f.
Now, s = u + v…………….. (1)
 The experiment is performed
d = u’ – u or d = v – v’
by changing the distance
But u’ = v and v’ = u
between the object and the
Therefore, d = v –
screen and then calculating the
u…………………………….. (2)
corresponding value of d.
Adding (1) and (2);
2v = s + d  The experiment is repeated for
different values of s.
v=
Subtracting (2) from (1); Power of a Lens
 The power of a lens is a
2u = s – d
measure of its refracting ability.
u=
 The power of a lens is
Substituting these values of u and v in determined by its focal length.
the lens formula;
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 Power =  The object is placed between

the lens and its principal focus.
 The unit of power is dioptres
 The image formed is:
(D).
(i) Virtual
 The same sign is given to the (ii) Erect
power as the focal length. (iii)Magnified.
 Thus, converging lenses have a  The virtual image is seen by
positive power while looking through the lens.
diverging lenses have negative
 This common application of a
power. converging lens, known as a
 A lens of short focal length magnifying glass or simple
refracts light more than a lens microscope is explained in
of larger focal length. figure 1.38.
 Hence, a lens of small focal
length is more powerful than
that of a larger focal length.
 Consider a converging lens of
focal length 0.1 m.
Power = = ⁺10 D
 For a diverging lens of focal
length 0.1 m,
Figure 1.38
Power = = ⁻10 D
Note:
APPLICATIONS OF LENSES Using a magnifying glass enables the
Some of the optical instruments that viewer to bring the object closer to the
use lenses are the simple microscope, eye.
compound microscope, camera and
the human eye. Example 15
Sketch a diagram to show the position
1. Simple Microscope or of an object, when a converging lens
Magnifying Glass is used as a magnifying glass. (3 mks)
 The magnifying glass is a hand-
held converging lens of short
focal length (high power).

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Figure 1.40
Figure 1.39
 The object to be viewed is
2. Compound Microscope placed between F0 and 2F0 of
 There are two instances when a the objective lens so that a real,
converging lens can produce inverted and magnified image
magnified images, namely; is formed in front of the
eyepiece.
(i) When the object is between
 This image acts as the object in
F and 2F.
front of the eyepiece.
(ii) When the object is between
 The eyepiece is adjusted so that
the lens and F.
this image falls between its
 A compound microscope
principal focus Fe and the
combines the two cases,
eyepiece lens.
(Figure 1.40).
 Thus, the eyepiece acts as a
 It consists of two converging
magnifying glass and produces
lenses of short focal length.
a final image, I2 that is:
 The lens next to the object is
(i) Virtual,
known as the objective lens
(ii) Inverted,
while the lens next to the eye is
(ii) Greatly magnified.
known as the eyepiece or
 I2 is the image seen by the eye.
ocular.
 The focal length of the eyepiece Notes about drawing the ray diagram
lens is longer than that of the (a) Trace the path of the two rays
objective lens. completely through the instrument
from the object to the eye. These rays
should bed only twice, as they pass
through the two lenses, but they

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

should not bed at the tip of the first Substituting = m0 gives:

image, I1
1 + m0 = and
(b) In order to find the path of the rays
between eyepiece and the eye, it is m0 = -
necessary to draw two construction
lines as shown in figure 1.40. These 1………………………………….(3)
lines obey the rules of rays coming Likewise, magnification of the
from I1 but should not be shown as eyepiece lens is given by:
rays (no arrows on them). me = –
(c) The position of O and I1are critical
and the positions of Fo and Fe on both 1,………………………………….(4)
sides of each lens must be shown on where ve = distance of the second
the diagram first. image in front of the eyepiece lens.
(d) The virtual image I2 and the fe = focal length of the eyepiece lens.
virtual rays from it should be shown Total magnification = m0 x me
as broken lines. Total magnification =
x
Total Magnification produced by
Compound Microscope
 Magnification of the objective Example 16
Figure 1.41 shows two convex lenses
lens, m0 =
A and B used to produce a magnified
where v0 = image distance from virtual image of an object.
L1 and u = object distance from
L1.
 Taking f0 as the focal length of
the objective lens, then, from
the lens formula:
+ = Figure 1.41
………………………………….(1) (a) Determine the focal length of lens
Multiplying equation (1) through by A. (Take 1 unit to represent 10 cm)
v0 gives: (1 mark)
+ = or + 1 = 10 cm

…………………...(2) (b) State the function of:

(i) Lens A. (1 mark)
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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

Lens A, placed closer to the object, mT = 0.2 x 10.2

magnifies the object to an image mT = 2.04
that serves as the object to B.
Example 17
(ii) Lens B. (1 mark)
Lens B is used for viewing. It A compound microscope with
magnifies the image produced by objective lens L1 of focal length 0.8
lens A to a bigger virtual image. cm and an eyepiece lens L2 of focal
(c) State how the function in (b) is length 2.5 cm is shown in figure 1.42.
achieved by: An object O is placed in front of the
(i) Lens A. (1 mark) objective lens at a distance u1 of 1.2
The object is placed between F0 and cm. The system forms the first image
2F0 so that a real, inverted and I1 and the final image I2 at a distance
magnified image is produced. of 10 cm from L2.

(ii) Lens B. (1 mark)

The lens is adjusted so that the
image falls between the principal
focus and itself.
Figure 1.42

(d) Determine the magnification Determine the:

produced by: (a) Distance of the image I1 from the
(i) Lens A. (2 marks) lens L1.
mA = – 1 Solution
= +
mA = –1
f0 = 0.8 cm and u1 = 1.2 cm
mA = 0.2
= +
(ii) Lens B. (2 marks)
= - = =
mB = –1
v1 = 2.4 cm
mB = 10.2
(b) Distance of separation between L1
(iii) The whole system. (2 marks) and L2.
mT = mA x mB v 1 + u2 = d
u2 = d – v1
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u2 = d – 2.4
v2 = 10 cm and fe = 2.5 cm
= +

= +

= - = =
3d – 7.2 = 10
3d = 17.2
d = 5.733 cm

3. The Camera
 This is an instrument used for
taking photographs.
 It consists of a light-tight box
blackened on the inside, a
system of lenses, a shutter and
a photographic film for Figure 1.43
receiving the image, (figure  The lens focuses light from an
1.43). object to form an image of the
object on the film.
 Focusing is done by adjusting
the distance between the lens
and the film or moving the
camera away from or towards
the object.
 The stop (or diaphragm) is an
adjustable aperture that controls
the amount of light entering the
camera.
 The shutter allows light to
reach the film only for a precise

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period when the camera is (c) State the functions of the shutter
operated. and the parts labeled A and B.
 The inside is blackened to (3 marks)
absorb any stray light. Shutter – Controls the exposure
time.
Example 18 A – Diaphragm: Controls intensity
Figure 1.44 shows the features of a of light entering the camera.
simple camera. B – Film: This is where the image is
formed.

4. The Human Eye

 The human eye is a natural
optical instrument.
 Figure 1.45 shows the main
features of the human eye.

Figure 1.44

(a) Name the parts labeled A and B.

(2 marks)
A – Diaphragm B - Film

(b) A still object is placed at a certain

distance from the camera. Explain the
adjustments necessary for a clear
Figure 1.45
image of the object to be formed.
(2 marks) (a) Sclerotic Layer
(i) Adjust the distance between the  This is the white hard shell that
object and the camera so as to get encloses the eye.
focused image on the screen. (b) Cornea
(ii) Adjust the aperture to control  This is the front part of the
the exposure time. sclerotic layer that is
transparent.

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 The main refraction of light in the rods and cones in the

entering the eye occurs at the retina.
cornea.  This change, however, usually
 The cornea has more than twice requires several minutes to be
the power of the lens of the eye. completed. In some cases, a
longer time, extending to a few
days may be required for full
(c) Choroid adjustment. This might happen
 This is a layer of black tissue after an eye operation in which
inside the sclerotic layer. the eye has been covered for a
 It supplies blood to the eye. long time.
 It also contains black colouring
(f) Crystalline Lens
which reduces reflection of  This is a bi-convex converging
light within the eye. lens of a jelly-like, flexible and
(d) Aqueous Humour transparent material.
 This is the clear liquid between  The lens has a higher refractive
the cornea and the lens. index (n = 1.44) than the
 It helps the eye to maintain its surrounding transparent
shape. medium (n = 1.33), which
(e) Iris maintains the spherical shape of
 This is the coloured ring of the the eye.
eye.  The lens, together with the
 It has a circular hole in its cornea, forms a real, inverted
centre called the pupil, through and diminished image on the
which light enters the eye. retina.
 The iris controls the amount of  The lens is suspended inside
light entering the eye by the eye by a circular band of
automatically adjusting the size ligaments.
of the pupil according to the  The ligaments are attached to a
intensity of light falling on it. circular ring of muscle called
the ciliary muscle.
Note:
 The eye also changes its Note:
sensitivity to light by varying
the concentration of chemicals

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Although the image formed on the the cells which then send
retina is inverted, the brain can electrical signals along the
interpret it correctly. nerve fibres through the optic
(g) Ciliary Muscle nerves to the brain.
 This is the muscle on which the  The retina contains two types
lens is suspended inside the of light-sensitive cells which,
eye. due to their shapes, are called
 They control the shape of the rods and cones.
lens through relaxation or  Over the whole of the retina,
contraction. the majority of the cells are
 When the ciliary muscle is rods.
relaxed, the lens has its longest  Rods are sensitive to a low
focal length and focuses rays level of light but do not give
from distant objects onto the much detail or sharpness to the
retina. image.
 Contraction of the ciliary (j) Fovea
muscle reduces tension in the  This is the central part of the
lens, making it more curved retina.
and more powerful. The
 Cone-shaped cells are packed
shorter focal length lens now
focuses images of near objects closely together in the fovea.
on the retina.  Therefore, our eyes have the
best detail and colour vision
(h) Vitreous Humour around the fovea
 This is a transparent jelly-like (k) Blind Spot
substance that fills the chamber
 This is the point where the
between the lens and the retina.
millions of nerve fibres leave
(i) Retina the retina.
 This is the inner layer of the  It contains cells that are not
eye which contains light sensitive to light.
sensitive cells and nerve fibres.
Accommodation
 Images are formed on the
 This refers to the ability of the
retina.
lens of the eye to change its
 Light falling on the retina focal length and produce
produces chemical changes in

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focused images of both distant

and near objects on the retina. DEFECTS OF VISION
 The eye lens changes its
focusing distance by changing 1. Short-sightedness (Myopia)
 In this defect, the eye can only
its shape.
see clearly near objects but not
 The change in the shape of the
ones that are far away.
lens inside the eye only slightly
 Rays from a near object are
adjusts the focal length of the
clearly focused on the retina
whole eye.
whereas those from a distant
 Our accommodation becomes
object are focused in front of
more and more limited as we
the retina, [figure 1.46 (a)].
get older.
 The actual far point for such an
Near Point
eye may be only a metre or less
 This refers to the closest point
away, [figure 1.46 (b)].
which the unaided eye can
 Hence, images of distant
focus clearly, without
objects appear blurred.
noticeable strain of the eye.
 For the normal eye, it is 25 cm.
 This distance is also known as
the least distance of distinct
vision.
Far Point
 This refers to the farthest point
which can be seen clearly by
unaided eye.
 It is at infinity for the normal
eye. Figure 1.46

Example 19 Cause of the Defect

State what is meant by the term (i) The eyeball may be too long.
accommodation as applied to the (ii) The eye lens may have a short
human eye. (1 mark) focal length.
The process of the eye lens being
Correction
adjusted to focus objects at various
distance.
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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

 The defect is corrected by using The eye ball being too long.
a diverging spectacle lens. (c) State how the defect in (a) can be
 It diverges the rays from a corrected. (1 mark)
distant object so that they By using a diverging spectacle lens.
appear to come from a virtual
image at the far point. 2. Long-sightedness (Hypermetropia)
 The eye can focus on this  In this defect, the eye can only
virtual image it is nearer than see distant objects clearly, but
the real object, [figure 1.46 not near ones.
(c)].  Images of near objects are
formed behind the retina,
Note: [figure 1.48 (a)].
A meniscus-shaped lens is usually  The near point is farther away
used to match the curvature of the than for a normal eye, [figure
eye. 1.48 (b)].
 Hence, images of near objects
Example 20 appear blurred.
Figure 1.47 shows how a ray from a Cause of the defect
distant and a near object are focused (i) The eyeball may be too short.
inside a human eye with a certain (ii) The eye lens may have a long
defect. focal length.

Correction
 The defect is corrected by using
a converging spectacle lens.
 It converges the rays from a
near object so that they appear
to come from a virtual image at
Figure 1.47 the near point.
 The eye can focus on this
(a) Name the defect. (1 mark)
Short sightedness virtual image because it is
furthest away than the real
(b) State the cause of the defect. object, [figure 1.48 (c)].
(1mk)

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Eye Camera
(i) The focal The focal
length of the length is
eye lens is fixed.
variable.
(ii) It has a Cameras with
constant image zoom lens
distance. have variable
image
distance.
(iii) It is always Only one
open to form photograph
constantly can be taken
Figure 1.48 changing at a time
pictures. when the
Table 6: Similarities between the Eye shutter of the
camera opens
and the Camera
Eye Camera
(i) It has a It has a
crystalline convex lens.
convex lens.
(ii) The choroid The camera
layer of the box is painted
eye is black. black inside.
(iii) Images are Images are
formed on the formed on the
retina. light-sensitive
film.
(iv) The iris The
controls the diaphragm
amount of controls the
light entering amount of
the eye. light entering
the camera.

Table 7: Differences between the Eye

and the Camera

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UNIFORM CIRCULAR
MOTION
Introduction
 Circular motion refers to
movement along a curved path.
 When the speed of a body
moving in a circular path is
constant, the body is said to be
moving with uniform circular
motion.
 Examples of bodies moving in
circular paths include the
merry-go-round, turntable, a
wheel turning round the axle, a
stone whirled at the end of a
string, a motorist or cyclist
moving along a curved path,
the earth and other planets
revolving round the sun in their
orbits.

DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Angular Displacement
 This is defined as the angle in
radians through which a point
revolves around a centre on a
circular path.
 Consider a particle moving
along the arc from A to B in
figure 2.1

Chapter Two

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

 Considering very small

changes, we have;
=

 But = and = v (linear

velocity)
 Therefore;
Figure 2.1 =

 The radius OA sweeps through  Thus, v = r

an angle θ.
The angle in radians, θc = Note:
Any object in circular motion has
both linear velocity (m/s or ms⁻1) and
θc =
angular velocity (rad/s or rads⁻1),
(figure 2.2).
Note:

(2π)c = 3600

2. Angular Velocity

 This is defined as the change of

angular displacement with time.
 Angular velocity is denoted by
the Greek letter ɷ (read as
omega).
 Angular velocity is expressed Figure 2.2
in radians per second (rad/s
Relationship between Angular
or rads⁻1)
Velocity ( and Frequency (f) of
 = Rotation
 Dividing both sides of the
 The time taken to make one
equation θc = by t gives: complete revolution is called
= the period (T).

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 T= (c) Speed of the car.

v= r
 T= v = 12.57 x 0.3 v = 3.771 ms⁻1
 T= (d) Angular velocity of the car if it
moves with a uniform speed of 2 ms⁻1
 Also, T = , since =
in a circle of radius 0.4 m.
 Since T = and , then; = = = 5 rads⁻1
= 2πf
Example 3
Example 1 Figure 2.3 shows two masses 0.1 kg
A turntable rotates at the rate of 45
and 0.2 kg connected by a string
rev/min. Calculate its angular
through a hole on a smooth horizontal
velocity.
surface.
Solution
= 2πf
=2x x = 4.714 rads⁻1

Example 2
A model car moves round a circular
track of radius 0.3 m at the rate 2
revolutions per second. Figure 2.3
Calculate the: The 0.1 kg mass rotates in a
(a) Angular velocity. horizontal circle of radius 3 cm.
Solution Calculate the angular velocity of the
= 2πf mass when the system is in
= 2π x 2 = 12.57 rads⁻1 equilibrium. Use acceleration due to
gravity, g = 10 ms⁻2.
(b) Period. Solution
T= T= T = 0.5 s Centripetal force F = tension T =
m 2r
Alternatively; 0.2 x 10 = 0.1 x 2 x 0.03
T= T= T = 0.5 s 2
= 666.7 = 25.82 rads⁻1

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Example 4 Therefore, = = 6 rads⁻1

Figure 2.4 shows a flywheel of radius
Example 5
14 cm suspended about a horizontal
(a) A glass block of mass 100 g is
axis through its centre so that it can
placed in turn at various distances
rotate freely about the axis. A thread
from the centre of a table which is
is wrapped round the wheel and a
rotating at constant angular velocity.
mass attached to its loose end so as to
It is found that at a distance of 8.0 cm
hang at a point 1.26 m above the
from the centre, the block just starts to
ground.
slide off the table. If the force of
When the mass is released, it
friction between the block and the
accelerates at 0.28 ms⁻2.
table is 0.4 N, determine the:
(i) Angular velocity of the table.
Solution
Centripetal force FC = Frictional force
fr
m 2r = 0.4
0.1 x 2 x 0.08 = 0.4
2
= 50
= = 7.071 rads⁻1

(ii) Force required to hold the block at

a distance of 12 cm form the centre of
Figure 2.4 the table.
FC = m 2r
Determine the angular velocity of the FC = 0.1 x 50 x 0.12 FC = 0.60 N
wheel just before the mass strikes the Force required = 0.60 – 0.40
ground. F = 0.20 N
Solution
= (b) A glass block of mass 200 g is
now placed at a distance of 8.0 cm
v2 = u2 + 2as from the centre of the table in (i)
v2 = 0 + (2 x 0.28 x 1.26) above, and the table rotated at the
v2 = 0.7056 same constant angular velocity. State
v= v = 0.84 ms⁻1 with a reason whether or not the block
will slide.

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The block will slide off. This is It is the rate of change of angular
because although the frictional displacement with time.
force is greater, more centripetal
(b) A body moving with uniform
force would be needed to hold the
angular velocity is found to have
glass in place. covered an angular distance of 170
Example 6 radians in t seconds. Thirteen seconds
later, it is found to have covered a
Figure 2.5 shows a stone attached to
total angular distance of 300 radians.
the end of a string moving in a Determine t. (3 marks)
horizontal circle with a uniform speed =
of 2 ms⁻1. When the stone reaches
point X on the circle, the string = = = 10 rads⁻1
breaks. 10 x t = 170 t = 17 s
or
= t= t = 17 s

3. Centripetal Acceleration
Figure 2.5  This defined as the acceleration
of an object directed towards
(a) Indicate on the diagram with an
arrow, the direction of motion of the the centre of the circular path..
stone when the string breaks.  It can be shown that centripetal
(b) State the magnitude of the velocity acceleration is given by the
after the string breaks. formula:
Solution 2
a= or a = r
v = 2 ms⁻1
Note:
(c) Give a reason for your answer in Although the body is described as
(a) and (b) above. moving with constant speed, the fact
The stone obeys Newton’s first law is that the instantaneous velocities are
of motion. Due to its inertia, there is changing every time implying that the
no external force that acts on it. body is accelerating.

Example 7
(a) Define the term angular velocity.
(1 marks)

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Example 8  To maintain the stone in the

A point on the rim of a wheel has a circular path, there must be a
velocity of 5.6 ms⁻1. If the rim has a force acting on it. This force is
radius of 0.4 m, calculate: referred to as the centripetal
(a) The angular velocity of the point. force.
 Centripetal force is defined as:
Solution
The resultant force acting on a
v= r
body moving in a circular path
= = = 14 rads⁻1 and is directed towards the
centre of the circle.
(b) Its centripetal acceleration.
a = 2r  If the string is suddenly
released, the stone will fly off
a = 142 x 0.4 a = 78.4 ms⁻2.
tangentially along direction X
as shown in the figure.
Alternative method;
 This indicates that some force
a= is required to maintain an
object in a circular motion.
a= a = 78.4 ms⁻2
Note:
4. Centripetal Force The tension in the string keeps the
 Consider a stone tied to one end string taut.
of a string and whirled
Factors Affecting Centripetal Force
horizontally with constant
(i) Mass, m of the object
speed.
The heavier the object, the larger
 The stone describes a circular
centripetal force required to keep it
path of constant radius, (figure
moving in the circular path, and vice
2.6) versa, i.e., m
(ii) Angular velocity, of the object
The higher the rate of whirling, the
larger the centripetal force required.
(iii) Radius, r of the circular path
The shorter the radius of the circular
path, the larger the centripetal force
required.

Figure 2.6
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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

Mathematical Expression of the Example 10

Centripetal Force A body having a mass of 0.5 kg is tied
to a string and whirled in a horizontal
 Resultant force, Fc = ma
circle of radius 2 m with a speed of
(Newton’s second law of linear
3.16 ms⁻1. Calculate the:
motion)
(a) Centripetal acceleration.
 But centripetal acceleration,
Solution
a= .
a=
 Therefore, Fc = m x
a= a = 4.9928 ms⁻2
 Thus, centripetal force is given
by: (b) Tension in the string.
Fc = Tension, T = centripetal force, F

 Since v = r, then the T=F= = ma

centripetal force can also be T = F = 0.5 x 4.9928 T = 2.4964 N
expressed as follows:
Example 11
Fc = Fc =
An aeroplane is travelling in a circle
 Thus, Fc = m 2
r of radius 2,500 m at a speed of 200
ms⁻1. Calculate the:
Example 9 (a) Radial (centripetal) acceleration of
A bus weighing 6.0 x 104 N is driven the plane.
at a speed of 20 ms⁻1 around a Solution
horizontal bend that has a radius of
a=
250 m. Calculate the centripetal of the
road surface on the wheels of the bus. a= a = 16 ms⁻2
(Take g = 10 N/kg).
W = mg (b) Time taken to complete one
m= = 6 000 kg revolution.
Time for one revolution = Period of
Fc = motion = T
T= =
Fc = Fc = 9 600 N
T= T = 75.57 s

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Example 12 (I). Increasing the speed of rotation

A boy of mass 50 kg is on a swing of the mass m.
which has a speed of 10 ms⁻1 at the (II). Reducing the radius of the
lowest point of its motion. The rope circular path.
of the swing is 2.5 m long. Determine
the tension in the rope. (Take g = 10 (b) Figure 2.10 shows an object at the
end of a light spring balanced
N/kg).
connected to a peg using a spring. The
Solution object is moving in a circular path on
a smooth horizontal table with a
constant speed.

Figure 2.10
Figure 2.9
(i) State what provides the centripetal
The centripetal force is the net (or force. (1 mk)
unbalanced) force directed towards
the centre of the circular path. Tension in the spring supporting
Let tension = T the object.
Weight, W = Force, F = mg
(ii) Indicate with an arrow on the
F = 50 x 10 F = 500 N
figure the direction of the centripetal
Net force towards the centre = Fc
force. (1 mark)
T – 500 = Fc
Fc = (iii) State a reason why the object is
accelerating while its speed remains
T – 500 = constant. (1 mark)
T – 500 = 200 T = 2 500 N There is change in the direction of
instantaneous velocity at various
Example 13 points along the circular path.
(a) State two ways in which the
centripetal force on a body of mass m
can be increased. (2 marks)

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(iv) Given that the mass of the object The force holding the water in the
is 0.5 kg and it is moving at a speed of fabric isn’t strong to hold the water
8 ms⁻1 at a radius of 2 m, determine in the same circular path as the
the reading on the spring balance.
clothes when the drum rotates. The
(3 marks)
water therefore breaks away from
Reading on the spring balance =
the clothes and flies out through the
centripetal force
hole in the drum.
F=
MOTION IN A HORIZONTAL
F= F = 16 N
CIRCLE
Example 14 Case Examples of Horizontal
Figure 2.11 shows a container with
Circular Motion
small holes at the bottom in which
wet clothes have been put. When the (a) A Car Negotiating a Level
container is whirled in air at high Circular Bend
speed as shown, it is observed that the  When a car travelling with a
clothes dry faster. uniform speed passes a level
circular path, it experiences a
centripetal force, (figure 2.12).

Figure 2.11
Figure 2.12
Explain how the rotation of the
 The frictional force between the
container causes the clothes to dry
faster. (3 marks) tyres and the road provides the
centripetal force.

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

 The centripetal force is always speeds without running the risk

directed towards the centre of of skidding or overturning.
the curvature.  This is made possible by
 Thus, Fr = Fc, where Fr is the gradually raising the road from
frictional force and Fc the the inner side of the bend, so
centripetal force. that the track attains a saucer-
 Therefore, Fr = . like shape.
 The road is then said to be
 If the road is slippery the banked, (figure 2.13).
frictional force may not be
sufficient to provide the
centripetal force. As a result,
skidding may occur.
 To prevent skidding, the car
should not exceed a certain
speed limit referred to as the
critical speed. Figure 2.13
 Critical speed depends on the
radius of the bend. The bigger  The critical speed depends on
the radius, the higher the the:
critical speed. (i) Radius of the track.
 Centripetal force also depends (ii) Angle of banking.
on the:  The bigger the angle of
(i) Condition of the car tyres. banking, the larger the
(ii) Nature of the road surface. centripetal force.
Note:
Note: In banked road, the angle of banking
New car tyres and a rough road
is such that the centripetal force
surface are necessary for sufficient
acting on the car comes from the
frictional force to be produced.
reaction R of the road, (figure 2.14)

(b) Banked Track

 Sports cars can negotiate
corners at extremely high

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

raising the other) so that the lift

force (which is still at right
angles to the wings) now has a
horizontal component, (figure
2.15)

Figure 2.14

Example 15 Figure 2.15

(a) When a bus goes round a bend on
a flat road, it experiences a centripetal (d) A Cyclist moving Round a
force. State what provides the Circular Track
centripetal force.  When a cyclist is turning round
Solution a curved corner, the forces
Frictional force between the tyres acting on him are his weight, W
and the road surface. (mg) and the normal reaction,
R.
(b) State the purpose of banking roads  The frictional force provides
at bends.
the centripetal force, which is
So that the reaction of the road can
also provide the centripetal force. directed towards the centre of
the circular track.
(c) Aircraft banking  The centripetal force is
 When an aircraft is in level unbalanced and this causes
flight, its weight is exactly centripetal acceleration.
balanced by the lifting force on  If the frictional force is not
the wings which acts vertically sufficient to provide the
upwards. centripetal force, the cyclist
 To turn the plane, a centripetal skids.
force must be applied.  In order to avoid the problem of
 This is done by gradually skidding, it is common practice
banking the plane (lowering for the cyclist to lean inwards.
one wing on one side and

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 By so doing, the normal But R = mg

reaction and the frictional So, Fr y = mg x
forces produce the turning
effects about the centre of (e) Conical Pendulum
gravity G in the clockwise and  Figure 2.17 shows a ball
the anticlockwise directions moving in a horizontal circle.
respectively, (figure 2.16)

Figure 2.17

 When the angular velocity

increases, the ball rises. Hence,
the angle θ also increases.
 The working of the mechanical
speed governor and the merry-
go-round operates on the
principle of the conical
pendulum.

MOTION IN A VERTICAL
CIRCLE
 Figure 2.18 shows a ball of
mass m tied to one end of a
string length r and whirled with
Figure 2.16
uniform speed in a vertical
At equilibrium, Fr y=R x circle centre O.

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(ii) Positions C and D

 OC and OD are horizontal.
 The tension in the string is TC
or TD.
 The weight mg acts vertically
downwards and has no
component in the horizontal
direction OC and OD.
 Therefore, centripetal force is
given by:
Fc = TC =

TC = …………… (2)
Figure 2.18
 The forces acting on the ball at
(iii) Position B
any instant are its weight, W
 This is the lowest point of the
(mg), which acts vertically
motion.
downwards and the tension, T
 The weight mg acts in the
in the string, which is always
opposite direction to the
directed towards the centre of
tension TB in the string.
the circle.
 The centripetal force is given
 The tension in the string
by:
changes in magnitude at
different positions of the ball. Fc = TB - mg =
(i) Position A
TB = + mg …………. (3)
 Both the tension and weight act
in the same direction Note:
(downwards). (a) The tension in the string is
 The tension, TA and the weight maximum when the object is at its
mg provide the centripetal lowest point in its motion. The string
force. is most likely to snap at this position.
(b) The tension is minimum when the
 Fc = TA + mg =
object is at the highest point of the
TA = – mg ……..…….(1) circle.

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(c) At the highest point of the circle, a Case Examples of Vertical Circular
certain minimum speed must be Motion
maintained in order to keep the string
(a) A bucket of water whirled in a
taut.
vertical plane without any water
(d) For minimum speed (velocity), falling out when the bucket is
TA = 0, i.e., vertically above the point of support,
- mg = 0 (figure 2.19).

= mg
vmin =

Example 16
(c) A student whirls a stone of mass
0.2 kg tied to a string of length 0.4 m
in a vertical plane at a constant speed
of 2 revolutions per second. Figure 2.19
(Take acceleration due to gravity,  The weight mg of the water is
g = 10 ms⁻2) less than the required
(i) State two forces acting on the
centripetal force i.e., > mg.
stone when it is at the highest point.
 Tension in the string. Therefore, the water stays in
 Its weight. the in the bucket.
 The reaction R of the bucket
(ii) Determine the: base on the water provides the
I. Angular velocity of the stone. rest of the centripetal force.
= 2πf  If the bucket is whirled slowly
=2xπx2 = 12.57 rads⁻1
and mg is greater than , part
II. Tension in the string when the of the weight provides the
stone is at the highest point. centripetal force. The rest of the
T = m 2r – mg weight causes the water to
T = (0.2 x 12.572 x 0.4) – (0.2 x 10) accelerate downward and hence
T = 12.640392 – 2 to leave the bucket.
T = 10.640392 N

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(b) A pilot not strapped to his seat in a (ii) Frictional force: This is the
‘looping the loop’ manoeuvre without force generated by the particles
falling. as they migrate through the
(c) A ball bearing ‘looping the loop’ solution.
on a certain rail lying in a vertical  When the centrifugal force
plane. exceeds the buoyant and
(d) A toy car on a ‘looping the loop’ frictional forces, the particles
track. move away from the axis of
rotation resulting in
APPLICATIONS OF UNIFORM
sedimentation of the particles at
CIRCULAR MOTION
a constant rate.
1. The Centrifuge.  The rate of sedimentation
 It is used to separate solids depends upon:
suspended in liquids, (i) The magnitude of the
immiscible liquids of different centrifugal force.
densities, or gas particles of (ii) Density and radius of the
different mass. particles.
 It consists of small metal tubes (iii) Density and viscosity of
which are rotated at a definite the suspending medium.
speed in a rotor in a horizontal
in a circle. Note:
 Rotation of the rotor about a Centrifugal force is the apparent
central axis generates a force that is experienced by an object
centrifugal force upon each of moving in a circular path that acts
the particles in the suspension. outwardly away from the centre of
 Two forces counteract the rotation.
centrifugal force acting on the
suspended particles: 2. Satellites
(i) Bouyant force: This is  A satellite is a smaller body
the force with which the held in orbit around a bigger
particles must displace body by gravitational force.
the liquid media into  The gravitational force provides
which they sediment. the centripetal force.

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 The moon is a natural satellite Chapter Three

of the earth.
FLOATING AND SINKING
 Satellites that have been placed
in orbit by various countries are Introduction
called artificial satellites.  Heavy steel ships float on
 They are used for water, even though steel is
communications, weather denser than water.
forecasting, remote sensing and  When a wooden cork is
observation, mapping and immersed in water and the
surveying. released, it immediately rises to
the surface.
3. Speed Governor  It is easier to lift a heavy stone
The principle of the conical pendulum when it is immersed in water
is used in the operation of speed than when it is in air because
governors. there is always an upward force
acting on a floating object or
one immersed in a liquid.
 This upward force is referred to
as upthrust.

Experiment 3.1: To investigate the

relationship between upthrust and
weight of a fluid displaced.

Apparatus
Spring balance calibrated in newton, a
piece of stone, string, Eureka can,
beaker.

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

 Fill the Eureka can with water

until it flows out freely through
the spout. Leave the can in that
position.
 Weigh the empty beaker (a
beam balance may be used and
the mass converted to weight).
 Put the beaker in position under
the spout and then partially
immerse the stone into the
water, as shown in figure 3.1
(b).
 Wait until the dripping stops,
then weigh the beaker plus the
contents.
 Record the weight of the
partially immersed stone.
 Remove the object from the
water.
 Repeat the experiment with the
object totally immersed, as in
figure 3.1 (c).

Results and Calculation

Weight of object in air = W1
Weight of object when partially
immersed in water = W2
Figure 3.1 Weight of empty beaker = W3
Weight of beaker + water displaced
Procedure (object partially immersed) = W4
 Tie the stone with a string, then
Weight of object when totally
suspend it on the spring
immersed in water = W5
balance, as in figure 3.1 (a).
Weight of beaker + water displaced
 Record the weight of the stone
(object totally immersed) = W6
in air.
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(i) Object Partially Immersed experiments to measure the

Apparent loss in weight of the stone = upthrust of a liquid..
W1 – W2 Summary:
Wait of water displaced = W4 – W3 (a) Upthrust = Weight of the fluid
displaced.
(i) Object Totally Immersed (b) Upthrust = Weight in air –
Apparent loss in weight of the stone = Apparent weight
W1 – W5 (c) The magnitude of the upthrust
Wait of water displaced = W6 – W3 depends on the;
(i) Volume of the fluid displaced.
Observation (ii) Density of the fluid.
When the object is partially
immersed, the apparent loss in weight Note:
(W1 – W2) equals the weight of water (i) The term ‘fluid’ refers to a ‘liquid’
displaced (W4 – W3) or a ‘gas’.
Similarly, when the object is totally (ii) The object used in the experiment
immersed, the apparent loss in weight should not be porous, soluble and/ or
(W1 – W5) equals the weight of water one that can react with the liquid
displaced (W6 – W3). used.

Conclusion Cause of Upthrust

 The results above are a  A floating or immersed object
verification of Archimedes’ experiences upthrust due to the
Principle. pressure of the fluid acting on
it.
Archimedes’ Principle  The upthrust of a liquid
 It states that: reduces with increase in
When a body is partially or temperature.
totally immersed in a fluid, it
experiences an upthrust equal Upthrust in Gases
to the weight of the fluid  Like liquids, gases exert
displaced. upthrust on objects in them.
 Archimedes was a Greek  The upthrust in air is small
scientist who first carried out owing to its low density (about
1.3 kgm⁻3).
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 However, upthrust in air is the weight of the air displaced

sufficient to make balloons by the balloon. This is because
filled with hydrogen gas the volume of the air in the
(density about 0.09 kgm⁻3) or balloon is nearly equal to the
helium (density about 0.18 volume of the air displaced.
kgm⁻3) to rise.  Thus, the upthrust on the
 Consider the balloon in figure balloon due to the air is less
3.2(a) than the weight of the air in the
balloon plus the fabric of the
balloon, i.e, (W > U).
 Therefore, the balloon stays on
the ground due to the resultant
downward force, W – U.
 Now consider the balloon filled
with hydrogen or helium gas
[figure 3.2 (b)].
 The weight of the gas plus the
balloon fabric is less than the
weight of the air displaced by
the balloon.
 In this case, the upthrust U
exerted by the air on the
balloon is greater than the
weight W of the gas in the
balloon plus the balloon fabric,
i.e., U > W.
 The resultant upward force (U –
W) lifts the balloon upwards.

Figure 3.2

 If it is inflated with air to a Example 1

certain volume, then the weight (Use acceleration due to gravity = 10
of the air in the balloon plus the Nkg⁻1)
balloon fabric is greater than

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A metal block of density 2 500 kgm⁻3 (b) Volume of the stone.

occupies a volume of 0.1 m⁻3. Upthrust = weight of the water
Calculate the: displaced = 0.8 N
(a) Weight of the metal block. Mass of water displaced =
Solution
= 0.08 kg
Mass, m = density x volume
Mass, m = 2 500 x 0.1 Volume of water displaced =
m = 250 kg = 8.0 x 10⁻5 m3
Weight, W = mg
Thus, volume of the stone
W = 250 x 10
W = 2 500 N = 8.0 x 10⁻5 m3

(c) Density of the stone.

(b) Apparent weight of the block
when immersed in water of density Density =
1000 kgm⁻3.
Upthrust = weight of water Density =
displaced
U = mg Density = 2 500 kgm⁻3
U = 1 000 x 0.1 x 10
Example 3
U = 1 000 N
A cylindrical solid of length 5 cm and
Apparent weight = 2 500 – 1 000 uniform area of cross-section 50.24
= 1 500 N
cm2 is suspended from a spring
balance and totally immersed in
Example 2
water. If the density of the material of
A stone weighs 2.0 N in air and 1.2 N
the solid is 1.25 gcm⁻3, determine the:
when totally immersed in water.
(a) Volume of the solid, in m3.
(Density of water = 1000 kgm⁻3)
Volume = area of cross-section x
Calculate the:
length
(a) Upthrust on the stone.
VS = 50.24 x 5 x 10⁻6 m3
Solution
VS = 2.512 x 10⁻4 m3
Upthrust = weight in air – apparent
weight
(b) Upthrust on the solid.
Upthrust = 2.0 – 1.2
Upthrust = weight of the water
U = 0.8 N
displaced.

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Volume of water displaced Volume of air displaced by the

= 2.512 x 10⁻4 m3 balloon = 36 m3
Mass of water displaced Mass of air displaced by the balloon
= 1000 x 2.512 x 10⁻4 = 36 x 1.3
MW = 0.2512 kg Mass of air displaced = 46.8 kg
Weight of water displaced Weight of air displaced = 46.8 x 10
= 0.2512 x 10 = 468 N
= 2.512 N Weight of air displaced = upthrust
Thus, Upthrust = 468 N
upthrust = 2.512 N
(b) Weight of the balloon and its
(c) Reading on the spring balance. content.
Spring balance reading = apparent Mass of helium gas in the balloon =
weight 0.18 x 36
Mass of the solid Mass of helium gas = 6.48 kg
= 1250 x 2.512 x 10⁻4 Weight of helium gas = 6.48 x 10
MS = 0.314 kg = 64.8 N
Weight of the solid in air Weight of the inflated balloon
= 0.314 x 10 = 120 + 64.8
W = 3.14 N Weight of the inflated balloon =
Apparent weight 184.8 N
= real weight – up thrust
Apparent weight = 3.14 – 2.512 (c) Maximum load that the balloon
Apparent weight = 0.628 N can lift.
Maximum load = upthrust – weight
Example 4 of inflated balloon
A meteorological balloon has a Maximum load = 468 – 184.8
volume of 36 m3. It is filled with Maximum load = 283.2 N
helium gas of density 0.18 kgm⁻3. The
weight of the balloon fabric is 120 N.
(Density of air is 1.3 kgm⁻3).
Example 5
Calculate the: Figure 3.3 shows a rectangular metal
(a) Upthrust on the balloon.
block of density 10,500 kgm⁻3 and
Solution
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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

dimensions 30 cm x 20 cm x 20 cm Volume of liquid displaced =

suspended inside a liquid of density volume of the block
1,200 kgm⁻3 by a string attached to a Mass, ML of liquid displaced
point above the liquid. The three = 1 200 x 0.012
forces acting on the block are the ML = 14.4 kg
tension T, on the string, the weight W, Weight, WL of the liquid displaced
of the block and the upthrust U due to = 14.4 x 10
the liquid. WL = 144 N

(iii) Tension in the string.

T=W–U
T = 1 260 – 144
T = 1 116 N

Example 6
Determine the volume of brass of
density 8.5 gcm⁻3 that must be
Figure 3.3 attached to a piece of wood of mass
(a) Write the expression relating T, W 100 g and density 0.2 gcm⁻3 so that
the two together will just submerge
and U when the block is in
beneath the water. (Density of water =
equilibrium inside the liquid. 1 gcm⁻3)
W=T+U Solution
Note:
(b) Determine the:
The two will just submerge when
(i) Weight, W of the block. their average density is equal to the
Volume, V = 0.3 x 0.2 x 0.2 density of water.
= 0.012 m3 Let volume of brass = (V) cm3
Mass, Mb of the block Then, mass of brass = (8.5V) g
= 10,500 x 0.012 = 126 kg Volume of wood, vw =
Weight, Wb of the block = 126 x 10
vw = 500 cm3
Wb = 1 260 N
Total mass = 100 + 8.5V
(ii) Weight of the liquid displaced by
Total volume = 500 + V
the fully submerged block.
Density =

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=1  Determine the volume of water

displaced.
100 + 8.5V = 500 + V
 Remove the test tube from the
7.5V = 400
cylinder, dry it and determine
V = 53.33 cm3
its weight.
 Repeat the experiment four
Law of Flotation times, adding a little more sand
EXPERIMENT 3.1: To investigate each time.
the upthrust on a floating object.  Record the results in table 3.1.

Apparatus Table 3.1

Measuring cylinder, water, test-tube,
sand, weighing balance Weight Volume Mass of Weight
of sand of displaced of
and displaced water displaced
test- water (kg) water.
tube (cm3)
(N)

Observation
Figure 3.4 It is observed that:
(i) the test-tube sinks deeper with
Procedure each addition of sand.
 Half-fill the measuring with (ii) the weight of the test-tube and its
water and record the level. contents is equal to the weight of the
 Place a clean dry test tube into water displaced.
the cylinder and add some sand
to it so that it floats upright, as Conclusion
shown in figure 3.4. A floating object displaces its own
 Record the new water level. weight of the fluid in which it floats.

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This is the law of flotation. V=

V = 0.0625 m3
Note:
This law is a special case of
(c) Weight of the water displaced.
Archimedes’ principle.
Volume of the anchor = volume of the
Example 7 water displaced
A boat of mass 400 tonnes floats in Mass of water displaced
sea water of density 1 030 kgm⁻3. = density x volume
Calculate the volume of the sea water Mass of water displaced
displaced. = 1000 x 0.0625
Solution Mass of water displaced = 62.5 kg
The boat will displace a weight of Weight, W of water displaced
sea water equal to its own weight. = 62.5 x 10
Since weight is proportional to W = 625 N
mass, then the mass of the water
(d) Apparent weight of the anchor
displaced equal mass of the boat.
when it is below the water surface.
Volume, V =
Apparent weight = 5 000 – 625
V= W = 4 375 N

V = 388.3 m3
Example 9
A ship of mass 1 200 tonnes floats in
Example 8
sea water. The ship then enters fresh
A ship’s anchor made of steel has a
water. (Use density of fresh water =
weight of 5,000 N. If the steel has a
1000 kgm⁻3 and density of sea water =
density of 8 000 kgm⁻3, calculate the:
1,030 kgm⁻3). Calculate the:
(a) Mass of the anchor.
(a) Volume of sea water displaced.
W = mg
Solution
m= Weight of sea water displaced =
m = 500 kg weight of the ship.
Therefore, mass of sea water
(b) Volume of the anchor. displaced = mass of the ship.
Volume, V =

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Volume, V = Mass, mL of liquid displaced

= 1.2 x 48.51= 58.212 g
V= Therefore,
V = 1 165 m3 Mass, mT of tube and contents =
58.212 g
(b) Mass of cargo that must be
unloaded so that same volume of Example 11
fresh water is displaced as before. A hydrometer of mass 20 g floats in
Mass of fresh water displaced oil of density 0.8 gcm⁻3, with 5 cm of
= 1 165 x 1000 its stem above the oil. If the cross-
Mass of fresh water displaced sectional area of the stem is 0.4 cm2,
= 1,165,000 kg calculate the:
Mass of fresh water displaced (a) Total volume of the hydrometer.
= 1 165 tonnes Solution
Mass, m of cargo to be unloaded By the law of flotation, the
= 1200 – 1165 hydrometer displaces its own
m = 35 tonnes weight, and hence also its own mass
of any liquid.
Example 10 Therefore, mass of oil displaced =
A glass tube of uniform diameter 2.1 20 g.
cm is weighted to float vertically in a Volume of oil displaced =
liquid. The length of the tube
Vo = 25 cm3
immersed in the liquid is 14 cm. If the
Thus, volume of the hydrometer
density of the liquid is 1.2 gcm⁻3,
immersed in oil = 25 cm3
calculate the mass of the tube and its
Assuming the top is not rounded,
contents.
volume, VS of the stem above the oil
Solution
surface = area of cross-section x
Area of cross-section of the tube =
length
πr2
VS = 0.4 x 5 = 2.0 cm3
Area = x 1.052 Total volume, VT of the hydrometer
Area = 3.465 cm2 = 25 + 2.0 VT= 27.0 cm3
Volume of liquid displaced by the
tube = area of cross-section x length
Volume = 3.465 x 14 = 48.51 cm3

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(b) Length of its stem above the water Calculate the:

surface, if it floats in water of density (a) Weight of liquid Y displaced.
1 gcm⁻3. Solution
Volume of water displaced = Volume, VY of liquid Y displaced:
VY = 5 x 4 x 3 x 10⁻6
VX = = 20 cm3 VY = 6.0 x 10⁻5 m3
Volume of stem above the liquid = Mass, MY of liquid Y displaced =
27.0 – 20 = 7 cm3 800 x 6.0 x 10⁻5
Length of stem above water surface MY = 0.048 kg.
= = 17.5 cm Weight, WY of liquid Y displaced =
0.048 x 10
WY = 0.48 N
Example 12
Figure 3.5 shows a wooden block of (b) Weight of liquid X displaced.
uniform cross-sectional area that is Volume, VX of liquid X displaced:
floating in two liquids, X and Y. The VX = 5 x 4 x 6 x 10⁻6 B
densities of X and Y are 1 000 kgm⁻3
VX = 1.2 x 10⁻4 m3
and 800 kgm⁻3 respectively. The Mass, MX of liquid X displaced:
lengths of the block in each liquid are
MX = 1000 x 1.2 x 10⁻4
as shown.
MX = 0.12 kg.
Weight, WX of liquid X displaced =
0.12 x 10
WX = 1.2 N

(c) Total upthrust on the block.

WY + WX = 0.48 + 1.2
WY + WX = 1.68 N

(d) Density of the block.

Density =

Mass, Mb = = 0.168 kg
Volume, Vb = 5 x 4 x12 x 10⁻6
Vb = 2.4 x 10⁻4 m3
Figure 3.5

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Density = (b) Relative Density of a liquid

 To determine the R.D. of a
Density = 700 kgm⁻3
liquid using Archimedes’
principle, three measurements
Upthrust and Relative Density
are taken:
Archimedes’ principle can be used to
(i) Weight of the solid in air.
determine relative densities of both
(ii) Weight of the solid when
solids and liquids.
totally immersed in water.
(a) Relative Density of a Solid
(iii) Weight of the solid when
 To determine the R.D. of a
totally immersed in a liquid
solid using Archimedes’
whose R.D. is to be determined.
principle, two measurements
are taken:
 By definition;
(i) Weight of the solid in air.
(ii) Weight of the solid when R.D. of a liquid =
totally immersed in water.
 By definition;
 Since mass is directly
R.D. of a solid = proportional to weight, the R.D.
of a liquid can also be
expressed as;
 Since mass is directly R.D. =
proportional to weight, the R.D.
of a solid can also be expressed
as;  Since the same solid is used in
both the water and the liquid,
R.D. =
the volume of water displaced
= volume of liquid displaced.
R.D. =  Thus,
Weight of liquid displaced by solid =
upthrust in the liquid, and;
But, weight of water displaced by
solid = upthrust Weight of water displaced by solid =
Therefore; upthrust in the water.
R.D. of solid = Therefore:

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R.D. of the liquid = R.D. =

R.D. = 2.5

Example 14
Example 13 In an experiment with a metal cube,
A solid of mass 0.8 kg suspended by a the following results were obtained:
string is totally immersed in water. If
the tension in the string is 4.8 N, Weight of the cube in air = 0.5 N
calculate the:
(a) Upthrust on the solid. Weight of the cube when completely
Solution immersed in water = 0.44 N
Weight, W of the solid = 0.8 x 10 Weight of the cube when completely
W = 8.0 N
immersed in oil = 0.46 N
Upthrust, U + tension, T = weight,
W Calculate the relative density of oil.
U = 8.0 – 4.8 Solution
U = 3.2 N R.D. of oil =

(b) Volume of the solid. R.D. =

Upthrust = weight of the water R.D. =
displaced
R.D. = 0.6667
Mass, MW of water displaced =
MW = 0.32 kg
Volume, VW of the water displaced
= Archimedes’ Principle and the
Principle of Moments
VW = 3.2 x 10⁻4 m3
Relative densities of solids and liquids
Volume of water displaced =
can also be determined by use of a
volume, VS of solid
balanced lever.
Therefore, VS = 3.2 x 10⁻4 m3
Example 15
(c) Relative density of the solid.
The system in figure 3.6 is in
R.D = equilibrium.

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

The block in beaker A is larger

than that in beaker B. The larger
block displaces more water and
therefore experiences more
upthrust than the smaller one. This
Figure 3.6 causes the bar to tip towards B.

When the temperature of the water is Example 17

raised, the system is observed to tilt to The uniform bar in figure 3.8 is
the right. Explain this observation. pivoted at its midpoint. It is in
Solution equilibrium under the action of two
As the temperature rises, the identical balloons filled with equal
density of the water reduces and volumes of different light gases at the
hence the upthrust reduces. same temperature.

Example 16
Figure 3.7 shows a uniform bar in
equilibrium.

Figure 3.8

Explain why the bar may not remain

in equilibrium if the temperature of
the surrounding changes.
Figure 3.7 Solution
As the temperature changes, the
When water is added into beakers A volumes of the gases in the balloons
and B until the blocks are submerged, change differently. The two
it is observed that the bar tips towards balloons therefore experience
B. Explain this observation. different upthrust.
Solution

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Applications of Archimedes’
Principle and the Relative Density (i) Wide bulb containing air
 The bulb is made wide so that it
1. The Hydrometer can displace a large volume of
 This is an instrument that can liquid that provides a sufficient
be used to measure the upthrust to keep the hydrometer
densities or relative densities of floating.
liquids directly.  Lead shot is waxed or glued to
 It uses the law of flotation in its the bottom of the bulb so as to
operation. make the hydrometer float
 To determine the density of upright.
liquids, a hydrometer tube is
designed for that purpose. (ii) A narrow graduated hollow stem
 Figure 3.9 shows the main The narrower the tube, the more
features of a modern sensitive it is.
hydrometer.
Note:
Some hydrometers are designed for
special purposes such as;
(a) Lactometer: This is used to
measure density of milk.
(b) Brewer’s hydrometer: This is used
to measure relative density of beer,
from which sugar and alcohol content
can be inferred.
(c) Battery acid hydrometer: This is
used for measuring the density of
battery acid.

2. Balloons
 Balloons used for
Figure 3.9 meteorological investigations
are filled with a gas of low
density, such as hydrogen or
helium.

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 The weight of air displaced by  It floats lower in fresh river

the balloon is greater than the water than in sea water. This is
weight of the gas plus the because fresh water is less
balloon fabric. dense than salty water.
 When released, the balloon  It also floats lower in warm
therefore rises upwards. water than in cold water since
 It gains altitude and at some warm water is less dense than
height where the density of air cold water.
is less than that at the ground,  Ships have special marks on
the upthrust on the balloon is their side, to show how deeply
equal to its weight. the fully loaded ship should
 The resultant force on the float in different kinds of water.
balloon is zero and the balloon The mark is called the plimsoll
stops rising, but may drift off line.
sideways in the direction of
wind. 4. Submarines
 A submarine is designed so that
3. Ships it can float or sink below the
 Ships are constructed using water surface.
steel metal.  It is fitted with large flotation
 The bottom side of the ship is tanks which can be filled with
hollow. water or air, hence varying its
 The hollow steel hull of the weight.
ship sinks down into the water  It the submarine is required to
and displaces water until the sink, the tanks are filled with
weight of the water displaced is water. The weight of the
as great as the weight of the submarine thus becomes greater
ship. than the upthrust due to the
 When the upthrust equals the water on it.
weight of the ship and it floats.
 A ship floats at different levels
depending on the density of
water it is in.

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Chapter Four

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Specific Objectives

By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to:

(a) describe the complete electromagnetic spectrum.
(b) state the properties of electromagnetic waves.
(c) describe the methods of detecting electromagnetic radiations.
(d) describe the applications of electromagnetic radiations.
(e) solve numerical problems involving the relationship:
velocity of electromagnetic wave = frequency x wavelength i.e c = fλ

Introduction
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 Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves which result from oscillating

electric and magnetic fields at right angles to each other.
 Electromagnetic waves include light, radio waves, X-rays, ultraviolet
radiations, infra – red rays, gamma rays and microwaves.

Electromagnetic Spectrum
 When the electromagnetic waves are arranged in order of wavelengths or
frequencies, they form the electromagnetic spectrum, i.e.

Radio waves, Microwaves, Infra-red rays, Visible Light, Ultraviolet

Rays, X-rays, Gamma Rays
Decreasing Wavelength (increasing frequency)

 The wavelengths range from about 1 x 106 m to 1 x 10⁻14 m.

 The wavelength and frequency of a wave are inversely proportional.

Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

Although some E.M waves differ greatly in their wavelengths and effects, they all
have the following properties;
(i) they travel through space (vacuum) with the speed of light i.e 3 x 108 m/s.
(ii) they do not require a medium for transmission.
(iii) they are transverse waves in nature.
(iv) they undergo interference, reflection, diffraction, refraction and polarization
effects.
(v they possess energy in different amounts, according to the relation E = hf,
where h is the Planck’s constant (6.63 x 10-34 Js) and f is the frequency of the
wave.
(vi) they carry no charge and hence they are not affected by electric and
magnetic fields.

The Sources, Detectors, Special Properties and Uses of the Electromagnetic

Waves.

These are summarized in the table below.

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Name Sources Detectors Special Uses

Properties

Gamma 1. Nuclei of 1. Photographic 1. Very 1. Used to kill

Rays radioactive film. penetrating cancerous
atoms. 2. Geiger-Muller due to high- growths
2. Cosmic tube energy 2. used to find
rays photons flaws in metals
2. Very 3. Used to
dangerous sterilize
equipment

X - Rays X – ray tubes 1. Photographic 1. Very 1. used to take

films penetrating X-ray pictures
2. Fluorescent due to high- (Radiography)
screen energy 2. Used to treat
photons skin disorders.
2. Very 3. Used to study
dangerous crystal structures
(X-ray
crystallography)

Ultra-violet 1. The sun 1. Photographic 1. Absorbed 1. UV lamps

(UV) Light 2. Very hot films by glass used in medicine
objects 2. Photo cells 2. Causes for skin
3. Arcs and 2. Fluorescent many treatment but
sparks chemicals chemical dangerous to the
4. Mercury reactions eyes.
vapour lamps 3. Damages 2. Fluorescence
and kills living used in washing
cells powders and to
4. Causes sun detect forgeries.

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

burn.

Visible 1. The sun 1. The eye 1. Refracted 1. Used for

Light 2. Hot 2. Photographic by glass communication
objects films 2. Focused by systems (Lasers
3. Lamps 3. Photo cells the eye. and optical
4. Lasers 3. Essential fibres).
for 2. Used to
photosynthesis identify
and plant elements in
growth. chemistry flame
tests.

Infra-red 1. The sun 1. Special 1. Causes 1. Used for

Light 2. Warm and Photographic heating when heating.
hot objects films absorbed. 2. Used for
such as fires 2. 2. Makes the photography
and people. Semiconductor skin feel through haze
devices such as warm.
and fog.
LDR and
photodiode. 3. IR
3. The skin photographs
taken by satellite
provide special
information.

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Microwaves Special 1. Crystal They have 1. Microwaves

vacuum tubes detectors much shorter used in cooking.
called wavelengths.
2. Solid state 2. Used for
magnetrons
diodes RADAR (Radio
in microwave
Detection And
ovens
Ranging)
communication,
useful in
locating the
positions of
aeroplanes and
ships.

Radio TV and radio Aerials Spread round 1. Used for

Waves transmitters connected to hills and radio, TV,
using electric tuned electric buildings by telephone and
circuits and circuits in radio satellite
diffraction.
aerials. and TV sets. communications.
2. Used for radar
detection of
ships, aircraft
and missiles.
3. Used in
radioastronomy.

Example 1
Arrange the following in order of increasing frequency:
Visible light, infra-red radiation, X-rays, ultra-violet radiation, radio waves.
(1 mark)
Radio waves, infra-red radiation, visible light, ultra-violet radiation, X-rays

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Example 2
State the difference between X-rays and gamma rays in the way in which they are
produced. (1 mark)

X-rays Gamma rays

Produced when fast moving electrons Produced as a result of disintegration
are suddenly stopped by a metal of nucleus
target (tungsten)
Produced when energy changes in Produced due to change in nucleus of
electronic structure of atoms atoms

Example 3
State two uses of microwaves. (1 mark)
(a) Used in cooking
(b) Used for RADAR ( Radio Detection And Ranging) communication, useful
in locating the positions of aeroplanes and ships.

Example 4
State the reason why radio waves signals are easier to receive than television (TV)
signals in a place surrounded by hills. (1 mark)
Radio waves are easily diffracted around the hills since they are of longer
wavelength than the TV waves.

Example 5
The frequency of an electromagnetic wave is 4.0 x 106 Hz. Determine its
wavelength (take speed of light as 3.0 x 108 ms⁻1).
(3 marks)
c = fλ ⇒ λ =

λ= λ = 75 m

Example 6

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Explain the fact that radiant heat from the sun penetrates a glass sheet while radiant
heat from burning wood is cut off by the glass sheet.
(2 mks)
Glass is a poor conductor of heat but radiant heat from the sun can penetrate
it since it has a shorter wavelength than that of burning wood.

conductor in a changing
Chapter Five magnetic field.
 It was discovered by Michael
ELECTROMAGNETIC Faraday in the year 1831.
INDUCTION  Its discovery has led to cheap
large scale production of
Introduction electrical energy in power
 An electric current flowing stations.
through a conductor has an
associated magnetic field. EXPERIMENT 5.1: To illustrate
electromagnetic induction
 Conversely, a changing
magnetic field can, under (a) Using a Straight Conductor
suitable conditions, induce Apparatus
current in an electric conductor.
This phenomenon is known as
electromagnetic induction.
 Electromagnetic induction is
defined as the production of an
electromotive force (i.e.
voltage) across an electrical

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Thick electric conductor, U-shaped Observations

magnet, centre-zero galvanometer, (i) The pointer of the galvanometer
connecting wires. deflects in one direction when the
conductor is moved downwards and
in the opposite direction when the
conductor is moved upwards.
(ii)The same observations are made
when the magnet is moved either
upwards or downwards while the
conductor AB is held stationary.
(iii) There is no deflection of the
Figure 5.1 galvanometer when there is no
relative motion between the conductor
Procedure and the magnetic field.
 Set up the apparatus as shown (iv) The magnitude of deflection of
in figure 5.1. the galvanometer increases as the
 Observe the effect on the angle between the conductor and the
galvanometer when the magnetic field increases from 00 up to
conductor AB is: the maximum of 900.
(i) Moved vertically (iv) There is no deflection of the
downwards between the poles galvanometer when the conductor is
of the magnet. moved parallel to the magnetic field.
(ii) Moved vertically upwards
between the poles of the (b) Using a Coil
Apparatus
magnet.
Coil, centre-zero galvanometer, bar
(iii) Held stationary between
magnet.
the poles of the magnet.
(iv) Moved parallel to the
direction of the magnetic field.
(v) Moved to cut the field at
angles of, say, 300 and 600.
(vi) Held stationary and the
magnet moved upwards, then
downwards.

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Figure 5.2 conductor, an electromotive force

(e.m.f.) induced in the conductor that
Procedure produces an induced current.
 Set up the apparatus as show in
figure 5.2. Factors Affecting the Magnitude of
 Observe the effect on the Induced E.m.f. ( and Induced
Current)
galvanometer when the:
 The magnitude of the induced
(i) Magnet is moved into the
e.m.f. and hence the induced
coil at a steady speed.
current increases with the:
(ii) Magnet is moved out of the
(i) Rate of change of the flux
coil at a steady speed.
linkage.
(iii) Magnet is held stationary
(ii) Number of turns of the coil.
in the coil.
(iii) Strength of the magnet.
(iv) Coil is moved to the
 These observations can be
stationary magnet.
summed up in Faraday’s law
(v) Coil is moved away from
of electromagnetic induction.
the stationary magnet.
 It states that:
(vi) Magnet is held stationary
inside the coil. The magnitude of the induced e.m.f.
is directly proportional to the rate of
Observations change of magnetic flux linked with
(i) The pointer of the galvanometer the coil.
deflects in one direction when the
magnet is moved into the coil and in
the opposite direction when the
magnet is moved out of the coil. The Direction of the Induced
(ii) The same observations are made Current in a Coil
when the coil is moved while the
magnet is stationary. EXPERIMENT 5.2: To investigate
the direction of the induced current
(iii) There is no deflection when there
in a coil
is no relative motion between the coil
Apparatus
and the magnetic field.
Coil, centre-zero galvanometer, bar
Conclusion magnet
Whenever there is relative motion
between a magnetic field and a

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Explanation
 As the north pole of the bar
magnet is moved towards the
coil, the induced current flows
in the coil in the direction
DCBA [figure 5.3 (a)],
forming an electromagnet with
a north pole at the end nearest
the in-coming magnet. The
repulsion between the two
north poles opposes the
movement of the magnet.
Figure 5.3  When the magnet is moved
away from the coil, the induced
Procedure current in the coil flows in the
 Connect the galvanometer to direction DABC [figure 5.3
the coil as shown in figure 5.3 (b)] such that a south pole is
(a). formed at the end of the coil
 Move the north pole of the nearest to the receding magnet.
magnet into the coil as shown The attraction between the
in figure 5.3 (a) and note the north pole and the south pole
direction of the deflection. opposes the movement of the
 Move the north pole away from magnet.
the coil and again note the
direction of the deflection. Henry Lenz, a Russian, made
observations of the direction of the
Observation induced current in a number of
(i) When the north pole of the bar experiments, and in 1834 he was able
magnet is moved towards the coil, the to state another law relating to
galvanometer deflects to the left. electromagnetic induction. This law is
(ii) When the north pole of the bar called Lenz’s law.
magnet is moved away from the coil,
 It states that:
the galvanometer deflects to the right.
This opposes the movement of the The direction of the induced e.m.f. is
magnet. such that the induced current which
it causes to flow produces a magnetic
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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

effect that opposes the change U-shaped magnet, thick copper wire
producing it. AB, marked centre-zero galvanometer
 Lenz’s law is an example of the
principle of conservation of
energy.

Lenz’s Law and the Principle of

Conservation of Energy
 For energy to be conserved and
not created from nothing by
induction, the energy given to
the circuit must be supplied
when the magnet or coil is Figure 5.4
moved.
Procedure
 In the case of the magnet being  Arrange the apparatus as shown
moved into a coil, the person in figure 5.4.
moving the magnet does work
 Move the wire AB up,
pushing the magnet into the
perpendicular to the magnetic
coil or pulling it out again
field and note the direction of
afterwards.
the induced current.
 This work supplies the
necessary energy for the current
 Move the wire AB downwards,
to flow in the coil. perpendicular to the magnetic
 Work requires a force to work field and again note the
against and in this case, it is direction of the induced current.
provided by the repulsion
between the like poles as the Observation
magnet is pushed into the coil.  When the wire is moved
upwards, the induced current
The Direction of Induced Current
flows from B to A.
in a Straight Conductor
 When the wire is moved
EXPERIMENT 5.3: To determine downwards, the induced current
the direction of induced current in a flows from A to B.
straight conductor.
Note:
Apparatus
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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

 The direction of the induced

current in the straight conductor
can easily be predicted by using
Fleming’s right-hand rule (or
the dynamo rule).
 It states that:
If the thumb and the first two fingers
of the right hand are held mutually
at right angles with the First finger
pointing in the direction of the
magnetic Field, the thumb pointing Figure 5.6
in the direction of Motion, then the
seCond finger points in the direction Example 1
of the induced Current. Figure 5.7 shows a square loop of a
conductor that is pulled at a steady
speed across a uniform magnetic
field.

Figure 5.5
Figure 5.7
 Figure 5.6 illustrates the (a) Determine in the figure the
application of Fleming’s right- direction of the induced current in the
hand rule. sides AB, AD, CD and BC, if any.
(2 marks)
Solution
Sides AD and BC have no induced
e.m.f. and hence no induced

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

current, since they are parallel to keep the coil moving at a steady speed
the magnetic field. when side CD leaves the magnetic
AB and CD cut the magnetic field field. (1 mark)
causing the induced current to flow The flow of current in AB creates a
from B to A in AB and C from C to force that tends to oppose the
D in CD. motion.

(b) Explain what happens when: Example 2

(i) All the sides are moving in the In the set up in figure 5.9, the magnet
uniform field and state the potential is moved towards the coil and stopped
difference across points A and B. when inside the coil.
(2 marks)
Solution
The currents in AB and CD are
equal in magnitude and oppose
each other.
The resultant p.d. across points A Figure 5.9
and B is zero. It is observed that the galvanometer
(ii) the side CD leaves the magnetic deflects to one side and then goes
field. back to zero.
Explain this observation. (2 marks)
When the magnet is moving into the
coil, there is change in magnetic
field flux and hence an e.m.f. is
induced in the coil causing the
galvanometer to deflect. When the
magnet stops inside the coil, there is
no change in magnetic field flux.
Hence no e.m.f. is induced causing
Figure 5.8 the pointer to go back to zero.
There is no induced current in side Example 3
CD since it does not cut the Figure 5.10 shows a magnet being
magnetic field.
moved towards a stationary solenoid.
(c) Suggest why in the absence of It is observed that a current flows
friction, more force is required to

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through the circuit in a direction Q to EXPERIMENT 5.4: To demonstrate

P. mutual induction

Apparatus
Two coils P and S, centre-zero
galvanometer, battery, a.c. power
source, switch S, rheostat, connecting
wires

Figure 5.10

Explain:
(a) How the current is produced.
(2 marks)
The movement of the magnet into
the coil causes a change in magnetic
field flux which in turn causes e.m.f.
to be produced in the coil. Figure 5.11
(b) Why the current flows from Q to Procedure
 Set up the apparatus in figure
P. (1 mark)
5.11.
When the current flows from Q to
P, a north pole is created which  Note the deflection in the
opposes the approaching north galvanometer:
pole. (i) On closing the switch.
(ii) On opening the switch.
MUTUAL INDUCTION (iii) When, with the switch
 Mutual induction is said to
closed, the current is increased.
occur when a changing current
(iv) When, with the switch
in one coil induces a current in
closed, the current is decreased.
another coil placed close to it.
(v) The d.c. source is replaced
 The changing magnetic flux in with an a.c. source.
the first coil, called the
primary coil links with the Observation
second coil, called the (i) When the switch is closed, the
secondary coil, inducing an pointer deflects to the right, and then
e.m.f. in it.
it comes back to zero.

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(ii) When the switch is opened, the

pointer deflects to the left, and then it (ii) Switch opened
falls back to zero.  When the switch is opened, the
(iii) Increasing the current in the current in the primary coil takes
primary coil causes a larger deflection a very short time to fall from
to the right while decreasing the maximum value to zero.
current causes a bigger deflection to  The magnetic flux in the
the left. primary coil linking with the
(iv) When the d.c. source is replaced secondary coil also falls from
by an a.c. source, the pointer vibrates maximum value to zero,
about point zero. thereby inducing an e.m.f. in
the secondary coil.
Explanation  A current is induced in the
(i) Switch Closed:
secondary coil and causes the
 When the switch is closed, the
galvanometer to deflect to the
current in the primary coil
left. [figure 5.12 (b)]
increases from zero to a
 The induced e.m.f. in the
maximum value within a very
secondary coil is momentary
short period of time.
because once the current in the
 The magnetic flux in the
primary coil reduces to zero,
primary coil linking with the
there is no further change in the
secondary coil increases from
magnetic flux in the primary
zero to a maximum value in the
coil
same interval of time, inducing
an e.m.f. in the secondary coil.
 A current is induced in the
secondary coil and causes the
galvanometer to deflect to the
right. [figure 5.12 (a)]
 The induced e.m.f. in the
secondary coil is momentary
because once the current in the
primary coil builds up to a
maximum value, there is no
further change in the magnetic
flux in the primary coil.

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Note:
The soft iron rod concentrates the
magnetic flux in both coils.

(b) Winding both the primary and

secondary coils on a soft iron ring.

Figure 5.12

Note: Figure 5.14

The induced e.m.f. in the secondary
coil is much higher when the current
in the primary circuit is switched off
than when it is switched on. Note:
This is because the current in the The soft iron ring enables all the
primary circuit takes a much shorter magnetic flux of the primary coil to
time to die off than build up. form concentric loops within it, thus
reaching the secondary coil.
Methods of Increasing the Induced
E.m.f. in the Secodary Coil (c) Having more turns of the coil in
the secondary coil than in the
(a) Winding the primary and primary coil
secondary coils on a common soft
iron rod.

Figure 5.15

Note:
(i) The e.m.f. is induced in each turn
of the secondary coil since the
Figure 5.13 magnetic flux of the primary coil

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

links with each of the turns in the made in (a) above if the number of
secondary coil. turns in coil Q were doubled. (2 mks)
(ii) The total induced e.m.f. is the sum
of the e.m.f. induced in the individual The galvanometer deflection
increases. This is because when the
turns. number of turns is doubled, the
(iii) Hence, the more the number of magnetic flux linkage also doubles.
turns in the secondary coil, the higher
the induced e.m.f. Example 5
Figure 5.17 shows two coils A and B
Example 4 placed closed to each other. Coil A is
Two identical copper coils P and Q
connected to a steady d.c. supply and
are placed close to each other as
a switch while coil B is connected to a
shown in figure 5.16.
sensitive galvanometer.
Coil P is connected to a d.c. power
supply and coil Q is connected to a
centre-zero galvanometer, G.

Figure 5.17

(a) The switch is now closed. State

the observations made on the
galvanometer. (2 marks)
The galvanometer deflects to one
Figure 5.16 side and then back to zero.
(a) State and explain what would be
observed on the galvanometer (b) Explain what would be observed if
immediately the switch S is closed. the switch is then opened. (2 marks)
(2 marks) A greater deflection will be
The galvanometer deflects in one obtained in the opposite direction as
direction momentarily. The the current takes less time to die off
changing magnetic flux in coil P is than to build up.
linked to coil Q causing an e.m.f. to
be induced. Example 6
Figure 5.18 shows two circuits close
(b) State with reason the difference to each other.
that would be noted in the observation

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

1. Transformers
 A transformer is an electrical
machine that transfers electrical
energy from one circuit to
another by mutual induction
between two coils.
 It consists of two coils wound
on a common laminated soft
Figure 5.18
iron core, figure 5.19.
When the switch is closed, the  The coil connected to the
galvanometer shows a reading and alternating current (a.c.)
then returns to zero. When the switch input is called the primary
is then opened, the galvanometer coil, while the coil that
shows a reading in the opposite provides the a.c. output is
direction and the returns to zero.
called the secondary coil.
Explain these observations.
(3 marks)
When the switch is closed, the
magnetic field builds up to a
maximum in the primary coil
inducing a current in the secondary
coil. When the current is maximum,
there is no change in magnetic flux.
When the switch is open, the
magnetic field flux decreases to Figure 5.19
zero, causing current to be induced
 Faraday’s law applies to the
in the secondary coil but in the
opposite direction. transformer.
 When an a.c. flows in the
APPLICATIONS OF primary coil, it produces an
ELECTROMAGNETIC alternating magnetic flux which
INDUCTION links with the turns of the
secondary coil, thereby
They include the:
1. Transformer. inducing an alternating e.m.f. in
2. Moving-coil microscope. the secondary coil.
3. Induction coil.  The magnitude of this induced
e.m.f. increases with the

Page 81 of 196
 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

number of turns of the

secondary coil, because an
e.m.f. is induced in each turn.
 While transferring the energy,
the transformer enables us to
change or transform the
voltage or e.m.f. to a larger or
smaller value.

Note:
(i) The effect of the laminated soft
iron core is that all the magnetic flux Figure 5.18
generated in the primary coil is made
to pass through each of the turns of = Turns ratio, n
 The turns ratios, n for a step-
the secondary coil.
down transformer is less than 1
(ii) The laminated soft iron core i.e. n < 1
provides a low-resistance path to the  Consequently, the changing
flow of the magnetic flux.
magnetic flux in the primary
Types of Transformers coil induces a relatively smaller
(a) Step-down transformers. alternating secondary voltage
(b) Step-up transformers (output voltage), VS than the
alternating primary voltage
(a) Step-down Transformer (input voltage, VP).
 This transformer has more  Thus, VP (or V1) is greater than
turns in the primary coil (nP) VS (or V2)i.e., VP > VS.
than the number of turns in (b) Step-up Transformer
the secondary coil (nS),
i.e., nP > nS.  This transformer has more
turns in the secondary coil (nS)
 Figure 5.18 shows a step-down
than the number of turns in
transformer and its the primary coil (nP),
corresponding circuit symbol. i.e., nS > nP.
 Figure 5.19 shows a step-up
transformer and its
corresponding circuit symbol.

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

Electrical power = current x

voltage
P = IV
 Therefore,
Power input = primary current
x primary voltage
Power input = IP x VP
Power output = secondary
current x secondary voltage
Power output = IS x VP
Figure 5.19
Efficiency = x
 The turns ratio, n is greater
than 1 i.e., n > 1. 100 %
 The secondary voltage, VS is Efficiency = x 100 %
greater than the primary
voltage, VP i.e., VS > VP.  For an ideal transformer (with
The Transformer Turns Ratio no energy loss), the efficiency
Formula is 100 %.
 Thus;
 The voltage induced across the IP x VP = IS x VP
secondary coil depends on the  Therefore,
ratio of the number of turns on
= = =n
the two coils by the equation:
Note:
= (i) In a step-down transformer,
secondary current IS is greater than
the primary current IP.
=
(ii) In a step-up transformer, the
 This equation is called the primary current IP is greater than the
turns rule. secondary current IS.
 This equation assumes that the Energy Losses in a Transformer
coils have negligible resistance.
Power Transfer in a Transformer There are four main causes of energy
loss in a transfer, namely:

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

(a) Flux Leakage  This heating is as a result the

resistance of the wire making
All the magnetic flux produced by the
up the coils.
primary coil may not link up with the
Remedy
secondary coil, hence reducing the
e.m.f. induced in the secondary coil. Thick copper wires (low resistance)
are used in the secondary coils of a
step-down transformer and the
primary coils of step-up transformers
to reduce this heating effect.
(c) Heating Effect of Eddy Currents
Remedy in the Core
 The core is designed for  In a transformer, the alternating
maximum linkage between the magnetic flux in the soft iron
primary and secondary coils. core cuts the very soft iron
 The secondary coil is wound on core, inducing an e.m.f. in it,
and hence an induced current.
top of the primary coil, [figure
 The induced currents flowing in
5.20(a)].
the core are called eddy
 Also, the coils may be wound
currents.
next to each other on a common
 These eddy currents produce
core, [(figure 5.20 (b)].
heat, using up energy and so
causing inefficiency.
Remedy

 To reduce eddy currents, the

core is laminated, i.e., it is
made of thin sheets of insulated
soft iron plates.
Figure 5.20  The current induced in each
(b) Heating Effect of Current in the sheet is very small which
Coils causes minimal heating effect.
(d) Hysteresis Loss
 Heat is generated in the coils
when the current flows through Some energy is lost in form of heat in
them. magnetizing and demagnetizing the
core every time the current reverses.

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

This energy loss is called hysteresis IP x VP = IS x VS

loss IP x 240 = 30 x 6
Remedy IP = = 0.75 A
Hysteresis loss is minimised by using
a core of a soft magnetic material
such as very soft iron, which is very
easily magnetised and demagnetised Example 8
by the magnetic field of the primary A transformer with 1,200 turns in the
coil. primary circuit and 120 turns in the
secondary circuit has its primary
Practical Transformers
circuit connected to a 400 V a.c.
 Heat is always generated in source. It is found that when a heater
transformers despite the above is connected to the secondary circuit,
measures. it produces heat at the rate of 600 W.
 The heat generated in small
Assuming 100 % efficiency,
transformers used in domestic
determine the:
appliances is low and therefore
(a) Voltage in the secondary circuit.
air is sufficient to cool them.
Solution
 Large transformers used in
=
power stations and along the
mains transmitting lines have a VS = = 40 V
lot of heat generated in them.
They are cooled using oil (b) Current in the primary circuit.
which does not easily PP = IP x VP
evaporate. IP = = 1.5 A
 A well-designed transformer
can have efficiency of up to 99 (c) Current in the secondary circuit.
%. Power input = power output
PS = IS x VS
Example 7
A transformer in a welding machine IS = = 15 A
supplies a voltage of 6 V from a 240
V mains supply. The current used in Example 9
welding is 30 A. Determine the An ideal transformer has 2 000 turns
current in the mains supply. in the primary circuit and 200 turns in
Solution the secondary circuit. When the
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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

primary circuit is connected to a 400

V a.c., source, the power delivered to (a) State one property of soft iron that
a resistor in the secondary circuit is makes it suitable for use as a
found to be 800 W. Determine the transformer core. (1 mark)
current in the: Soft iron is easily magnetized and
(a) Secondary circuit. demagnetized.
Solution (b) State the reason why soft iron is
laminated. (1 mark)
= To reduce the heating effect caused
by eddy currents
VS =
VS = 40 V (c) Determine the p.d. across PQ.
PS = IS x VS (3 marks)
Solution
IS = = 20 A
=
(b) Primary circuit. VS =
Efficiency = 100 %
Therefore, power input = power VS = 24 V
output VQP = PR
PP = IP x VP VQP = x 24 = 8V
IP = =2A
Example 11
Example 10
Figure 5.21 represents a step down A transformer is required to step
down the mains voltage of 240 V to
transformer with 500 turns in the
provide a 12 V supply for an electric
primary coil and 50 turns in the lamp. If the primary coil is wound
secondary coil. The turns are wound with 1 000 turns of wire, calculate the
uniformly on a soft-iron laminated number of turns required for the
core. secondary coil.
Solution
=

NS = = 50 turns
Figure 5.21
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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

2. Moving-coil Microphone
 Figure 5.22 shows a moving-
coil microphone.
3. The Induction (Spark) Coil
 This is shown in figure 5.23

Figure 5.22
 A coil is wound on a cylindrical
former connected to a
diaphragm and placed between
Figure 5.23
the poles of a pot magnet.
 Sound waves from a source set  It consists of a primary coil of
the diaphragm in vibration, few turns of thick insulated
causing the coil to move to- copper wire and a secondary
and-fro, cutting the magnetic coil of many turns of thin
insulated copper wire, both
field.
wound on a common soft iron
 The field is radial so that the core.
motion of the coil is  The secondary coil is usually
perpendicular to it for wound on top of the primary
maximum flux linkage. coil so that it has the same
 Induced e.m.f. of varying changing magnetic field
magnitude sets up varying through it.
induced current in the coil.  The ends of the secondary coil
 An amplifier is used to increase are connected to an adjustable
the amplitude of this current spark gap.
before being fed into the
loudspeaker to be converted
back to sound.

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

 The primary coil is connected  Sparking is minimised by

to a direct current (d.c.) of low connecting a large capacitor
voltage. across the contacts.
 When the switch is closed, the  The capacitor causes the
soft iron core becomes primary current and hence the
magnetized due to the current magnetic flux to decay to zero.
flowing in the primary coil and
Note:
attracts the soft iron armature. The induced e.m.f. in the secondary
 The moving armature opens a coil is much higher when the primary
gap between the contacts which current is switched off than when it is
breaks the primary coil circuit switched on. This is because the
thereby switching off the current takes longer time to increase
current, rapidly reducing the from zero to a maximum value than to
decrease from a maximum value to
magnetic field to zero. zero.
 This, in turn induces a large
e.m.f. in the secondary coil by Example 12
mutual induction. State two ways in which the induced
 Meanwhile, the spring pulls the e.m.f. in the secondary coil of an
armature back and the contacts induction coil can be increased.
are closed again for the current (2 marks)
to flow in the primary coil. (i) Increasing the number of turns
 The process of switching on in the secondary coil.
and off the primary current is (ii) Rapid change in the primary
thus continuous and so is the current, particularly when it is
switched off, causes a very rapid
changing magnetic flux.
change in the magnetic field
 Since the secondary coil has a through the secondary coil.
large number of turns, the
induced e.m.f. is very high, and
is sufficient to cause a spark to
jump across the gap between
the ends of the secondary coil
and can be used to ignite a
petrol-air mixture in a car 4. The Alternating Current (a.c.)
engine. Generator

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

 A generator converts made to press lightly against

mechanical energy to electrical the slip rings.
energy.  Consider the coil being rotated
 Figure 5.24 shows a simple a.c. in a clockwise direction:
generator.
 The sides of the coil cut the
magnetic flux, and therefore a
current is induced in it.
 Application of Fleming’s right-
hand rule indicates that the
current flows in a clockwise
direction round the coil.
 Figure 5.25 shows graphically
how the e.m.f. generated in the
coil varies with the angle θ at
which the coil cuts the
magnetic field over one
complete rotation.

Figure 5.24

 It consists of a rectangular coil

of wire which is rotated in the
magnetic field between the
poles of U-shaped permanent
magnet.
 The ends of the coil are Figure 5.25
connected to two slip rings  As a starting point, consider the
mounted on a spindle. instant that the coil is in the
 Current may be obtained from vertical position with its side
the coil through two carbon AB uppermost.
(graphite) brushes, which are

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

 Sides AB and CD of the coil do (i) A good conductor of electricity.

not cut the magnetic flux and (ii) Slippery and acts as a lubricant.
therefore the e.m.f. generated at
this instant is zero. Example 13
 During the first quarter of Figure 5.26 shows the variation of the
rotation, the e.m.f. generated e.m.f. generated as the coil rotates in
increases from zero to a an a.c. generator.
maximum or peak value when
the coil is in the horizontal
position.
 After this, the e.m.f. decreases
again during the second quarter
of the rotation, and once more
becomes zero when the coil is Figure 5.26
in the vertical position with
side CD uppermost. Give reasons for the changes in e.m.f.
 During the second half of the as the coil rotates from 00 to 900 and
rotation, the e.m.f. generated 900 to 1800. (3 marks)
0 0
0 to 90 : The magnetic field flux
follows the same pattern as that
decreases hence the e.m.f. also
in the first half, except that the
decreases.
direction of the e.m.f. is
900 to 1800: The magnetic field flux
reversed. increases hence the e.m.f. also
 This reversal occurs since the increases though in different
direction of motion of the sides direction. At each peak, the
AB and CD across the magnetic field flux is maximum
magnetic flux is now reversed. hence the induced e.m.f. is also
maximum.
Note:
(a) If this alternating e.m.f. is applied
to an external resistor R, then an 5. The Direct Current (d.c.)
alternating current will flow through Generator
it.  A d.c. generator differs from an
(b) The brushes are made of carbon a.c. generator in that the d.c.
because it is:

Page 90 of 196
 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

generator has a split ring while magnetic field over one

an a.c. generator has slip rings. complete rotation.

 Figure 5.27 shows a simple

d.c. generator.

Figure 5.28
 As a starting point, consider the
instant that the coil is in the
vertical position with its side
AB uppermost.
 Sides AB and CD of the coil do
Figure 5.27 not cut the magnetic flux and
 The brushes are arranged so therefore the e.m.f. generated at
that when the coil is passing this instant is zero.
through the vertical position,  During the first quarter of
the two halves of the split ring rotation, the e.m.f. generated
are just on the point of increases from zero to a
changing contact from one
maximum or peak value when
brush to the other. When used
in this way, the split ring is the coil is in the horizontal
called a commutator or current position.
reverser.  In the next quarter turn, the
 Figure 5.28 shows graphically e.m.f. falls to zero again as the
how the e.m.f. generated in the coil rotates into the vertical
coil varies with the angle θ at position again with side CD
which the coil cuts the
uppermost.
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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

 When the vertical position is

passed, the half rings
interchange brushes since the CHAPTER 6
induced currents in AB and CD
change direction.
MAINS ELECTRICITY
 However, the direction of the Specific Objectives
current through the external
resistor R remains the same By the end of this topic, the learner
since the brush on the left should be able to:
remains negative and the one to (a) state the main sources of
the right remains positive. electricity
 The e.m.f. of the brushes during (b) describe the transmission of
the second half rotation of the electric power from the generating
coil is thus identical with that station
during the first half. (c) explain the domestic wiring
system
Note: (d) define the kilowatt-hour
For both a.c. and d.c. generators, the
(e) determine the electrical energy
induced e.m.f. and hence the induced
consumption and cost
current can be increased by:
(f) solve numerical problems
(i) Increasing the number of turns in
involving mains electricity.
the coil.
(ii) Increasing the rate (speed) of
rotation of the coil. Introduction
(iii) Increasing the strength of the
 Mains electricity is produced in
magnetic field.
large quantities by large
(iv) Winding the coil on a laminated
generators at power stations
soft iron core.
that are located very far from
(v) Increasing the cross-sectional
the consumers.
area of the coil.
 The power generated is then
transmitted to the consumers
such as factories, institutions
and homes by overhead or
underground overhead
transmission lines (cables).
Page 92 of 196
 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

when one of the power stations

is shut down.
 This system of power cables
connecting all the power
stations in a country to each
Sources of Mains Electricity other and finally to the
 The main sources are: consumers is called the
(i) Water in high dams. national grid system.
(ii) Geothermal energy.
(iii) Wind.
(iv) Diesel
(v) Tidal waves in the seas. (b) High Voltage Transmission
(vi) Nuclear energy.  The generators at a power
 The type of power generation station produce a three-phase
chosen for a given location alternating electric current at a
depends on the most abundant voltage of between 11 kV and
source of energy available in 25 kV
that area.  This voltage is then
immediately stepped up to
POWER TRANSMISSION between 132 kV and 400 kV
(a) The National Grid System for transmission over long
distances in overhead cables.
 The power generated is then
 The very high voltage keeps the
transmitted to the consumers
current in the wires low but
such as factories, institutions
causes insulation problems.
 and homes by overhead or
 To prevent current leakage to
underground overhead
the ground, the cables hang on
transmission lines (cables).
long insulators high above the
 All the power stations in a
ground from tall towers called
country are linked together by
pylons. (Figure 6.1)
cables and the power then
distributed to the consumers.
 The linking together by the
cables ensures that the power is
available to the consumers even
Page 93 of 196
 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

Figure 6.1

Page 94 of 196
 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

 Pylons carry cables in sets of (i) The risk of electric shock in case
three for the three phases of the poles collapse or cables hang too low.
a.c. supply. (ii) The risk of fires on nearby
 The single extra cable which structures and vegetation when cables
links the tops of the pylons is get too close.
the neutral wire. (iii) The harmful effects of strong
 The neutral wire is much electric field.
thinner and it completes the
circuit back to the generators Power Losses during
for all the three (or six) cables Transmission
carried by the pylons.  Power dissipated in a circuit is
 A series of transformers and given by:
switching stations, known as P = IV
substations step the voltage  But V = IR (Ohm’s law)
down from 132 kV in gradual  Thus, P = I2R.
steps as shown in figure 6.1.  This means that for a given
 Industrial consumers who resistance in a circuit, when the
require large amounts of current is high, the power loss
electrical energy receive a is large and vice versa.
three-phase supply at 33 kV for
heavy industries or 11 kV for
light industries. .
 The electrical power is then  Hence, power loss in
transmitted at this low but still transmission cables is low
higher voltage to consumers, when it is transmitted at high
where it may be further stepped voltage and low current.
down to appropriate values for  The output voltage from a
domestic and other uses. power station is therefore
 In Kenya, domestic electric stepped up for long distance
appliances normally operate on transmission in order to
a single-phase supply at 240 V. minimize power loss in
transmission cables.
Dangers of High Voltage  Since long distances are
Transmission involved, transmission cables

Page 95 of 196
 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

are thick and are made of  Aluminum is preferred because

materials that are good it is:
conductors of electricity, so as (i) A good conductor of
to minimize resistance. electricity.
(ii) Light.
(iii) Cheaply available
 Such motors are used in electric
clocks, tape recorders and
record players.

(ii) An a.c. supply can either be

stepped up or stepped down as would
be necessary.

Disadvantage of an a.c. Supply

Some appliances and electronic
devices operate on a d.c. supply.
 Such electronic equipment
include radios, amplifiers and
battery chargers.
 These devices are fitted with a
circuit called a rectifier circuit
which converts the a.c. to d.c.

Example 1
Advantages of an Alternating State the reason why electrical power
Current (a.c.) Supply is transmitted over long distances at
(i) The frequency of an a.c. supply very high voltage. (1 mark)
can very precisely be controlled. High voltage leads to low current
 This enables the use of a.c. hence low power losses.
electric motors which
synchronise their speed of Example 2
rotation to the mains frequency.

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

State why alternating current (a.c.) is V= 7.2 V

used for transmitting electricity over
long distances. (1 mk) (e) Power converted in the lamp.
Alternating current can be easily P = IV
stepped up to high voltages thereby P = 1.2 x 7.2
minimizing power loss. P = 8.64 W

Example 3
In a model of a power line, a 12 V a.c. Example 4
supply of negligible resistance is Calculate the power wasted as internal
connected by wires of total resistance energy in the cable when 10 kW is
4 Ω to a lamp resistance 6 Ω. transmitted through a cable of
Calculate the: resistance 0.5 Ω at:
(a) Current flowing in the wires. (a) 200 V
Total resistance, R = 4 + 6 = 10 Ω P = IV ⇒ I =
I=
I=
I= I = 50 A
I = 1.2 A P = I2 R
P = (50)2 x 0.5
(b) Power loss in the wires. P = 1 250 W
P = I2 R
P = (1.2)2 x 4 (b) 200 000 V.
P = 5.76 W P = IV ⇒I =

(c) Voltage drop along the power line. I=

V = IR I = 0.05 A
V = 1.2 x 4 P = I2 R
V = 4.8 V P = (0.05)2 x 0.5
P = 0.00125 W
(d) Voltage available to the lamp at
the end of the line. Example 5
V = 12 – 4.8

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The resistance of a length of power  From the transformer, power is

transmitting cable is 10 Ω and is used brought to the house through a
to transmit 11 kV at a current of 1 A. two-wire cable:
If this voltage is stepped –up to 160 (i) The neutral cable that is earthed at
kV by a transformer, determine the the transformer and therefore it is at
power loss. (Assume that the zero electrical potential.
transformer is 100 % efficient)
Solution (ii) The live cable.
Power input = power output  The two-wire cable goes
IP VP = IS VS through the electrical company
IS = fuse box, where the live wire is
connected to a 60 A or higher
IS = 0.06875 A
fuse value.
Power loss, P = I2R
 The cable is the connected to
P = (0.06875)2 x 10 the power meter where the
P = 0.047265625 W
energy consumed is registered.
 From the meter, the cable
DOMESTIC WIRING passes on to the consumer
SYSTEM units or fuse box. (Figure 6.2)
 For domestic consumption,
electrical power is usually
supplied at 240 V.
 A local transformer steps-
down the voltage from the
national grid from 11 kV to
240 V.

Page 98 of 196
 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

Figure 6.2

 The consumer’s fuse box

contains the following (iii) The Neutral Busbar
components: This is a brass bar to which all
the neutral wires of such
(i) The Main Switch circuits are connected.
This is a double-pole switch
which disconnects both the live (iv) The Earth Terminal
and neutral wires  This terminal may be a busbar
simultaneously, thereby or a part of the fuse box, if it is
disabling all the circuits in the metallic.
house when necessary.
 Whichever the case, the
(ii) The Live Busbar terminal is earthed either
 This is a brass bar connected to through water piping or a thick
the live wire through the main copper bar buried deep in the
switch. earth.
 The live wire of each circuit is
connected to it through a fuse.
Page 99 of 196
 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

 Fuses are made of a short thin

wire (an alloy of copper and
tin) and have a low melting
point.

 When the current exceeds the

fuse rating, the fuse wire gets
very hot and melts, hence
disconnecting the circuit.
 This reduces the risk of fire or
damage to the electrical
appliances.
Fuses and Circuit Breakers  Figure 6.3 (a) and (b) shows a
fuse and its circuit symbol
(a) Fuses respectively.
 Fuses are used to safeguard
against excess currents in a
circuit.
Figure 6.3

Note:
As a safety measure, a proper fuse
wire must be used to replace a blown
out fuse.

(b) Miniature Circuit Breakers

(mcb’s)
 These are a modern alternative
to fuses.
 In an mcb, the current passes
through an electromagnet
which becomes more powerful
as the current increases.

Page 100 of 196

 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

 Above the safe current value, (ii) They can break an overloaded
the strength of the circuit in less than 0.01 seconds,
electromagnet is great enough which is much less time than it takes
to force apart some contacts for a fuse wire to melt.
which break the circuit.
Advantages of the mcb’s over a wire
fuse
(i) They can be reset quickly by a
switch or button as there is no melted
wire to replace.

House Lighting and Power Socket

Ring Main Circuits

Page 101 of 196

 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

Figure 6.4 (a) and (b) shows the important

differences between the lighting and power
socket circuits in a home.

Figure 6.4(a) Lighting Circuit

Page 102 of 196

 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

 The lamps are connected in  In this circuit, a cable

parallel using a junction box at containing three wires i.e., live,
a convenient point along the neutral and earth, form a loop
cable [figure 6.4 (a)]. or a ring as shown in figure 6.4
 The lamps are connected in (b).
parallel for two reasons:  Each of the wires begins and
(i) They operate at the same ends at the fuse in the
mains voltage. consumer unit.
(ii) They can be operated  The power for the sockets in
independently. the various rooms is tapped at
 The switches are on the live convenient points from the
wire lines for safety. loop.
 If a switch were on the neutral  There is no connection between
wire, then the live wire would the live and the neutral wires
still be at the mains potential except through an appliance.
even when the switch is off.  Appliances using the ring
This would cause an electric mains circuit are provided with
shock when one handles any a third wire (earth wire)
electrical conductor linked to connected to the casing.
the live wire.  From the power socket, the
 Since the lighting circuit carries earth wire links with the earth
a small current, the wire used is terminal at the consumer unit
relatively thinner than those for through the ring mains circuit.
other circuits.
 In an ordinary house, power for
lighting is supplied through 5 A
fuse, since each lamp takes
only a small current.

Note:
(b) Power Sockets on a Ring Main  Earth wires must have a good
Circuit low-resistance to the earth so
that when a fault occurs and a

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current flow through the live

wire and the earth wire in
series, the fuse will blow and
cut off the flow of the current.
 Anyone handling the appliance
would thus be safe from
imminent shock.

Advantages of the Loop or Ring

Connection Figure 6.5

(i) It provides a double path for the Name the terminals A, B and C.
current flow. (3 marks)
(ii) It effectively increases the
thickness of the wires used. This Example 7
reduces the risk of overloading the Figure 6.6 shows a section of a house
circuit when several sockets are in wiring system.
use.
(iii) The sockets on a ring still
provide parallel circuit connections
to each of the appliances plugged in.

Example 6
Figure 6.5 shows the electric wiring
of an electric heater. A, B and C are
the mains wires.

Figure 6.6

(a) Name the:

(i) Circuit labeled P. (1 mark)
Main ring circuit

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

(ii) Terminals labeled X and Y.

(2 marks)
X – Neutral terminal
Y – Live point

(b) (i) State the purpose of R in the

circuit. (1 mk)
To safeguard against excess
current.

(ii) Give a reason why R is

connected to Y and not to X.
(1 mark)
To ensure that when it (R) melts or
breaks, the flow of current is cut off
and the appliance does not remain Figure 6.7
live.
 The three leads (wires) from the
(c) Give a reason why the earthing is appliance are connected to the
necessary in such a circuit.
three pins at the plug.
(1 mark)
To guard against electric shocks.  The insulation on the three
leads are coloured distinctly so
A Three-Pin Plug that they link correctly when
 A three-pin plug has the letters connected to the power circuit.
L, N and E marked against the  The table below shows the
live, neutral and earth pins colour codes:
respectively. [Figure 6.7 (a)]
Code Live Neutral Earth
wire wire wire
New Brown Blue Green
European with
standard yellow
stripes
Old Red Black Green
British

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standard P = IV ⇒ I =

 The three-pin plug connects the I=

appliance to a power source I = 4.167
through the socket. [Figure 6.7
(b)] (b) What is the most suitable fuse
 A fuse is used in the plug to rating for this circuit?
safeguard the appliance from 5A
damage due to excessive
current in the circuit. Electrical Energy Consumption
 The rating of the fuse used and Costing
depends on the operating (a) Electrical Energy Consumption
current of the appliance.  Commercial companies charge
 The rating or value of the fuse for electrical energy supplied to
should be the standard value consumers.
just above the normal current  The amount of energy used by
required by the appliance. a consumer depends on the:
 The common standard values (i) Power rating of the
are 2 A, 5 A and 13 A. appliances used.
 Therefore, for an appliance (ii) Time for which they have
operating at 4 A, the most been in use.
appropriate fuse would be the 5
A while for an appliance Energy converted = power x
operating at 11 A, the 13 A fuse time
would be suitable.  The SI unit of energy is the
joule.
Example 8  The joule is too small for
A house has a lighting circuit measuring the large amounts of
operated form the 240 V mains electrical energy used in homes.
supply. Ten bulbs each rated at 100W
 The unit for costing of
240 V are switched on at the same
electrical energy is the
time.
kilowatt-hour (kWh).
(a) Calculate the current flowing in
1 kWh = 1000 watts x 1 hour
the circuit.

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1 kWh = 1 000 watts x (60 x 60) Number of kW per week = 54 x 7

seconds P = 378 kWh
1 kWh = 3.6 x 106 J or 3.6MJ
Cost per week = 378 x 6.70
Cost = Ksh 2 532.60

(b) Calculating the Cost of Electricity

 The number of ‘units’ used or
converted by an appliance is Example 10
given by the relation: A house has five rooms with at 240 W
Number of = number of 60 V bulbs. If the bulbs are switched
kWh units kilowatts x hours on from 7.00 p.m. to 10.30 p.m.,
calculate the:
 The cost of electricity used or (a) Power consumed per day in
converted by an appliance is kilowatt-hour.
given by the relation: Power consumed by the five bulbs
Cost of electricity = number of kWh in one evening
units cost per kWh unit = 60 x 3.5 x 5
P = 1 050 W
Example 9 P = 1.050 kW
An immersion heater rated 3 000 W is
used continuously for 45 minutes per Cost per week for lighting these
hour per day. Calculate the cost per rooms at Ksh 6.70 per unit.
week at Ksh 6.70 per unit. Power consumed in 7 days
Solution = 1.05 x 7
Number of kW = P = 7.35 kWh
Cost = 7.35 x 6.70
P = 3 kW. Cost = Ksh 49.245
Number of kW per day
Example 11
= 3 x x 1 x 24 An electric heater is made of a wire of
P = 54 kWh resistance 100 Ω and connected to
240 V mains supply. Determine the:
(a) Power rating of the heater.

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(3 marks) Number of kWh = 34.56 kWh

P = IV Cost = 34.56 x 6.50
But I =
Cost = Ksh. 224.64
Therefore, P =

P=
P = 576 W

(b) Current flowing in the circuit.

(2 marks)
I=

I=
I = 2.4 A

(c) Time taken for the heater to raise

the temperature of 200 g of water
from 230C to 950C. (Specific heat
capacity of water is 4 200 Jkg⁻1K⁻1).
(3 marks)
Heat given out by heater = heat
gained by water
Pt = mc θ

t=

t = 105 seconds

(d) Cost of using the heater for two

hours a day for 30 days, given that the
cost of electricity is sh 6.50 per
kilowatt hour.
Number of kWh =

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 This occurs because the thermal

energy given to the carrier
overcomes the work function of
the material.
 Thermionic emission can only
be produced with certain metals
because it occurs at
temperatures similar to their
melting points.
Chapter 7  Figure 7.1 shows a circuit that
can be used to demonstrate
CATHODE RAYS AND thermionic emission.
CATHODE RAY TUBE
Introduction
 When a metal is heated to very
high temperature, electrons
may be emitted from its
surface.
 This is because the electrons
gain enough energy to enable
them break loose from the force
of attraction of the nuclei.
Figure 7.1
 The process of emission of
electrons due to heat energy is  The evacuated glass bulb (tube)
referred to as thermionic has the following components:
emission. (i) A heater filament.
(ii) A metal electrode called the
Thermionic Emission
cathode (negative electrode).
 It is defined as the liberation of
(iii) A metal electrode called
electrons from an electrode by
the anode (positive electrode).
virtue of its temperature
 The heater filament is
(releasing of energy supplied
connected to a low a.c voltage
by heat).
of about 6V.

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 The heater filament is coated

with oxides of barium and
strontium which release lots of
thermal electrons at much
lower temperature of about 1
300 K and will still emit some
electrons at 1 000 K.
 The cathode and the anode are Figure 7.2
connected to a 12 V supply.
 Before the heater current is  The electrons are produced at
switched on, no current is the cathode y thermionic
registered. emission.
 When the heater circuit is  The electrons are then
switched on and the current accelerated towards the screen
gradually increased, some by the anode which is
current is now registered in the connected to the positive
milliammeter. terminal of an extra high
 The hot cathode emits electrons tension (EHT) source.
which are attracted by the  When the cathode rays hit the
anode, thus completing the gap fluorescent screen, it glows.
between the electrodes. Note:
The tube is evacuated to prevent
Production of Cathode Rays electrons from interacting with any
 Cathode rays are streams of particles before reaching the screen.
electrons moving from the
Properties of Cathode Rays
cathode to the anode.
(i) They travel in straight lines.
 They are produced in a cathode
(ii) They cause certain materials to
ray tube (CRT). (Figure 7.2)
glow or fluorescence, e.g. zinc
sulphide screen.
(iii) They are negatively charged.
 They are deflected by both
magnetic and electric fields.
 When cathode rays are made to
pass between a positively metal

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plate and a negatively charged The above properties confirm that

plate, they are deflected cathode rays are actually a stream of
towards the positively charged fast moving electrons.
plate. This shows that they are
negatively charged. [Figure Example 1
7.3(a)]. State three differences between
 When cathode rays are made to cathode rays and electromagnetic
pass through a magnetic field, radiations. (3 marks)
the deflection is determined by
Fleming’s left-hand rule. Cathode Electromagnetic
[Figure 7.3(b)]. rays radiations
 This further confirms that they (i) They have They do not
are negatively charged. charge. have charge.
(ii) They are They are waves.
particles
and have
mass.
(iii) They travel They travel at a
at a speed speed of light in
depending a vacuum.
on the
accelerating
voltage.

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

 The CRO is a development of
Figure 7.3 the CRT.
(iv) They possess kinetic energy.  It consists of the following
(v) They can produce X-rays when parts:
suddenly stopped by a metal target. 1. The electron gun.
2. A system of plates for
Conclusion deflecting the electron beam.

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3. A fluorescent screen at one when made more negative, the

end of the glass envelope. number of electrons crossing
4. An evacuated strong glass over to the screen is cut down.
envelope.
(c) The anodes
 Figure 7.4 shows the main  They consist of cylinders and
parts of the CRO. discs maintained at high
positive potential relative to the
cathode (figure 7.5).

Figure 7.4
1. The Electron Gun Figure 7.5
It consists of the following parts:
(a) The cathode  They therefore attract the
emitted electrons and
It produces the electrons by
eventually direct them to the
thermionic emission when heated by
screen.
the heater filament.
 Their purpose is to:
(b) The grid (I) Accelerate the electrons
 This is a hollow cylinder which towards the screen.
has a small hole at the end. (II) Focus the electrons beam
 It is at a small negative towards the screen.
potential relative to the cathode.  Anodes A2 and A1 are at
 It controls the intensity of the different positive potentials,
electron beam reaching the that of A1 being higher than
screen and hence the that of A2.
brightness of the spot on the  There is therefore an electric
screen. field between them.
 When it is made less negative,  The direction of this field is
more electrons cross over and such as to converge he

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diverging electron beam from

the cathode as it leaves the
aperture of the anode A1.

Note:
The greater the p.d. between the Figure 7.7
anodes A1 and A2, the stronger the  When the switch is open, the
electric field intensity and therefore electron beam passes between
the greater the degree of focusing. the two plates Y1 and Y2
undeflected and strikes the
2. The System of Deflecting Plates screen at point A.
 When the switch is closed, the
Figure 7.6 shows the screen-end view plates become charged and an
of the deflection plates. electric field is created between
them.
 The beam is attracted upwards
towards the positive plate Y1. It
is deflected to strike the screen
at point B
 If the polarity of the plates is
reversed, the spot will shift to
point C through point A.
 If the reversals of the polarity
are sustained, then the spot will
shift from B to C and back at
Figure 7.6
the frequency of the reversals.
(a) The Y-deflection plates  If an alternating voltage is used,
 These are a pair of metal plates then the spot moves up and
that are connected horizontally down in accordance with the
to a small source of voltage instantaneous voltage at the
supply (figure 7.7). frequency of the a.c.
 They are so called because they  If the frequency of the a.c. is
cause deflection of the beam in high enough, then a vertical
the vertical direction. line is observed rather than the

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moving spot, due to persistence electric field is created between

of vision. them.
 The beam is attracted
Note: horizontally towards the
The repetitive voltage, called the positive plate X2. It is deflected
‘signal’ that is to be studied is fed in to strike the screen at point M.
through the Y-input terminal.  If the polarity of the plates is
reversed, the spot will shift to
(b) The X-deflection plates point N through point O.
 These are a pair of metal plates  If the reversals of the polarity
that are connected vertically to are sustained, then the spot will
a small source of voltage shift from M to N and back at
supply. (Figure 7.8) the frequency of the reversals.
 They are so called because they
cause deflection of the beam in The Time Base Circuit
the horizontal direction  An internal circuit known as
the time-base is connected to
the X-plates.
 The time-base circuit generates
a varying voltage which is
connected to the X-deflection
plates.
 This voltage cause plate X2 to
become steadily more positive
Figure 7.8 compared with plate X1, so that
the spot moves at a constant
 When the switch is open, the speed from left to right across
electron beam passes between the screen.
the two plates X1 and X2  The number of times that the
undeflected and strikes the spot travels across the screen
screen at point A. from left to right in one second
 When the switch is closed, the is called time-base frequency.
plates become charged and an  At constant speed, the spot
travels equal distances in equal

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times, e.g., 1 cm division every  When the time base voltage

millisecond (ms/div or ms/cm). reaches the peak voltage (the
 When the time base frequency sweep), the spot returns from
is low, e.g. 100 ms/div, the spot the right of the screen to the left
will travel slowly across the of the screen in a very short
screen [figure 7.9 (a)]. period of time known as the
 If the time base frequency is fly-back time.
now raised, to say 10 ms/div, a  During this time, the electron
permanent horizontal line is beam is shut off by a negative
seen across the screen [figure voltage fed to the control grid
7.9 (b)]. so that the spot is not visible.

3. The Fluorescent Screen

 It is coated with a fluorescent
substance such as zinc sulphide
called phosphor, which glows
on impact with electrons.
 The fluorescent substance
continues to glow even after the
beam has passed the point of
impact. This, plus the natural
persistence of vision of the eye,
makes a waveform to be
observed on the screen.
 The inside of the tube is coated
with graphite, which has three
functions:
(i) Conduction of electrons to
Figure 7.9 the earth.
(ii) Shielding the beam from
 The time scale is selected on
the time-base control which external electric fields.
operates the frequency of the (iii) Accelerating the electrons
time base voltage. towards the screen, since it is

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at the same ground potential (c) Describe how the electrons are
as the anode. produced in the tube. (2 marks)
The heat from the heater filament
heats up the cathode, causing the
4. The Evacuated Strong Glass
electrons to be dislodged from the
Envelope surface by thermionic emission.
The tube is highly evacuated so as to
reduce collision, and hence (d) State and explain the function of
ionization of the electrons with the the part labeled M. (3 marks)
air molecules in the tube. The grid controls the intensity of
the electron beam reaching the
screen and hence its brightness.
When it is made less negative, more
electrons cross over and when made
Example 2 more negative, the number of
Figure 7.10 shows the main features electrons crossing over to the screen
of a cathode ray tube (CRT) of a is cut down.
cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO). (e) When using the CRO to display
waveforms of voltages, state where
the following should be connected:
(i) The voltage to be displayed on the
screen. (1 mk)
Across the Y-plates

Figure 7.10 (ii) The time-base voltage. (1 mark)

Across the X-plates
(a) Name the parts labeled M and N.
(2 marks) (f) State what would be observed on
M – Grid the screen if an a.c. voltage is
N- Accelerating anode connected across the Y-plates. (1 mk)
A vertical line would appear.
(b) State why the tube is highly
evacuated. (1 mk) Example 3
So as to reduce collision, and hence What property of the beam of
ionization of the electrons with the electrons shows that the electrons
air molecules in the tube. travel at a very high speed? (1 mark)

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The beam from the electron gun to

the screen is straight. (II) A high frequency of about 50 Hz.
(1 mark)
Example 4 There will be a horizontal line.
Figure 7.11 (a) is a diagram of a
(b) Explain the process by which
cathode ray tube. M and N are
electrons are produced at F. (2 mks)
parallel vertical plates.
The heating effect of electric
current increases the energy of the
electrons. As a result, they break off
from the surface.

(c)State with a reason how the

brightness of the spot can be
increased. (2 marks)
Figure 7.11 By increasing the heating filament
current so that more electrons are
emmited.
(a) When the switch, S is open. a spot
is seen at the centre of the screen as (d) The accelerating voltage of the
shown in figure 7.11 (b). tube is 1 000 V and the current of
(i) State what happens to the spot electrons is 1.5 mA. Determine the
when the switch S is closed. (1 mark) energy conveyed to the screen per
second. (2 marks)
It deflects towards the positive
P = VI
plate, i.e., towards N.
P = 1 000 x 1.5 x 10⁻3 P = 1.5 J
(ii) State what would happen to the
spot if the potential difference (p.d.) Example 5
across MN is increased. (1mark) The current of electrons hitting the
screen of a cathode ray oscilloscope is
There would be an increase in 2.0 x 10⁻4 A. Determine the number
deflection. of electrons that strike the screen each
(iii) State what would be observed on second. (Take charge of an electron as
the screen if the battery is replaced 1.6 x 10⁻19 C). (3 marks)
with an alternating e.m.f. of:
Q = It
(I) A low frequency of about 1 Hz. Q = 2.0 x 10⁻4 x 1 Q = 2.0 x 10⁻4 C
(1 mark)
Number of electrons, n =
The spot will move back and forth
or to –and-fro. It oscillates. n = 1.25 x 1015 electrons
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Applications of the CRO

1. The CRO as a Voltmeter

 The following actions are done
to the CRO:
(i) The time-base is switched
off.
(ii) The X-deflection plates are
earthed.
(iii) The voltage to be measured
is connected across the Y-
deflection plates.
 An amplifier is connected
between the Y-input terminals
and the Y-deflection plates so
that small input voltages or
‘signals’ can be amplified until
they are large enough to deflect
the electron beam.
 The Y-gain control (amplifier
control) is calibrated in volts
per division (V/div).
 These divisions are usually
centimeter or cm squares ruled
on the plastic filter fitted in
front of the screen.
 Figure 7.12 (a), (b), (c) and (d)
shows voltages displayed on
the screen of a CRO.

Figure 7.12
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current from the voltage sources it is

 Note the importance difference measuring.
between the appearance of a (ii) It can measure both direct and
d.c. and an a.c. voltage alternating voltages.
displayed on the screen.
(iii) It can measure large voltages
 The value of a d.c. voltage
measurement is calculated without getting damaged.
using the formula: (iv) It responds instantaneously,
d.c. voltage = displacement of unlike the ordinary voltmeters whose
the spot from the zero pointers swing momentarily about the
position (in divisions) x correct reading due to inertia.
sensitivity of the Y- gain
control (in volts per division)
Example 6
 The value of an a.c. voltage
measurement can be given as A d.c. voltage of 50 V when applied
either positive or negative peak to the Y-plates of a CRO causes a
voltage or a peak-to-peak deflection of the spot on the screen as
voltage which is double the shown in figure 7.13
peak value.

peak voltage = length of

vertical trace from zero
position (in divisions) x
sensitivity of the Y-gain
control (in volts per division)
peak-to-peak voltage = full
length of vertical trace (in Figure 7.13
divisions) x sensitivity of the
Y-gain control (in volts per Determine the sensitivity of the Y-
division) gain.
Solution
Advantages of the CRO as a Spot deflection on the screen = 2.5
voltmeter over the conventional divisions.
voltmeters Voltage = 50 V
(i) The internal resistance between the
Sensitivity =
Y-input terminals is extremely high
and therefore it takes negligible

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Sensitivity =
Sensitivity = 20 V/div

(b) Show what will be observed on

the screen if a peak voltage of 40 V is
fed onto the Y-plates.
Peak voltage = 40 V
Y-gain = 20 V/div Figure 7.15
Number of divisions =
 The periodic time, T of the
Number of divisions = signal is then determined by
relating the trace of the signal
Number of divisions = 2 divisions.
on the screen with time base
Since the voltage is a.c., then
setting.
number of divisions = 2 from
 The time-base frequency, f can
zero.
then be calculated using the
formula:
f=
Note:
(i) The display on the CRO screen is a
voltage - time graph of a transformer
Figure 7.14
output.
(ii) The vertical axis (y-axis)
2. Determining the Frequency of an
represents the input voltage connected
a.c. Signal
across the Y-input terminals.
 The signal is fed into the Y-
(iii) The horizontal axis (x-axis)
plates of a CRO with the time-
represents the time, in milliseconds
base on.
(ms), when the time-base is switched
 The time-base control is
on.
adjusted to produce one or
more cycles of the input signal
Example 7
on the screen as shown in
Given that in figure 7.15 the time-
figure 7.15.
base control is set at 10 ms/div,

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determine the frequency of the a.c. Given that the time-base control is 5
signal on the screen. ms/div and the Y-gain is at 100 V/div,
Solution determine the:
Time-base setting = 10 ms/div (a) Frequency of the a.c. signal.
Number of cycles shown = 1 Solution
Number of divisions covered by I Time-base setting = 5 ms/div
cycle = 8 Number of cycles shown = 2
Period T = 8 div x 10 ms/div Number of divisions covered by 2
T = 80 ms cycles = 8
T = 0.08 s Total time taken = 8 div x 5 ms/div
f= t = 40 ms
Period T =
f= f = 12.5 Hz
T = 20 ms
T = 0.02 s
f=

f=

Example 8 f = 50 Hz
Figure 7.16 shows the trace on the
screen of an a.c. signal connected to (b) Peak voltage of the input signal.
the Y-plates of a CRO with the time- Peak voltage = Y-gain x number of
base on. divisions from the zero position
Peak voltage = 100 V/div x 3 div
Peak voltage = 300 V

Example 9
Figure 7.17 shows a waveform of a
voltage displayed on the screen of a
CRO. The Y-gain calibration was 5 V
per centimeter.

Figure 7.16

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Figure 7.18

(a) Determine the:

Figure 7.17 (i) Peak voltage of the generator.
(a) Determine the peak-to-peak (2 marks)
voltage of the Y-put. Height = 4 cm
Solution Therefore, peak voltage = 4 x 5
V = 5 V/cm x 2 cm Peak voltage = 20 V
V = 10 V
(ii) Frequency of the a.c. voltage.
(b) Sketch on the same figure the (3 marks)
appearance of the waveform after the 2 wavelengths = 16 squares = 16 cm
voltage of the input signal is halved Total time = (16 x 20) ms = 320 ms
and its frequency doubled. = 0.32 s
Total number of cycles = 2
Time per cycle (Periodic time, T) =

Example 10 T = 0.16 s
The graph in figure 7.18 was obtained
Frequency, f =
on a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)
screen when the output of an a.c. f= f = 6.25 Hz
generator was connected to the input
of the CRO. The time-base calibration
(b) On the same grid, redraw the
of the CRO was set at 20 milliseconds
graph for the same voltage when the
per centimeter and the Y-gain at 5
time-base calibration is set at 40
volts per centimeter.
milliseconds per centimeter and the
Y-gain at 10 volts per centimeter.
(Show at least one complete cycle).
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(2 marks)  Dots of varying brightness in

The Television Tube successive lines build up the
The TV tube is a cathode tube with image on the screen.
the following modifications:  Since this occurs at very high
(a) The deflection of the spot is by frequency, there is persistence
magnetic coils. of vision which gives an
These are positioned in pairs to effect impression of a steady picture.
the vertical and horizontal deflections  A colour TV has three electron
of the beam (Figure 7.19). guns, each carrying the colour
detail of one of the primary
colours (red, green and blue).
 The screen has a matrix of
different colour emitting
phosphor dots such that when
they are stimulated, they give
the coloured pictures.

Figure 7.19 Example 11

State how the deflection system of a
Note: television differs from that of a CRO.
 Magnetic fields are preferred to (1 mark)
electric fields because they give Deflection of the electron beam in a
a wider deflection of the TV set is by magnetic fields while
electrons beam. the deflection in a CRO is caused by
 Thus, it makes it possible to electric field
work with a wide screen with a
relatively short tube.
Example 12
(b) The incoming signal from the Give a reason why it is possible to
aerial is fed into the grid. have a wider screen in a TV set than
 This effects variations on the on the CRO. 1 mark)
intensity of the beam as it Magnetic field produces wider
sweeps across the screen. deflection of the electron beam than
that of an electric field.

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(a) explain the production of X-rays

(b) state the properties of X-rays
(c) state the dangers of X-rays
(d) explain the uses of X-rays
(e) solve numerical problems
involving X-rays

Introduction
X-rays are electromagnetic radiations
of short wavelength of the order of
approximately 10 -10 m.
A. Production of X-rays
 X-rays are produced in x-ray
tubes where fast moving
electrons or cathode rays are
suddenly stopped on hitting
metal targets such as tungsten
embedded on a copper block (
the anode).
 Figure 8.1 shows the essential
components of an X-ray tube.

Chapter Eight
X-RAYS
Specific Objectives
By the end of the lesson, the learner
should be able to:

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to X-ray radiation during

bombardment. The target must
therefore be a metal of high
melting point, such as tungsten.
 Cooling of the tube is achieved
by using a good conductor of
heat, such as copper, for the
anode.
 The cooling efficiency is
improved by having cooling
fins on the part of the anode
outside the tube.
Figure 8.1
 In large tubes, the anode is
further cooled by passing oil
 Electrons are produced by
through channels inside it.
thermionic emission at the
Modern X-ray Tube
indirectly heated cathode.
 A high anode potential of order  Figure 8.2 shows a modern X-
100kV attracts the electrons ray tube with rotating anode.
towards the anode at very high
potential.
 The metallic cylinder, G,
maintained at a negative
potential focuses the electron
beam to a target area, usually of
tungsten embedded on the
copper anode.

Figure 8.2

 In modern models, the target

 More than 99.5% of the rotates during operation to
electron kinetic energy is change the point of impact,
converted to heat and only thereby reducing wear and tear.
0.5% of the energy is converted

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 The tube is made of strong and therefore bombardment

glass and is highly evacuated so does not take place.
that electrons do not lose some  Thus, electrons are not
of their kinetic energy through produced in reverse cycle.
collisions with air molecules on  X-rays are therefore produced
their way to the target. in bursts, that is, only in those
 The target is set at an angle half cycles when the anode is
(usually450) relative to the positive with respect to the
electron beam in order to direct cathode.
X-rays out of the tube through a  However, due to the high
window on the lead shield. frequency of the alternating
 X-rays produced at unsuitable current, the X-rays production
angles are safely absorbed by appears continuous.
the lead shield surrounding the Example 1
tube. State the energy transformation when
 The high anode voltage fast moving electrons are suddenly
required is supplied from a stopped by a target in an X-ray tube.
step–up alternating current (1 mark)
transformer. Kinetic energy is transformed to
 During the half-cycle when the heat energy.
anode is positive with respect
Example 2
to the cathode, electrons are Given a reason why the target in an
accelerated towards the target X-ray tube is made of tungsten or
and X-rays are produced when molybdenum. (1 mark)
the bombardment takes place.
Tungsten or molybdenum has a
very high melting point and hence
they can withstand high
temperatures.

Example 3
 In the reverse half-cycle, the
Figure 8.3 shows the features of an
anode is negative with respect
X-ray tube.
to the cathode. As such,
electrons do not reach the target

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(d) During the operation of the tube,

the target becomes very hot. Explain
how this heat is caused. (1 mark)
Most of the kinetic energy of the
electrons is converted to heat
energy.

(e) Explain how a change in potential

Figure 8.3 across PQ changes the intensity of the
X-rays produced in the tube. (2 mks)
When the potential across PQ is
(a) Name the parts labeled A and B. increased, the temperature of the
(2 marks) cathode increases. This increases
A – Electron beam the number of electrons released
B - Copper anode and hence the intensity of the X-
rays.
(b) Explain why:
(i) A high potential difference is (f) State how the resulting X-rays are
applied to the filament. (2 marks) affected by increasing the potential
difference between the cathode and
To produce more heating effect on
the anode. (2 marks)
the cathode so as to produce
The speed of the X-rays is increased
electrons.
leading to an increase in the kinetic
(ii) A high potential difference is energy of the X-rays produced.
applied between the cathode and the
anode. (2 marks) Example 4
To accelerate the electrons towards State with a reason the effect on the
the target.
X-rays produced in an X-ray tube,
(iii) Most of the tube is surrounded by when the potential difference across
lead. (1 mark) the tube is increased. (2 marks)
To absorb X-rays produced at Hard X-rays of very short
unsuitable angles. wavelength (more penetrating) are
(c) What property of lead makes it produced.
suitable for use as shielding material?
B. Properties of X-rays
(1 mark)
It has very high density.

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1. They are not deflected by either Figure 8.4

magnetic or electric fields.
They are therefore not charged. It is observed that when the switch is
closed, a current flows in the
2. They can be diffracted and
milliammeter. Explain this
therefore have a wave nature. observation. (2 marks)
3. They cause ionization in gas X-rays ionizes the air molecules
molecules. between the plates. The positive
4. They cause photoelectric ions are attracted towards the
emission. negative plate and the negative ions
5. They affect photographic towards the positive plate. A
emulsions, a property utilized potential difference is therefore
in X-ray photography. created resulting to a flow of
6. They cause fluorescence in current.
certain substances, such as Zinc C. Types of X-rays
sulphide.
7. They penetrate matter, the 1. Hard X-rays
depth of penetration depending  They have high penetrating
on the density. power because they have very
8. They travel in straight lines at short wavelengths.
the speed of light (3.0 × 108  They are produced by very high
m/s). velocity electrons.
Note:
Example 5 The strength (quality) of X-rays is
Figure 8.4 shows a narrow beam of determined by the accelerating
X-rays passing between two metal voltage.
plates in air. The plates are connected  The higher the accelerating
in series with a switch, a cell and a voltage, the faster the electrons
milliammeter. are produced. The faster the
electrons, the higher the energy
that they possess and the
shorter the wavelength of the
X-rays they produce.
 Also, the shorter the
wavelength of X-rays, the
greater their penetrating power.

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 X-rays of certain hardness can The potential difference between

penetrate the flesh, but are the cathode and the anode.
absorbed by the bones. Such X-
rays can be used to take Example 7
photographs.
State one difference between hard X-
2. Soft X-rays rays and soft X-rays. (1 mark)
 They are produced by electrons
moving at relatively lower Hard X- Soft X-rays:
velocities than those that rays:
produce hard X-rays. (i) Have short Have longer
 They have less energy, longer wavelength wavelength
wavelengths and hence less (ii) Are more Are less
penetrating power compared to penetrating penetrating
the hard X-rays. (iii) Are Are produced by
 They are used to reveal produced by low voltage
malignant growth in tissues high voltage
since they only penetrate soft (iv) Are Are produced by
flesh. They are absorbed by produced by slow moving
such growths. fast moving electrons
electrons
Note:
The intensity (quantity) of X-Rays is
controlled by the heating current. D. Energy of Electrons
 The greater the heating current,  If a bombarding electron is
the greater the number of X- stopped in a single collision,
rays produced and hence the most or all its energy is
more the X-rays. However, this converted to X- ray energy.
does not mean that the more the  At a given accelerating
X-rays, the stronger they are. potential, the X-rays produced
 The strength of X-rays depends will have varying wavelengths,
on the wavelengths. with the shortest wavelength
(λmin) corresponding to a
Example 6 collision in which all the
State the factor that determines the energy is assumed to have been
hardness of the X-rays produced in an converted to X-rays.
X-ray tube. (1 mark)
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 X-rays resulting from (Take velocity of light, c = 3.0 x 108

numerous collisions have ms⁻1 and Planck’s constant = 6.63 x
longer wavelengths. 10⁻34 Js)
 The kinetic energy of the A type of X-ray has a wavelength of
bombarding electron is 10⁻10 m in a vacuum. Determine its:
practically equal to eV i.e., (a) Frequency.
K.E = eV, Solution
where V is the accelerating c = fλ
potential difference and e the f= ⇒f=
electronic charge.
 When all the K.E. of an f = 3.0 x 1018 Hz
electron is used to produce the (b) Energy.
X-ray energy, the frequency of E = hf
the X-rays will be maximum E = 6.63 x 10⁻34 x 3.0 x 1018
(fmax). E = 1.989 x 10⁻15 J
 Using Planck’s theory, the X-
ray energy is given by E =hf, Example 9
where h is Planck’s constant (Take velocity of light, c = 3.0 x 108
(6.63 × 10-34 Js) and f is the ms⁻1 and Planck’s constant = 6.63 x
frequency of the radiation. 10⁻34 Js)
 Thus, maximum X-ray energy The frequency of X-rays range from
is given by: Emax = eV = hfmax. 3.0 x 1017 Hz to 3.0 x 1019 Hz.
 But c = fλ, where c is the Determine the:
velocity of light. (a) Range of the wavelengths.
Solution
 Therefore, fmax =
c = fλ
 Hence, Let the wavelengths be λ1 and λ2.
Emax = eV = hfmax = h
Then λ1 =
Note:
Wavelength and frequency of a λ1 = 1.0 x 10⁻9 m
radiation are inversely proportional.
λ2 =
Example 8
λ2 = 1.0 x 10⁻11 m

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Therefore, the range of the 

X-ray machines have a
wavelengths is from 10⁻11 to 10⁻9 m. protective lead shield to protect
the operators from stray
(b) Maximum energy of the X-rays.
radiation.
Emax = hfmax
Emax = 6.63 x 10⁻34 x 3.0 x 1019  The machines are operated in
Emax = 1.989 x 10⁻14 J rooms that have concrete walls
Example 10 so as to absorb any leaking
(Take charge on an electron, e = 1.6 x radiation.
10⁻19 C, velocity of light, c = 3.0 x 108 2. They damage photographic films.
ms⁻1 and Planck’s constant = 6.63 x F. Uses of X-rays
10⁻34 Js) 1. In Medicine (Radiography and
An X-ray tube has an accelerating Radiotherapy).
potential difference of 100 kV.
Calculate the shortest wavelength in  They are used in hospitals and
medical research centres for
its X-ray beam.
diagnosis and treatment of
Solution diseases.
eV = hfmax = h  They are also used for the
treatment of tumours.
λmin =  They are also used to detect
foreign objects in the body, e.g.
λmin =
a safety pin if swallowed
λmin = 1.243 x 10⁻11 m accidentally.
 They are used to detect internal
E. Dangers of X-rays
injuries or disorders in the
1. Excessive exposure of living
tissues to X-rays is dangerous as the body.
radiation can damage or kill the  They are also used to detect
living cells. fractures in the bones.
2. In Industry
 Since the effect of exposure is  They are used to detect flaws in
cumulative, then it is important metal castings and welding.
that exposure be limited to
short periods only as necessary  They are also used to sterilize
and as few times as possible in surgical equipment before
one’s lifetime. packaging.

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 They are used to examine a Specific Objectives

complete machine without
By the end of this topic, the learner
dismantling it.
should be able to:
3. In Crystallography
(a) perform and describe simple
They are used to study the crystal
experiments to illustrate
structure of substances.
photoelectric effect
4. Security, e.g., in Airports
(b) explain the factors affecting
They are used to inspect luggage for
any weapons and any illegal items photoelectric emission
that may be hidden in them. (c) apply the equation E = hf to
calculate the energy of photons
Example 11 (d) define threshold frequency, work
State the property of X-rays which function and the electron volt
makes it possible to detect cracks in (e) explain photoelectric emission
bones. (1 mark) using Einstein’s equation (hf = hfo +
X-rays have penetrating power. ½mv2)
(f) explain the applications of
Example 12
photoelectric effect
X-rays are used for detecting cracks
(g) solve numerical problems
inside metal beams.
involving photoelectric emmisions.
(a) State the type of the X-rays used.
(1 mark)
Hard X-rays Introduction
 When an electromagnetic
(b) Give a reason for your answer in
radiation of sufficient
(i) above. (1 mk)
frequency is radiated on a metal
They are more penetrating surface, electrons are emitted.
This phenomenon is known as
photoelectric effect.
 The electrons emitted are called
photoelectrons

Chapter Nine

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
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EXPERIMENT 9.1: To demonstrate

photoelectric effect Observation
 When UV radiation is allowed
(a) Using Neutral Plates to fall on metal plate A, the
galvanometer shows a
Apparatus
Ultraviolet lamp (mercury vapour deflection.
lamp), two metal plates, power  When the barrier is introduced
source, galvanometer, connecting so that the radiation is cut off,
wires, glass plate (barrier) the galvanometer shows no
deflection.

Explanation
 When UV radiation energy falls
on a metal surface, some
electrons absorb this energy
and are dislodged from the
surface.
 The deflection of the
galvanometer indicates that
electrons are emitted at plate A
and are attracted by the plate B.
 A potential difference is
Figure 9.1 therefore created resulting to a
current flow.
Procedure  The glass plate, however, cuts
 Set up the apparatus as shown off the UV radiation from
in figure 9.1. reaching the negative metal
 Direct UV-radiation towards plate and hence electrons are
plate A and observe what not generated. Therefore, the
happens to the galvanometer. galvanometer does not deflect.
 Place the glass barrier in
(b) Using a Charged Electroscope
between the source and plate A,
Apparatus
and again observe what
Zinc plate, gold-leaf electroscope,
happens.
ultraviolet lamp.

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zinc plate and observe the leaf

divergence. [Figure 9.2 (a)]
 Repeat the above procedure
with a negatively charged
electroscope. [Figure 9.2 (b)]

Observation
 For the positively charged
electroscope, the leaf
divergence remains the same.
 For the negatively charged
electroscope, the leaf
divergence decreases.

Explanation
 When the zinc plate is
irradiated with UV radiation,
electrons are emitted from its
surface.
 The photoelectrons emitted
from the positively charged
zinc plate do not escape from
the surface due to attraction by
the positive charge on the plate.
Hence the leaf divergence
remains the same.
 However, the photoelectrons
emitted from the negatively
charged zinc plate are repelled.
Figure 9.2 Thus, the electroscope becomes
Procedure discharged and the leaf
divergence decreases.
 Charge the gold-leaf positively.
 Place the zinc plate on the cap Note:
of the charged electroscope. If a sheet of ordinary glass (which
 Direct UV radiation from a absorbs UV radiation) is introduced
mercury vapour lamp on to the between the negatively charged zinc

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plate and the UV source, the leaf (a) The leaf of the electroscope falls.
divergence remains the same. (2 marks)
The UV radiation dislodges
Factors Affecting Photoelectric
electrons from the zinc metal
Effect
surface. The dislodged electrons are
(a) The intensity of the radiation. repelled by the negative charge on
The rate of emission of photoelectrons the electroscope, thereby
is directly proportional to the intensity discharging the electroscope and
of the incident radiation. the leaf falls.
(b) The energy of the radiation
(frequency of radiation) (b) When the same experiment was
Increasing the frequency of incident repeated with a positively charged
radiation increases the kinetic energy electroscope, the leaf did not fall.
of the photoelectrons. (2 marks)
(c) The type of metal The electrons dislodged from the
Each metal surface has its own zinc metal surface do not escape
minimum frequency, called threshold due to the attraction by the positive
frequency for photoemission. charge on the electroscope.
Therefore, the leaf divergence
Example 1 remains the same.
Figure 9.3 shows ultra-violet (UV)
light striking a polished zinc plate
placed on a negatively charged gold-
leaf electroscope.
Example 2
In figure 9.4, ultra-violet (UV) light
falls on a zinc plate placed on a
charged leaf electroscope. It is
observed that the leaf collapses.

Figure 9.3

Explain the following observations: Figure 9.4

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(b) State why this observation does

Explain how this observation may be not occur if the electroscope is
used to determine the type of charge positively charged. (1 mark)
on the electroscope. (3 marks) The electrons dislodged from the
The UV radiation dislodges zinc metal surface do not escape
electrons from the zinc metal due to the attraction by the positive
surface. Since the leaf collapses, the
charge on the electroscope.
electroscope must be negatively
charged. This is because the
dislodged electrons are repelled by (c) Explain why the leaf of the
the negative charge on the electroscope does not fall when infra-
electroscope, thereby discharging red radiation is directed onto the zinc
the electroscope. plate. (1 mark)
The photoelectrons of infra-red
Example 3
radiation have lower frequency
State the property of radiation that
than the UV radiation. Hence, the
determines the number of electrons
energy from the infra-red radiation
emitted when a radiation falls on a
is not enough to eject electrons
metal surface. (1 mark)
from zinc.
The intensity of radiation

Example 5
State the effect on the electrons
emitted by the photoelectric effect
when:
Example 4 (a) The intensity of incident radiation
It is observed that when ultra- violet is increased. (1 mark)
radiation is directed onto a clean zinc The number of electrons emitted
plate connected to the cap of a will increase.
negatively charged leaf electroscope,
the leaf falls. (b) The frequency of the incident
(a) Explain this observation. (2 mks) radiation is increased. (1 mark)
The emitted electrons will have
The dislodged electrons are repelled
by the negative charge on the maximum kinetic energy.
electroscope, thereby discharging
the electroscope and the leaf falls. Example 6
It is observed that when the cap of an
uncharged electroscope is irradiated

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with light of high frequency, the leaf

electroscope rises. Explain this (a) On the same axes, sketch the
observation. (3 marks) graph when light of higher intensity
but same frequency is used to
When light falls on the cap of the
illuminate the surface. (1 mark)
electroscope, some electrons are
dislodged from the surface of the
(b) Explain your answer in (a) above.
cap leaving a net positive charge on
(2 mark)
the electroscope. Hence the brass
The higher the intensity of light, the
plate and the leaf repel and the leaf
rises. greater the number of electrons
emitted and hence a higher
Example 7 saturation current.
State two factors that affect
photoelectric emission. (2 mks) Quantum Theory of Radiation
(a) The intensity of the radiation.
 In 1902, Max Planck came up
(b) The energy of the radiation
with the idea that light energy
(frequency of radiation)
exists in very small separate
(c) The type of metal
packets of energy. This is
called the quantum theory.

 Quantum theory states that

Example 8 light energy exists in very
The graph in figure 9.5 shows the small separate packets called
variation of photoelectric current, I quanta (singular: quantum)
with applied voltage, V when a  The quanta of light energy are
surface was illuminated with light of a called photons.
certain frequency.  According to Planck, the
energy E possessed by one
photon is given by:
E = hf,
where h is a constant called
Planck’s constant (6.63 x10⁻34
Js) and f is frequency of the
radiation.
Figure 9.5
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 From the general wave

equation; Einstein’s Equation of Photoelectric
c = fλ Effect
 In 1905, Albert Einstein used
 Thus, E = h ,
the quantum theory of light to
where c is the velocity of the explain the photoelectric effect.
radiation in vacuum and λ the  When a photon strikes an
wavelength.
electron, all its energy is
Note: absorbed by the electron.
Since the velocity c of the radiation  Some of the absorbed energy is
and Planck’s constant h are constants, used to dislodge the electron
it implies that a radiation of longer from the metal surface while
wavelength λ has lower energy. the rest of the energy appears as
the kinetic energy of the
Example 9
Calculate the photon energy in emitted electrons.
ultraviolet radiation whose frequency  Thus,
is 8.60 x 1014 Hz. (Planck’s constant,
h = 6.63 x 10⁻34 Js) (3 marks)
Solution Energy of photon = (energy
E = hf required to dislodge an
E = 6.63 x 10⁻34 x 8.60 x 1014 electron from the metal
E = 5.7018 x 10⁻19 J surface) + (maximum kinetic
energy gained by the
Example 10 electron)
Calculate the energy contained in a  The minimum amount of
photon of red light of wavelength 7.0 energy required to dislodge an
x 10⁻7 m. (Take Planck’s constant, h = electron form a metal surface
6.63 x 10⁻34 Js and velocity of light = against the attractive forces of
3.0 x 108 ms⁻1) surrounding positive ions is
Solution called the work function (W0)
E = hf of the metal.
E=h  The values of work function are
different for different metals.
E = 6.63 x 10⁻34 x
E = 2.841 x 10⁻19 J
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 Work function is expressed in a  Since W0 = hf0, this equation

unit called electron-volt (eV) can also be written as;
or the joule (J). hf = hf0 + me and
1 eV = 1.6 x 10⁻19 J
 Emission of photoelectrons will hf = h + me
not occur from a metal surface Note:
if the frequency of the radiation (i) When f < f0, hf will be lower than
falling on it is below a certain W0. Hence emission will not occur.
value. (ii) When f = f0, hf = hf0 = W0. Hence
 This minimum frequency is emission will occur.
known as the threshold (iii) When f > f0, hf will be higher
frequency (f0) for the metal. than W0. Hence the excess energy in
 The corresponding minimum this case appears as the K.E. of the
wavelength is called the emitted electron.
threshold wavelength (λ0).

Example 11
 Threshold wavelength is the The minimum frequency of radiation
maximum wavelength beyond necessary to cause photoelectric effect
which no photoelectric on a certain metal surface is 9.06 x
emission will occur. 1014 Hz. Determine the work function
 The work function is thus given of the metal. (Planck’s constant
by; h = 6.63 x 10⁻34 Js) (3 mks)
W0 = hf0 or W0 = h W0 = hf0

 Thus, energy of a photon is W0 = 6.63 x 10⁻34 x 9.06 x 1014

given by; W0 = 6.00678 x 10⁻19 J
E = hf = W0 + me ,
where me is the mass of an Example 12
electron and v the velocity of The work function of a certain
the electron emitted. material is 3.2 eV. Determine the
hf = W0 + me threshold frequency for the material.

 This is Einstein’s
photoelectric equation.

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[1 electron-volt (eV) = 1.6 x 10⁻19 J W0 = 2.48625 x 10⁻19 J

and Planck’s constant h = 6.63 x 10⁻34
Js] (3 marks) W0 =
Solution W0 = 1.554 eV
W0 = hf0
(c) Maximum K.E. of the electron.
f0 = ⇒ f0 =
(2 marks)
f0 = 7.722 x 1014 Hz K.E. = hf – hf0
K.E. = (6.63 x 10⁻34 x 8.5 x 1014) –
Example 13
The maximum wavelength required to 2.48625 x 10⁻19
cause photoelectric emission on a K.E. = 5.6355 x 10⁻19 - 2.48625 x
metal surface is 8.0 x 10⁻7 m.
10⁻19
The metal surface is irradiated with
light of frequency 8.5 x 1014 Hz. K.E. = 3.14925 X 10⁻19 J

Example 14
Light of wavelength 4.3 x 10⁻7 m is
(Take 1 electron-volt (eV) = incident on two metal surfaces, nickel
1.6 x 10⁻19 J, Planck’s constant h = and potassium.
6.63 x 10⁻34 Js and velocity of light = (Take Planck’s constant, h = 6.63 x
3.0 x 108 ms⁻1) 10⁻34 Js, velocity of light = 3.0 x 108
Determine the: ms⁻1 and mass of an electron = 9.1 x
(a) Threshold frequency. (2 marks) 10⁻31 kg)
Solution (a) Determine the energy of the
c = f0λ0 incident radiation. (3 marks)
E = hf
f0 = ⇒ f0 =
c = fλ

f0 = 3.75 x 1014 Hz E = h ⇒ E = 6.63 x 10⁻34 x

E = 4.626 x 10⁻19 J
(b) Work function of the metal in
electron-volt. (3 marks)
(b) If the work function of nickel is
W0 = hf0
8.0 x 10⁻19 J and that of potassium is
W0 = 6.63 x 10⁻34 x 3.75 x 1014 3.68 x 10⁻19 J, state with a reason from

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which of the two metals given light a milliammeter, a voltmeter, a jockey,

will eject electrons. (2 marks) colour filters, connecting wires.
Potassium metal. This is because
the work function of potassium is
lower than the energy of the
incident radiation.

(c) Determine the velocity of the

emitted electrons from the metal
surface in (b) above.
(3 marks)
hf = W0 + me
me = hf – W0
x 9.1 x 10⁻31 x v2 = 4.626 x 10⁻19 -
Figure 9.6: Variation of Stopping
3.68 x 10⁻19 Potential and Frequency of Radiation
4.55 x 10⁻31 x v2 = 9.46 x 10⁻20
Procedure
v2 =  Set up the apparatus as shown
in figure 9.6.
v2 = 2.079 x 1011  Starting with the jockey at X,
v= note the current registered by
the microammeter.
v = 4.560 x 105 ms⁻1  Move the jockey towards end Y
of the potential divider until the
EXPERIMENT 2: To investigate the microammeter reading is zero
and record the corresponding
relationship between the frequency
voltmeter reading, VS.
of radiation and the kinetic energy of  Repeat the experiment with
the photoelectrons (Verifying different colour filters and
record your results as shown in
Einstein’s Equation)
table 1
Apparatus:
A photocell, a potentiometer divider
XY (or a rheostat), a source of e.m.f.,

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Table 1 Explanation
Colour Frequency, Stopping  The anode in figure 9.6 is
f (x potential, made more negative in
14
10 Hz) VS potential relative to the cathode
Violet 7.5 1.2 C. Therefore, the
Blue 6.7 0.88 photoelectrons emitted from C
Green 6.0 0.60 experience a retarding potential
Yellow 5.2 0.28 difference.
Orange 4.8 0.12  When the jockey is at end X,
the negative p.d between the
 Plot a graph of the stopping anode and the cathode is very
potential, VS (y-axis) against small. Therefore, many
frequency, f. electrons reach the anode from
Results the cathode and a current is
recorded in the microammeter.
 As the jockey moves along the
potential divider towards end
Y, the anode becomes more
negative and the photoelectrons
reaching it from the cathode
become less and less. The
microammeter reading reduces
until it becomes zero.
 The voltage applied to the
cathode so as to reduce the
Figure 9.7 current to zero by stopping the
electrons from reaching the
 The graph is a straight line that anode completely is called the
does not cut any of the axes. stopping potential (VS).
 The straight line, therefore,  The stopping potential is
must be extrapolated so as to measured by the voltmeter.
cut the x-axis, (and the y-axis,
below the origin).

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 The work done by the power  The straight line cuts the
supply in stopping the electrons frequency axis (x-axis) at ‘f0’.
with maximum K.E. from  This means that ‘f0’ is read
reaching the anode is given by: directly from the graph.
Work done = charge on an  Hence, both the Planck’s
electron x p.d. across the constant, h and the work
photocell. function, W0 can be calculated
Work done = e x VS = eVS from the graph.
 Therefore,
eVS = me v2, Example 15
Refer to the graph in figure 9.6.
where v is the maximum (Charge of an electron, e = 1.6 x 10⁻19
velocity of an electron. C)
 From Einstein’s photoelectric Determine from the graph:
equation; (a) The threshold frequency, f0 of the
me v2 = hf – hf0 metal. (1 mk)
 Therefore, Threshold frequency, f0 = x-
eVS = hf – hf0 intercept
eVS = hf – W0 f0 = 4.5 x 1014 Hz
 Dividing throughout by e gives;
(b) Planck’s constant, h. (4 marks)
From eVS = hf – hf0,
VS = f-
VS = , or VS =

 This equation represents the or VS = , where =

equation of a straight line y =
gradient of the straight line.
mx + c, in which;
Gradient =
VS = y (y-axis),
f = x (x-axis) Gradient =
= m = gradient (or slope) of
Gradient = 4.0 x 10⁻15
the graph), h = gradient x charge on an
- = c = vertical axis electron, e
h = 4.0 x 1014 x 1.6 x 10⁻19
intercept.
h = 6.4 x 10⁻34 Js

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(c) The work function of the metal in

electron-volt.
W0 = hf0
W0 = 6.4 x 10⁻34 x 4.5 x 1014
W0 = 2.88 x 10⁻19 J

Example 16
(a) What is meant by stopping
potential? (1 mark)
The voltage applied to the cathode
so as to reduce the current to zero Figure 9.8
by stopping the electrons from
reaching the anode completely. (ii) Given that eVS = hf – hf0, where e
= 1.6 x 10⁻19 C is the charge of an
(b) In a photoelectric effect electron, determine:
experiment, a certain surface was (I) The threshold frequency of the
illuminated with radiation of different metal. (1 mark)
frequencies and the stopping potential Threshold frequency,
determined for each frequency. f0 = x – intercept
Table 2 shows the results obtained. f0 = 4.55 x 1014 Hz (from the graph)
Table 2
Frequenc 7.9 7.4 6.8 6.1 5.4 (b) Planck’s constant, h. (5 marks)
y, f (x 5 1 8 0 9 From eVS = hf – hf0,
14
10 Hz)
VS = , or VS =
Stopping 1.3 1.1 0.9 0.6 0.3
potential, 5 5 3 2 6 or VS = , where =
VS (V)
gradient of the straight line.
(i) Plot the graph of stopping potential Gradient =
(y-axis) against frequency. (5 marks)
Gradient = 4.069 x 10⁻15
h = gradient x charge on an
electron, e
h = 4.069 x 10⁻15 x 1.6 x 10⁻19

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h = 6.5104 x 10⁻34 Js

(c) The work function, of the metal

in electron-volt. (3 marks)
Work function, = hf0
= 6.5104 x 10⁻34 x 4.55 x 1014 Figure 9.9
= 2.962 x 10⁻19 J
 It has two electrodes, the anode
But 1.6 x 10⁻19J = 1 eV and the cathode, enclosed in an
Therefore, 2.962 x 10⁻19 J = evacuated glass envelope.
 The cathode is a curved
eV photosensitive plate.
= 1.85125 eV  The emission surface of the
cathode faces the anode.
 When light falls on the cathode,
Applications of Photoelectric Effect photoelectrons are emitted.
1. Photoemissive Cell  The photoelectrons are attracted
 Figure 9.9 (a) and (b) shows a by the anode, causing a current
photoemissive cell and its to flow in a given circuit.
corresponding circuit symbol.  Photoemissive cells are used in:
(a) Counting vehicles or items
on a conveyor belt in factories.
(b) Burglar alarms.
(c) Opening doors.
(d) Reproducing sound from a
film.

Example 18
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Figure 9.10 shows a photocell.  Figure 9.12 (a), (b) and (c)
shows a photovoltaic cell and
its corresponding circuit
symbol.

Figure 9.10

(a) Name the parts labeled A and B.

(1 mark)
A – Cathode
B – Anode

(b) Explain how electrons are

produced in the cell. (1 mark)
When light of sufficient energy fall
on the cathode, the surface
electrons gain energy and they are
dislodged.

(c) Draw a simple circuit diagram

including the photocell to show the Figure 9.12
direction of flow of the current.
(2 marks)  It consists of a copper disc
which is oxidized on one face.
 On the free copper oxide
surface, a thin film of gold that
allows light to pass through it is
deposited.
 When light strikes the copper
oxide surface, electrons are
knocked off.
Figure 9.11  The copper oxide acquires a
negative potential and copper a
positive potential.
2. Photovoltaic Cell  A potential difference therefore
exists and a current flows
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through a wire connecting the  It is enclosed in a casing

gold film and copper. covered with transparent
 The flow of current can be window to allow light to fall on
shown by including a it.
galvanometer in the circuit.  Photons of light set the
 These cells are used in light electrons on the semiconductor
meters, e.g., exposure meters in free, causing an increase in
photography. conduction.
 Its resistance decreases with
3. Photoconductive Cell or Light- increase in light energy.
dependent Resistor (LDR)  It is used in:
 Figure 9.13 (a) and (b) shows (a) Fire alarms.
a photoconductive cell and its (b) Exposure meters of
corresponding circuit symbol. cameras.

Figure 9.13

 It consists of grid-like metal

structure having a thin layer of
a semiconductor material called
cadmium sulphide.

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Chapter Ten

RADIOACTIVITY
Specific Objective

By the end of this topic, the learner

should be able to:
(a) define radioactive decay and half-
life
(b) describe the three types of
radiations emitted in natural
radioactivity
(c) explain the detection of
radioactive emissions
(d) define nuclear fission fusion
(e) write balanced nuclear equations
(f) explain the dangers of radioactive
emissions
(g) state the applications of
radioactivity
(h) solve numerical problems
involving half-life.

Definition
Radioactivity is the spontaneous
random emission of particles from
disintegration (or decay) of certain
unstable atomic nuclei.

Atomic Structure
 An atom consists of a central
part called nucleus.
 Electrons move in orbits round
the nucleus.

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 A hydrogen atom has 1 proton

and zero neutrons in the
nucleus and 1 electron around
 The nucleus of an atom has a it. [Figure 10.1 (a)]
specific number of protons and  A helium atom has 2 protons
neutrons. Such an atom is and 2 neutrons in the nucleus
called a nuclide. and 2 electrons around it.
 Protons and neutrons are [Figure 10.1 (b)]
collectively called nucleons.  A neon atom has 10 protons
 The number of protons in the and 10 neutrons in the nucleus
nucleus is called the atomic or and 10 electrons around it.
proton number. [Figure 10.1 (c)]
 The sum of the number of  If an atom X has atomic
protons and neutrons is called number Z with N neutrons and
the mass or nucleon number. mass number A, then it can be
 Figure 10.1 (a), (b) and (c) represented as:
shows the structures of X, where A = Z + N
hydrogen, helium and neon
 Thus, hydrogen atom can be
atoms respectively.
represented by H, helium

atom by He and neon atom by

Ne.
 Atoms that have the same
atomic number but different
mass numbers are said to be
isotopes.
 Examples of isotopes are
carbon- 12 and carbon- 14, both
of which are isotopes of carbon.
They are represented as C

and C respectively.

Figure 10.1
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Example 1  From the graph, it is observed

A nucleus is represented by X. that the unstable nuclides are
outside the stability line.
State the number of neutrons in the
 The nuclides above the stability
nucleus. (1 mark)
line have too many neutrons,
Neutrons = 107 – 42 = 65
and hence they decay in such a
way that the proton number
Nuclear Stability
increases.
 Stable nuclides have a proton
 The nuclides below the stability
to neutron ratio of about 1:1.
line have too many protons and
 However, as some atoms get
therefore they decay in such a
heavier, there is a marked
way that their proton number
deviation from this ratio, with
decreases.
the number of neutrons far
superseding that of protons.
Types of Radiations
 In such circumstances, the  Radiations emitted by
nucleus is likely to be unstable. radioactive elements are
 When this happens, the nucleus identified according to the
is likely to disintegrate in an properties that they exhibit.
attempt to achieve stability.  The existence of the three
 Figure 10.2 shows a graph of different types of radiations
number of neutrons, N against from radioactive substances
the number of protons, Z for was carried out by a British
known stable and unstable physicist called Ernest
nuclides. Rutherford in 1897.
 Figure 10.3 shows
Rutherford’s experiment.

Figure 10.2
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placed perpendicular to their

direction.
 He observed that some
radiations were deflected while
others were not deflected at all.
 Using Fleming’s left-hand rule,
it was shown that some
radiations were positively
charged, others were negatively
charged while others were not
Figure 10.3 charged at all.
 The positively charged
 He placed a little radium at the
radiations are called alpha (α)
bottom of a small thick lead
box with a small opening. particles, the negatively
 He then subjected the rays that charged radiations beta (β)
emerged from it to the action of particles and the uncharged
a very strong magnetic field gamma (γ) rays.

Properties of the Radioactive Radiations

These are summarized in table 10.1

Type of Nature Electrical Relative Velocity Absorbed Ionising Effect of

radiation charge mass by power magnetic
or
electric
field
Alpha A stream +2e 4 units of Thin sheet Strong Slightly
particles of of paper deflected
velocity
helium
of light
nuclei
Beta A stream -e Negligible Nearly Aluminiu Weak Greatly
particles of the m plate deflected

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electrons Velocity
of light
Gamma Electrom No charge Negligible Velocity Thick Weak Not
rays agnetic of light block of deflected
radiation lead

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Example 2 little energy since they cause less

Figure 10.4 shows the path of ionization.
radiation from a radioactive source
after entering a magnetic field. Example 4
The magnetic field is directed into the Figure 10.5 shows the path of
paper and is perpendicular to the radiation from a radioactive source.
plane of the paper as shown in the The magnetic field is perpendicular to
figure. the paper and directed out of the
paper.

Figure 10.5
Figure 10.4

(a) Identify the radiation. (1 mark) Identify the radiation. (1 mark)

Beta (β) radiation Beta (β) radiation
(b) Give a reason for your answer in
(a) above. (1 mark) RADIOACTIVE DECAY
They are readily reflected owing to  Radioactive decay is the
their smaller mass. process by which an unstable
atomic nucleus loses energy by
Example 3 emitting radiations.
It is observed that alpha (α) particles  During radioactive decay, the
have a lower penetrating power than nuclide will emit alpha or beta
beta (β) particles. Explain this particles and this may be
observation (2 marks) accompanied by a release of
Alpha particles lose some of their energy in form of gamma
energy as they travel because they radiation.
cause ionization of air particles on  The three most common types
their path. Beta particles lose very of radioactive decay are the

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alpha decay, beta decay and X Y + e

gamma decay, all of which
(daughter (beta
involve emitting one or more
particles. nuclide)
particle)
(a) Alpha Decay  Radioactive sodium, for
 If the nuclide decays by release example, undergoes beta decay
of an alpha particle, then the to become magnesium. This is
mass number decreases by 4 written as:
and the atomic number by 2. Na Mg + e
 This is expressed as:
X Y + He (c) Gamma Radiation
Parent (daughter  Some nuclides might be in an
(alpha excited state and in order to
nuclide) nuclide) achieve stability, they may emit
particle) energy in form of gamma
 Uranium, for example, decays radiation, without producing
by emitting an alpha particle to new isotopes.
become thorium. This decay is  For example:
expressed as: (i) Cobalt-60;
U Th + He Co Co + γ

 Similarly, polonium undergoes

(ii) Thorium-230;
alpha decay to become lead.
Th Th + γ
Po Pb + He

Example 5
(b) Beta decay
What is meant by radioactivity?
 If a nuclide decays by release
(1 mark)
of a β-particle, then the mass
The spontaneous random
number remains the same but
disintegration of a nucleus of an
the atomic number increases by
unstable nuclide.
1.
 This is expressed as:
Example 6

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Thorium-230 undergoes Example 8

Uranium-238 undergoes
decay to become Radon-222 .
decay to become lead-206 .
Find the number of alpha particles
emitted. Calculate the number of alpha and
beta particles emitted in the process.
Let the number of alpha particles Solution
emitted be x. Then the expression Let the number of α- and β-particles
for the decay is; emitted be x and y respectively. Then;
Th Rn + x Pb + x +y
Thus; 238 = 206 + 4x
230 = 222 + 4x or 90 = 86 + 2x 4x = 32
4x = 8 2x = 4 x=8
x=2 x=2 Also;
92 = 82 + 2x - y
92 = 82 + 16 – y
y=6

Example 7 Example 9
Lead-214 decays to Uranium-234 decays to
polonium-214 by emitting polonium-218 by emitting
beta particles. Calculate the number alpha particles.
of beta particles emitted. (a) Determine the number of alpha
Solution particles emitted.
Let the number of beat particles Solution
emitted be x. Then; Let the number of beat particles
+x emitted be x. Then;
82 = 84 – x + x
x=2 234 = 218 + 4x or 92 = 84 + 2x
4x = 16 2x = 8

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x=4 x=4 Po Pb Bi
X
(b) Write down the nuclear equation
Identify m, n and X. (3 marks)
representing the decay.
m - Alpha (α) radiation
+ 4 n - Beta (β) radiation
X – Polonium isotope
Exercise
1. The following reaction is part of a 5. A nuclear reaction is represented by
radioactive series: the following equation.
X Y Z X Y + alpha particle.

Identify the radiation r and determine Determine the values of a and b.

the values of b and c. (3 marks) (2 marks)
r is beta ( radiation, b = 82, a = 234 + 4 b = 92 - 2
c = 206 a = 238 b = 90

2. Below is a nuclear reaction. 6. The following is part of a

A C radioactive decay series.
Bi X Y
(a) Identify radiation k. (1 mark)
Alpha (α) radiation Determine the values of a and b.
(2 marks)
(b) Determine the values of x and y. a = 234, b = 82
(2 marks) 7. A radioactive isotope of copper
x = 88, y = 228 decays to form an isotope of zinc as
shown below.
3. The following equation shows part
of a radioactive decay process. Cu Zn + radiation
Th Pa
Name the radiation emitted and give a
Name the radiation x. (1 mark) reason for your answer. (2 marks)
Beta (β) radiation It is a Beta (β) particle
This is because the mass number is
4. The following is a nuclear reaction
the same and the number of
involving the nuclide polonium Po.
protons increases by 1.

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8. The equation below represents a  If, during the time it had been
nuclear reaction in which two worn, the worker exposed to
deuterium nuclei fuse to form Helium radiations, then it should
and X. darken when it is developed.
H + H He + X  This implies that further safety
precautions should be taken.
(a) Determine the values of a and b.
(1 mark)
2. Cloud Chamber
a=1
 The common types of cloud
b=0
chambers are the expansion
cloud chamber and the
(b) Identify X. (1 mark)
diffusion cloud chamber.
Neutron
 In both types, saturated vapour
9. Radium undergoes radioactive of water or alcohol is made to
decay by emitting an alpha particle to condense on air ions caused by
form a daughter nuclide Q as in the radiations.
reaction.  Whitish lines of tiny liquid
Ra Alpha particle + Q drops show up as tracks when
illuminated.
Determine the values of x and y.
(2 marks)
226 = 4 + x 88 = 2 + y
x = 222 y = 86 (a) Expansion Cloud Chamber
RADIATION DETECTORS  Figure 10.6 shows an
1. Photographic Emulsions expansion cloud chamber.
 All the three types of radiations
affect photographic emulsion or
plate.
 Photographic films are very
useful to workers who handle
radioactive materials.
 These workers are given special
badges which contain a small Figure 10.6
piece of unexposed
photographic film.
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 When a radioactive element  It is fitted with a transparent

emits radiations into the perspex lid.
chamber, the air inside is  It contains air which is at the
ionised. room temperature at the top.
 If the piston is now moved  Its top is lined with a thin strip
down suddenly, air in the of felt ring soaked in alcohol or
chamber will expand and water.
cooling occurs.  Its base is covered with black
 When this happens, the ions velvet which show helps to
formed act as nuclei on which show up the tracks of the
the saturated vapour of water or ionizing radiations when they
alcohol condenses, forming are viewed from above.
tracks.
The bottom compartment
(b) Diffusion Cloud Chamber  It is fitted with a sponge and
 The common Diffusion Cloud closed with a removable cover
Chamber is made up of a (base).
cylindrical transparent  Dry ice (solid carbon dioxide)
(perspex) container with a is pressed on the metal plate to
metal base. cool it.
 It is partitioned into two  The sponge helps to keep the
compartments by a blackened dry ice in contact with the
metal plate. (Figure 10.7) metal (brass) plate.

Operation of the diffusion cloud

chamber
 The alcohol evaporates
continuously from the ring and
diffuses downwards to the
region above the metal base.
Figure 10.7  This alcohol vapour is cooled
to about ⁻780C by the dry ice
The Upper Compartment and becomes supersaturated.

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 The radioactive sample, such as (II) Are massive and therefore

radium, is put into the chamber their path cannot be changed
by means of a wire holder by air molecules.
passing through the cork on one (III) Cause more ions on their
side of the chamber. paths as they knock off
Observation electrons.
 On looking down through the
transparent lid, vapour trails
(tracks) can be seen, which start
from the radium.
 The tracks vary according to
the type of radiation.
Explanation
 The radioactive source emits
particles into the air space Figure 10.8
saturated with alcohol or water
vapour in the upper (ii) Tracks due to beta particles
compartment.  These are generally thin and
 As the particles speed through irregular in direction.
the air, they collide with air  This is because beta particles:
molecules. (I) Are lighter than alpha
 Electrons are knocked off,
particles.
leaving a trail of positive and (II) Move faster than alpha
negative ions. particles.
 The vapour condenses out on (III) Cause less ionization of
the ions, thus revealing the
air molecules.
paths of the radiations. (IV) Are repelled by electrons
of atoms within their paths.
(i) Tracks due to alpha particles
 These are short, straight and
thick.
 This is because alpha particles:
(I) Cause heavy ionization,
rapidly losing energy, hence
their short range.
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(ii) The perspex top is rubbed so as to

remove any ions already inside the
chamber.

Example 10
When a radiation was released into a
diffusion cloud chamber, short thick
tracks were observed. State with
reason, the type of radiation that was
Figure 10.9 detected. (2 marks)
Alpha (α) radiation
(iii) Tracks due to gamma rays This is because this radiation has a
 Gamma rays produce scanty short range with heavy ionization
disjointed tracks. and hence the thick tracks.
 They eject electrons from their
molecules. Example 11
 These electrons behave like In a diffusion cloud chamber, explain
weak beta particles, which are why some of the tracks formed are
responsible for the tracks seen. observed to be;
(a) Short, (2 marks)
Alpha particles rapidly cause heavy
ionization, losing energy and hence
their short range.

(b) Straight. (2 marks)

Alpha particles are massive and
hence their path cannot be changed
by air molecules.
Figure 10.10
Note:
(i) The diffusion cloud chamber is
leveled so as to reduce convection Example 12
currents inside the chambers. Figure 10.11 shows the cross-section
of a diffusion cloud chamber used to

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detect radiation from radioactive two advantages of the diffusion cloud

sources. chamber over the leaf electroscope.
(2 marks)
(i) The diffusion cloud chamber is
more sensitive than the leaf
electroscope.
(ii) The diffusion cloud chamber
can identify the nature of the
Figure 10.11
radiations, unlike the leaf
electroscope.
(a) State one function of each of the
following:
3. Geiger-Müller Tube
(i) Alcohol (1 mark)
 It is a special ionization
To produce alcohol vapour.
chamber. (Figure 10.12)
(ii) Solid CO2 (1 mark)

To cool the alcohol vapour.

(b) When radiation from the source

enters the chamber, some white traces
are observed. Explain how these
traces are formed and state how the
radiation is identified. (4 marks)
Figure 10.12
The radiation from the source
ionizes air along its path. Alcohol
Components of the G-M tube
vapour condenses around these ions
 It consists of a closed
forming droplets or traces. The
aluminium tube which acts as
nature of these traces identifies the
the negative electrode.
radiation.
 One end of the tube is sealed by
a thin mica window which is
transparent to alpha-, beta- and
gamma radiations.
(c) A leaf electroscope can also be  The walls of the tube are coated
used as a detector of radiation. State with a conductor (graphite) and

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connected to the negative  These accelerating negative

terminal of the power supply. ions rushing towards the anode
 A thin stiff wire runs through cause more ions to be formed
the centre of the tube and is as they collide with argon gas
connected to the positive atoms.
terminal of a high voltage  An avalanche of electrons,
supply. therefore arrive at the anode
 The tube is filled with the inert with a large quantity of charge.
gas argon and a little bromine  This large quantity of charge
gas at low pressure. then flows round the electric
 A high resistance resistor, R circuit as a pulse, which is
and a pulse counter are counted electronically.
connected in series with the  A single ionising particle is
power supply. able to produce as many as 108
electrons due to the pressure of
How the G-M tube works the argon gas. This process is
 The G-M tube is a gas referred to as gas
amplifier. amplification.
 When a radioactive substance is  A corresponding pulse voltage
placed in front of the mica is registered across the high
window, the emitted radiations resistance resistor.
enter the tube through the  These currents can be amplified
window and ionize the argon and if passed through a
gas. loudspeaker, clicks are heard.
 The high voltage (400 V)  The loudspeaker can be
connected between the two replaced by a scaler and
electrodes provides an electric ratemeter.
field which pulls the negative  The scaler gives a reading
ions towards the positive which is the total or cumulative
central wire electrode (anode). number of particles counted
 The positive ions are attracted from the moment it was started.
towards the walls of the tube  To obtain a count rate, the
(cathode). time of counting must be noted
as well.

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Count rate = they move towards the

cathode.
 The ratemeter gives a reading  If the positive ions were to
which is the count rate in collide with the cathode,
counts per second. electrons would be produced
 The amplification increases the which would cause a second
sensitivity of the G-M tube, avalanche of electrons,
making it possible to register resulting in a false count.
very small currents from beta  The bromine gas, therefore acts
and gamma radiations. as a quenching agent.
 During this process, the  It also prevents sparking.
positive ions move to the
cathode slowly owing to their Example 13
larger mass. Figure 10.13 shows a Geiger-Müller
 The positive ions therefore tube.
produce a shielding effect on
the anode, thereby reducing the
electric field between the anode
and the cathode.
 During this time, any ionization
caused by an incoming
radioactive emission will Figure 10.13
therefore not be detected.
(a) Give the reason why the mica
 The time taken by the positive
window is made thin. (1 mark)
ions to move away from the To allow all the radiations to
anode, thereby reducing the penetrate.
shielding effect so that the
electric field comes to normal is (b) Explain how the radiation entering
called ‘dead time.’ the tube through the window is
detected by the tube. (4 mks)
On entering the tube, the radiations
 The bromine molecules inside ionises the argon gas.
the tube absorb the kinetic The positive ions flow towards the
energy of the positive ions as cathode and the negative ions
towards the anode. This creates a

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potential difference that results to It acts as a quenching agent. It

flow of pulse current. reduces or quenches the kinetic
energy of the positive ions.
(c) What is the purpose of the halogen
vapour? (1 mark) (c) State two advantages of using a G-
To absorb the kinetic energy of the M tube instead of a diffusion cloud
positive ions before they cause chamber to detect radiations from
secondary electrons emission. radioactive substance. (2 marks)
(i) They can detect all types of
Example 14 radiation.
(a) With an aid of a well labeled (ii) They are durable and portable.
diagram, explain the working of the (iii) They are relatively cheaper.
Geiger-Müller tube as a detector of
Background Radiation
radiations. (5 marks)
 When carrying out experiments
using radioactive materials, it is
observed that the counter
registers some readings even in
the absence of a radioactive
source. This implies presence
Figure 10.14 of radiation, called
background radiation.
When a radioactive substance is  The count registered in the
placed in front of the mica window,
absence of the radioactive
the emitted radiations enter the
source is called background
tube through the window ionising
count.
the gas inside. The negative ions
move towards the central anode  Therefore,
while the positive ions move to the Corrected = count rate -
cathode. Thus, a potential background count rate
difference is created between the count rate
anode and the cathode that results
to flow of pulse current.  Some sources of background
radiation include:
(b) State the purpose of the bromine
gas in the tube. (1 mark) (i) Cosmic rays from the outer
space.

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(ii) Radiations from the sun. = ⁻λN, where λ is a constant

(iii) Some rocks which contain
known as the decay constant.
traces of radioactive material,
e.g., granite.  The negative sign shows that
(iv) Natural and artificial the number N decreases as time
radioisotopes. increases.
 is referred to as the activity
Natural and Artificial Radioactivity of the sample.
 Elements which are naturally
radioactive usually have large
mass numbers. They don’t need HALF-LIFE
to be excited to emit radiations,
e.g., uranium-238, uranium-235  The rate of decay of any
and thorium-232. radioactive material depends on
 Some naturally occurring the number of nuclides present.
nuclides can be made  Half-life refers to the time
artificially radioactive by taken for half the number of
bombarding them with nuclides initially present in a
neutrons, protons or alpha radioactive sample to decay.
particles, e.g., nitrogen-14,  It can be shown that the number
silicon-27, sulphur-35and of nuclides remaining
chlorine-36 undecayed, N, after time T is
given by;
Decay Law
 It states that the rate of N = N0 ,
disintegration at a given time is where N0 = original number of
directly proportional to the nuclides,
number of nuclides present at t = half-life.
that time.
 Consider 2 g of radium, whose
 This can be expressed as; half-life is 1,600 years.
α ⁻N, where N is the number This means that in 1,600 years,
of nuclides present at a given I g of the sample will have
time. decayed and 1 g will be
 It follows that; remaining.

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In the next 1,600 years, g Define half-life of a radioactive

material. (1 mark)
will have decayed and g will
Time taken for the radioactive
be remaining. material to disintegrate to half its
The process of decaying will go original volume.
on and on.
 Table 10.2 illustrates this Example 16
process. The half-life of a certain radioactive
element is 16 years. Calculate the
Table 10.2 fraction of the element that will:
No. No. of Mass Mass (a) Be remaining after 48 years.
of half- decayed remaining Solution
years lives (g) (g)
N = N0
0 0 0 2
1,600 1 1 1 Let the fraction remaining = x.
3,200 2 Then,
4,800 3 1 x= =
6,400 4 1
x= ⇒x=

 Figure 10.15 illustrates the =

graph of radioactive nuclides
remaining against the time T. (b) Have decayed after 64 years.
Solution
No. of half-lives after 64 years =
=4
Fraction remaining after 4 half-
lives = =

Fraction decayed = 1 - =
Figure 10.15
Example 17
Example 15

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For a certain radioactive material, the Therefore, half-life =

average count-rate is found to be 82
Half-life = 70 seconds
counts per second. After a time of 210
seconds, the count rate had dropped to
Example 18
19 counts per second. The average
In a sample, there are 5.12 x 1020
background count-rate remained
atoms of krypton-92 initially. If the
constant at 10 counts per second.
half-life of krypton-92 is 3.0 s,
Determine the half-life of the
determine the number of atoms that
material.
will have decayed after 6.0 seconds.
Solution
(3 marks)
N = N0 Solution

Let the half-life be x seconds. N = N0

Then number of half-lives =
Initial corrected count rate, N0 = 82 N = 5.12 x 1020
– 10 = 72
Final corrected count rate, N = 19 – N = 5.12 x 1020 x
10 = 9
N = 1.28 X 1020
Remaining fraction = = = =
N0 – N = 5.12 x 1020 - 1.28 X 1020
N0 – N = 3.84 X 1020 atoms

But =

So, =3 Example 19
The activity of a radioactive
3x = 210
substance, initially at 400 counts per
x = 70 seconds
second reduces to 50 counts per
Alternative method; second in 72 minutes. Determine the
half-life of the substance.
The number of half-lives for the
Solution
count rate to drop from 72 to 9 can
be obtained as follows; N = N0
72 36 18 9
Number of half-lives = 3
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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

50 = 400 N = N0

= N = 1.0 x 1020

N = 1020 x
= =
N = 1.25 X 1019
So, =3 N0 - N = 1.0 x 1020 - 1.25 x 1019
t = 24 minutes N0 - N= 8.75 x 1019 atoms decayed

Example 20 Example 22
Cobalt-60 is a radioisotope that has a The initial mass of a radioactive
half-life of 5.25 years. What fraction substance is 20 g. The substance has a
of the original number of atoms in a half-life of 5 years. Determine the
sample will remain after 21 years? mass remaining after 20 years.
(2 marks) (2 marks)
Solution Solution
Mass remaining = N
N = N0
N = N0
Remaining fraction = =
N = 20
= N = 20 x

= = N = 1.25 g

Example 23
Example 21 The half-life of an element X is 3.83
A radioactive sample of half-life 130 days. A sample of this element is
days initially has 1.0 x 1020 found to have an activity rate of
radioactive atoms. Determine the 1.6 x 103 disintegrations per second at
number of radioactive atoms that have a particular time. Determine its
decayed after 390 days. (3 marks) activity rate after 19.15 days. (2 mks)

Number of radioactive atoms decayed N = N0

N0 - N
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Two samples of the same radioactive

N = 1,600 material have initial masses M and
N = 1,600 x 2M respectively. On the axes
provided, sketch the graph of activity
N = 50 disintegrations per second versus time for each sample. Label the
graph for each sample. (2 marks)
Example 24
A radioactive substance has a half-life
of 12 years. Determine the time it
would take to decay to 12.5 % of its
original value. (2 marks)
Solution

N = N0

N= N0
Figure 10.16
= N0

0.125=

= =

So, 3 =
T = 36 years
Alternative method:
100% 50% 25% 12.5%
No. of half-lives, t = 3
Therefore, time, T = 3 x 12
T = 36 years

Example 25

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APPLICATIONS OF 3. Detecting Pipe Bursts

RADIOACTIVITY  Underground pipes carrying
water or oil may suffer bursts
1. Carbon Dating or leakages.
 Living organisms take in small  If the water or oil is mixed with
quantities of radioactive radioactive substances from the
carbon-14, in addition to the source, the mixture will seep
ordinary carbon-12. out where there is an opening.
 The ratio of carbon-12 to  If a detector is passed on the
carbon-14 in the organisms ground near the area, then the
remain fairly constant. radiations will be detected.
 When the organisms die, there
is no more intake of carbon and 4. Determining Thickness of Metal
therefore the ratio changes due Foil.
to the decay of carbon-14. In industries which manufacture thin
 The count-rate of carbon-14 metal foils, paper and plastics,
therefore declines with time. radioactive radiations can be used to
 The new ratio of carbon-12 to determine and maintain the required
carbon-14 is then used to thickness.
determine the age for the fossil.
Example 26
2. Medicine Figure 10.17 shows a device for
 Gamma rays, like X-rays, are producing metal foils of constant
used in the control of cancerous thickness. Any change in thickness
body growths. can be detected by the Geiger-Müller
 The radiation kills cancer cells tube and recorded by the Geiger-
when the tumour is subjected to Müller counter. The pressure exerted
it. by the rollers is then adjusted to keep
 Gamma rays are also used in the thickness constant.
sterilisation of medical
equipment.
 They are also used for killing
pests or for making them
sterile.

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(e) Explain why a source emitting

alpha (α) particles only, would not be
suitable for this device. (2 mks)
Alpha particles have little
penetration. as such, very few or
none pass through the foil.

(f) Explain why a radioactive source

Figure 10.17
of a half-life of 1,600 years is more
suitable for use in this device than one
(a) State the change in the metal foil
of a half-life of 8 minutes. (2 marks)
that will lead to a decrease in the
Radioactive source of short half-life
Geiger-Müller counter reading.
produces short radiation that may
(1 mark)
not get to the Geiger-Müller
An increase in thickness.
counter. This may be mistaken to
(b) Give a reason for your answer in
be as a result of change of
(a) above. (1 mark)
thickness.
Increase in thickness reduces the
radiation reaching the Geiger-
5. Trace Elements
Müller tube.
 The movement of traces of a
(c) State the change in the roller weak radioisotope introduced
pressure that should be made as a into an organism can be
result of this decrease in the Geiger- monitored using a radiation
Müller counter reading. (1 mark) detector.
Increase in pressure.  In agriculture, for example, this
method is applied to study the
(d) ) Give a reason for your answer in plant uptake of fertilizers and
(c) above. (1 mark) other chemicals.
Increased roller pressure squeezes
or presses the metal sheets thereby
reducing the thickness of the foils
coming out of them.

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6. Detection of flaws. Hazards of Radiation

 Cracks and airspaces in welded  Gamma rays present the main
joints can be detected using radiation hazard to human
gamma radiation from cobalt- bodies.
60.  This is because they penetrate
 The cobalt-60 is placed on one deeply into the body, causing
side of the joint and a damage to body cells and
photographic film on the other tissues.
side.  This may lead to skin burns and
 The film, when developed, will blisters, sores and delayed
show any weakness in the joint. effects such as cancer,
leukaemia and hereditary
7. Control of Static Electricity defects.
 In textile industries, the  Extremely heavy doses of
presence of static charges can radiation may lead to death.
be a nuisance since they attract
dust and even cause fire. Precautions
 When a radioactive element is (a) Radioactive elements should never
placed in such industries, the be held with bare hands. Use forceps
radiations emitted will ionise or well-protected tongs when
the air . handling them.
 The ions formed will attract the (b) Never point radioactive sources
electrostatic charges. towards oneself or anyone else.
 The problems due to these (c) Radioactive materials should be
charges are therefore kept in thick lead boxes.
minimized. (d) In hospitals and research
laboratories, radiation absorbers are
used.
(e) Limit the exposure time.

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Nuclear Fission Example 28

 This is a nuclear reaction in The following is a nuclear equation
which a heavy nucleus splits for a fission process resulting from
spontaneously on impact with the reaction of a neutron with a
another particle, with the uranium nucleus.
release of energy.
 For example, when uranium- n+ U A+ Q + 3 +
235 is bombarded with a
neutron, it becomes uranium- Energy
236, which is more active than
uranium-235. (a) Determine the values of x and y.
 Uranium-236 splits into
(2 marks)
barium-144 and krypton-90, as
shown below. x = 92 – 56 = 36
y = 236 – 144 = 92
U+ n Ba + (b) State the source of the energy
released. (1 mark)
Kr + 2 + Energy
The energy is released when the
atom disintegrates to form atoms of
 The energy released during small masses.
splitting is called nuclear
energy. (c) Explain how this reaction is made
 The emitted neutrons may continuous in a nuclear reactor.
encounter other uranium (2 marks)
nuclides, resulting in more
Each of the neutrons produced at
splitting with further release of
each collision, collide further with
energy. When this occurs, it is
uranium atom causing a chain
called a chain reaction.
reaction.

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Nuclear Fusion

 This is a nuclear reaction in

which atomic nuclei of low
atomic number fuse to form a
heavier nucleus, with the
release of energy.
 For example, when lithium
fuses with hydrogen, it
produces beryllium which
consequently disintegrates into
two alpha particles.

Li + H Be He +

He

Note:
 To start the fusion of two
nuclei, they must be brought
sufficiently close to each other.
 However, it is not easy to bring
them close together since they
repel each other with a very
large electric force (coulombic
repulsion).
 One way to bring the nuclei
together is to heat hem up to an
extremely high temperature
(108 K), so that they gain
enough kinetic energy to
overcome the coulombic
repulsion.

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Chapter Eleven

ELECTRONICS
Specific Objectives Energy Band Theory

By the end of this topic, the learner  The atomic structure reveals
should be able to: that electrons revolve around
(a) state the differences between the nucleus in energy levels.
conductors and insulators [Figure 11.1 (a)]
(b) define intrinsic and extrinsic  According to the energy-band
semi-conductors theory, when two or more
(c) explain doping in semi- atoms are brought closer to
conductors each other, the energy levels
(d) explain the working of a p-n split into smaller energy levels
junction diode called bands. [Figure 11.1 (b)]
(e) sketch current-voltage
characteristics for a diode
(f) explain the application of diodes
in rectification.

Introduction

 Electronics is the study of how

to control the flow of electrons.
 It deals with circuits made up
of components that control the
flow electricity.
 Electronic devices include
radios, television sets,
computers, cell phones, among
others.

Figure 11.1

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 Insulators thus have infinitely

 As the electrons revolve in their high resistance to the flow of
energy levels, they interact with electric current.
both electric and magnetic
fields.
 The outermost energy level
containing valence electrons
splits more easily into many
bands than the inner levels.
 The most important bands in
electronics are the valence and Figure 11.2
conduction bands, which
contain valence and conduction  The electrons in the valence
electrons respectively. band have thermal energy, but
 The energy gap between the at room temperature, they
conduction and valence bands cannot gain sufficient energy
is called the forbidden energy from an applied p.d. to cross
gap. over to the conduction band.
 The forbidden energy gap is  Due to the absence of electrons
used to distinguish between in the conduction band, the
insulators, conductors and material is therefore an
semiconductors. insulator.

(a) Insulators Note:

Temperature increase or addition of
 In an insulator, the valence
impurities to insulators has no effect
band energy levels are
on their conductivity.
completely filled by electrons
but the conduction band has no
(b) Conductors
electrons, i.e., it is empty.
 In conductors, the valence and
 The valence and the conduction
the conduction bands overlap.
bands are separated by a wide
(Figure 11.3)
forbidden energy gap (figure
11.2).

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 The forbidden energy gap

between the valence and the
conduction bands is smaller
compared to that of insulators,
[figure 11.4 (a).

Figure 11.3

 Electrons move freely from the

partly filled valence band to the
conduction band.
 Many electrons in the
conduction band are thus
available (free) for electric
conduction.
 The flow of current in
conductors is by movement of
electrons.

Note:
 A rise in temperature increases
the vibrations of the atoms and
this interferes with the electron
flow. Figure 11.4
 Hence, the resistance of a
conductor increases with  At room temperatures,
increase in temperature. semiconductors are virtually
insulators because almost all
(c) Semiconductors the valence electrons are
 These are materials whose engaged in the formation of
electrical conductivities lie covalent bonds and there are
between those of good practically very few free
conductors and insulators. electrons.

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 At low temperature, the valence  Total current flow in

band is completely filled by semiconductors is therefore
electrons and the conduction due to the flow of electrons
band is completely empty. and holes.
 An increase in temperature Note:
provides sufficient energy for  Raising the temperature of the
electrons to move from the semiconductor promotes more
valence band into the electrons into the conduction
conduction band across the band.
forbidden gap, [figure 11.4 (b).  The electrical resistance of
 When an electron jumps from semiconductors, thus reduce
the valence band into the with increase in temperature.
conduction band, it leaves
behind a vacancy, called a hole Intrinsic and Extrinsic
(absence of an electron) in the Semiconductors
valence band.
 The hole is regarded as (a) Intrinsic Semiconductors
positive.  An intrinsic semiconductor is
 Another electron (negatively an extremely pure
charged) in the valence band semiconductor.
jumps into the whole, thereby  Examples include silicon (Si)
creating another hole which is and germanium (Ge).
subsequently filled by yet  Their atoms have four electrons
another electron, and the in the outermost shell, which
process continues. combine covalently with
 A hole is therefore seen to be electrons from the
moving in the valence band, neighbouring atoms to form a
generating hole current crystal.
(conventional current).  Each atom is thus surrounded
 The flow of electrons in the by four other atoms.
conduction band constitutes  At absolute zero temperature,
electron current. the crystal is an insulator.

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 At room temperature, some  In extrinsic semiconductors,

electrons in the valence band there is a majority charge
gain energy and jump into the carrier, and holes and electrons
conduction band, leaving do not contribute equally to a
behind an equal number of current.
holes in the valence band. The  There are two types of extrinsic
material therefore becomes a semiconductors, namely the n-
conductor. type and the p-type.
 At higher temperatures, more
electron-hole pairs are created, (i) The n-type Semiconductor
thereby increasing the  This is formed by doping an
conductivity of the material. intrinsic semiconductor with
 In an intrinsic semiconductor, pentavalent atoms, like
the number of electrons equals antimony, phosphorus or
the number of holes. arsenic.
 The electrons and the holes are  The dopant has five electrons,
known as charge carriers. four of which participate in
forming covalent bonds with
(b) Extrinsic semiconductor four neighbouring atoms of the
 Small quantities of impurities pure semiconductor.
may be added to an intrinsic  The remaining electron is thus
semiconductor to enhance its donated for electrical
conductivity. This is called conductivity.
doping.  The dopant is thus referred to
 An intrinsic semiconductor to as donor atom or n-type
which some impurities have impurity.
been added to enhance  The electrons become the
conductivity is called extrinsic majority charge carriers while
semiconductor. holes are the minority charge
 Extrinsic semiconductors are so carriers.
called because the impurity
introduces charge carriers extra
to the intrinsic one.

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Note:  Since a trivalent atom accepts

The n-type semiconductor is to complete the bonding with
electrically neutral since the total one electron less, it is referred
number of electrons is equal to the to as acceptor atom.
total number of protons in the Note:
material. The p-type semiconductor is not
positively charged but it is electrically
(ii) The p-type Semiconductor neutral because the trivalent impurity
 This is obtained by doping introduces equal number of electrons
intrinsic semiconductors with and protons found in the nucleus.
trivalent atoms, like boron,
gallium and indium. Fixed Ions, Majority and Minority
 Boron has three electrons Charge Carriers
available for bond formation  In the p-type semiconductor,
whereas silicon has four. holes are the majority charge
 When boron fits into the silicon carriers, but as a hole moves
crystal lattice, it will have one away from the parent atom, the
electron less to complete the parent atom becomes a negative
bonding. ion, which is fixed in the
 The vacant place due to a crystal. This ion does not take
missing electron is called a part in conduction.
hole.  Electrons, which are thermally
 The silicon crystal, thus generated, exist as the minority
becomes an extrinsic charge carriers. [Figure 11.5
semiconductor, with the holes (a)].
as majority charge carriers  In the n-type semiconductor, an
while the electrons are the electron moving away from a
minority charge carriers. parent atom generates a fixed
 It is called a p-type positive ion.
semiconductor because the  The holes are thermally
majority charge carriers are generated while the electrons
holes, which have an effective are a result of doping. [Figure
positive charge. 11.5 (b)].

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leaving a free electron that is

responsible for electrical
conductivity.

Example 3
What is meant by donor impurity in
semiconductors? (1 mark)
It is an atom or atoms introduced
into the semiconductor during the
process of doping.

Example 4
Pure silicon can be changed into p-
type semiconductor by adding an
impurity. Explain how this is
achieved. (3 marks)
By doping silicon with group III
element e.g. boron. The three
Figure 11.5
electrons pair up with impurity
atom. One electron of silicon is left
Example 1
with no electron to pair up with,
State what is meant by an extrinsic
hence creating a hole.
semiconductor. (1 mark)
A semiconductor in which Example 5
impurities have been added to
Distinguish between a semiconductor
enhance its conductivity.
and a conductor, and give one
Example 2 example in each case. (3 marks)
When a germanium crystal is doped A semiconductor conducts current
with arsenic, it becomes an n-type by use of holes (positive) while a
semiconductor. Explain how this conductor conduct by use of
change occurs. (Number of electrons electrons.
in the outermost shell for germanium Examples of semiconductors:
= 4 and arsenic = 5) (2 marks) Silicon, germanium.
Four electrons from arsenic atom Examples of conductors: Copper,
bond covalently with germanium tin, iron.

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The p-n Junction therefore disappear and excess

 An intrinsic semiconductor can electrons appear on the p-zone.
be doped simultaneously by  In a similar way, the holes
trivalent and pentavalent atoms which diffuse into the n-zone
such that one half of it becomes recombine with the electrons
a p-type and the other half an n- there, the electrons disappear
type semiconductor. and an excess positive charge
 A junction known as the p-n builds up.
junction is then formed  A region of uncovered fixed
between the two regions. ions, called the depletion
(Figure 11.6) layer, is formed on either side
of the junction. [Figure 11.7
(b)].

Figure 11.6

 The junction is of order

10⁻3 mm thick.
 The p-type side high
concentration of holes while the
n-type side of the p-n junction
has high concentration of
electrons. Figure 11.7
 The free electrons near the
junction therefore diffuse into  The depletion layer is about
the p-zone while at the same 10⁻4 to 10⁻6 m wide.
time, holes diffuse into the n-  The depletion layer set up a
zone. [Figure 11.7 (a)]. potential difference (barrier
 The electrons which diffuse potential) which in turn sets up
into the p-zone recombine with a field that stops further
the holes there. These holes diffusion of mobile charges.

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 The barrier potential (VB) for Biasing the p-n Junction

germanium and silicon is about  A p-n junction is said to be
0.3 V and 0.7 V respectively. biased when a potential
 The potential barrier can be difference is applied across it.
perceived as a ‘hill’ which the  Before the p-n junction is
holes in the p-region have biased, a potential barrier VB
overcome for them to move exists in the p-n junction.
from the p-type to the n-type
region, [figure 11.8 (a)] (a) Forward Biasing
 The same electrical ‘hill’ stops  A p-n junction is forward
electrons intending to cross biased when the p-type region
from the n-type zone to the p- is connected to the positive
type zone, [figure 11.8 (b)] terminal and the n-type region
is connected to the negative
terminal of an external cell or
battery. [Figure 11.9 (a)].
 The applied voltage, VE, which
is greater than the internal
barrier potential, VB, opposes
the VB by repelling holes from
the p-type and electrons from
the n-type. This enables the
fixed ions in the depletion layer
to regain their holes and
electrons. [Figure 11.9 (b)].

Figure 11.8

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 4 NOTES

attracted away from the

junction by the external
voltage, [Figure 11.10 (b)].

Figure 11.9

 The applied voltage reduces the

barrier potential and the
thickness of the depletion layer
considerably, thereby reducing
the electrical ‘hill’.
 The forward resistance is thus
reduced as more charges flow
across the junction with ease.
 Thus, a large forward current
flows in the circuit.

(b) Reverse Biasing

 A p-n junction is reversed
biased when the p-region is
connected to the negative
terminal while the n-region is
connected to the positive
terminal of a cell or a battery, Figure 11.10
[Figure 11.10 (a)].
 The external voltage VE is in  This increases the concentration
the same direction as the barrier of the fixed positive and
potential. negative ions, thereby
 The holes and the electrons in increasing the thickness of the
their respective regions are depletion layer.

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 The barrier potential increases,  Figure 11.12 (a) and (b) show
hence increasing the resistance the circuit diagrams of a diode
of the p-n junction, [Figure in forward and reverse bias
11.10 (c)]. respectively.
 However, a small current,
called leakage current flows
due to the flow of minority
charge carriers that are
thermally generated.

Semiconductor Diode (p-n Junction

Diode)
 This is a one-way conduction
device consisting of a p-n
junction and having two
terminals, the anode and the
cathode.
 Figure 11.11 shows the circuit
symbol for a p-n junction
diode.

Figure 11.12

Advantages of the p-n junction

diode over the diode valve
Figure 11.11
(i) It requires a low voltage battery to
 The anode (p-type) and the function.
cathode (n-type) are (ii) It does not need time to heat up.
represented by an arrowhead (iii) It is less bulky.
and a bar respectively. (iv) It is cheaper to manufacture in
 The arrowhead indicates the large numbers.
direction of conventional
current when the diode is
forward biased.

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Diode Characteristics  Use the results in the table to

plot a graph of forward bias
EXPERIMENT 1: To study the current I (mA) against forward
forward and reverse characteristics bias voltage VFB (V).
of a p-n junction diode.  Repeat the experiment with the
diode in reverse bias and fill
Apparatus table 2.
p-n junction diode, potential divider,
milliammeter, voltmeter, cell, Table 2
connecting wires, jockey. Current, I (mA)

Voltage, VRB (V)

 Plot a graph of reverse bias

current I (mA) against reverse
bias voltage VRB (V).

Observation 1
Figure 11.13

Procedure Forward Bias Characteristic

 Set up the circuit as shown in
figure 11.13 for forward
biasing.
 Increase the forward bias
voltage in steps from zero and
record the corresponding values
of current in table1.

Table 1
Current, I (mA) Figure 11.14 (a)

Voltage, VFB (V)  The graph is non-linear,

showing that a diode is non-
ohmic, Figure 11.14 (a)

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 The current increases rapidly

when the forward bias voltage
is increased.

Explanation 1
 As the voltage is increased
from zero, a very small current
flows through the diode
because the forward bias
voltage is insufficient in
opposing the potential barrier.
 Leakage current due to flow of Figure 11.14 (b)
minority charge carriers.
 When the reverse bias voltage
 When the potential barrier is
completely overcome by the is zero, a small leakage current
applied forward bias voltage flows.
 As the reverse bias voltage is
called the cut-in-voltage or
threshold voltage or break increased, there is no
point voltage, the charges significant change in the
easily flow across the junction, current until a particular
voltage called Zener voltage or
giving rise to the sharp increase
in forward current. breakdown voltage when a
current surge is noted.
Observation 2
Explanation 2
 When the diode is reverse
Reverse Bias Characteristic
Figure 11.14 (b) shows the graph for biased, its resistance is high.
 The flow of leakage current
a reverse bias characteristic.
results from the flow of
minority charge carriers.
 At breakdown or Zener voltage,
some covalent bonds rapture,
liberating electrons. This is
called Zener breakdown.

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 As the electrons flow because  However, some diodes called

of the applied voltage, they Zener diodes are designed to
collide with some atoms, operate within the breakdown
causing ionization. This is region.
called avalanche breakdown.  A Zener diode is correctly
 Zener breakdown and placed when it is reverse
avalanche breakdown produce biased, with a voltage greater
excess electrons which are than the Zener voltage and a
responsible for the heavy current less than the maximum
conduction. value it can safely
accommodate.
Combined Characteristics of a Diode  Zener diodes are used as
Figure 11.15 shows the combined voltage regulators or
characteristics of a forward biased and stabilizers in circuits.
a reverse biased diode.  Figure 11.16 shows the circuit
symbol of a Zener diode.

Figure 11.16

Example 6
Figure 11.17 (a) and (b) show a p-n
junction connected to a battery. It is
Figure 11.15
observed that the current in figure
11.17 (a) is greater than the current in
Note:
figure 11.17 (b).
 When a diode is reverse biased
to its breakdown voltage, it gets
damaged.
 A damaged diode conducts
irrespective of biasing.

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Figure 11.19
Figure 11.17
State the reason for this observation. State how a battery can be used to
(1 mark) make the depletion layer narrower.
The diode in figure 11.17 (a) is (1 mark)
forward biased while that in figure By connecting it in a forward bias
11.17 (b) is reverse biased. mode, i.e., the positive terminal to
the p-type region and the negative
Example 7 terminal to the n-type region.
Figure 11.18 shows a block diagram
of a p-n junction diode. Example 9
In the axes provided, sketch the
current-voltage characteristic for the
reverse biased p-n junction. (1 mk)

Figure 11.18

On the same diagram, show how a

battery may be connected so that the
diode is reverse biased. (1 mark)

Example 8 Figure 11.20

Figure 11.19 shows a depletion layer
in an unbiased p-n junction. Example 10
Figure 11.21 shows a graph of
current against voltage for a
semiconductor diode.

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Determine the current flowing

through the resistors and the voltage
drops.
Solution
Since diode D1 is reverse biased,
current does not flow through the 3
Figure 11.21 Ω resistor.

In the space provided, draw a circuit Hence, there is no voltage drop

diagram that may be used to obtain across the 3 Ω resistor.
values needed to draw the graph in Diode D2 is forward biased. Hence
figure 11.21. (3 marks)
the 2 Ω resistor and the 8 Ω resistor
are taken to be in series.
Effective resistance = 2 + 8 = 10 Ω
Current, I =

I=
Figure 11.22
I=1A
Example 11 Voltage drop across the 2 Ω resistor
Figure 11.23 shows a system of =IxR
diodes and resistors connected to a V2 = 1 x 2
voltage supply. (Assume the diodes V2 = 2 V
are ideal). Voltage drop across the 8 Ω resistor
=1x8
V8 = 8 V

Figure 11.23

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Example 12 Applications of Junction Diodes in

Figure 11.24 shows a circuit diagram. Rectification
(Bulbs L1 and L2 are identical).  A rectifier is an electrical
device used in transforming an
alternating voltage into a direct
or unidirectional voltage.
 This process is called
rectification.
 There are two types of
rectification, namely:
(a) Half-wave rectification.
Figure 11.24 (b) Full-wave rectification.
 A diode is used in rectification
Explain what happens when: because it offers low resistance
(a) Switch S1 is open and switch S2 is when forward biased and high
closed. resistance when reverse biased.
When S1 is open and S2 closed, the
diode D2 conducts heavily (forward (a) Half-wave Rectification
biased), hence short circuits bulb  This can be achieved by
connecting a single
L2. Consequently, only bulb L1lights
semiconductor diode in series
brightly because most of the voltage with an alternating current
drop is across it. (a.c.) source and a load
resistor.
(b) Switch S1 is closed and switch S2  The output voltage flow across
is open. the load resistor in one
When S1 is closed and S2 open, direction only in series of
diode D1 is reverse biased and pulses.
hence it does not take up any  A load resistor is so called
current. because it represents any device
Therefore, the two bulbs (in series) that the transformer might be
light dimly because they share the expected to send a current
voltage supply. through.

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 Figure 11.25 illustrates half- Note:

wave rectification. The variation in the input and output
voltages with time may be seen by
connecting the input terminals (A and
B) and output terminals (C and D), in
turn, to a cathode ray oscilloscope
(CRO), figure 11.26.

Figure 11.25

First half-cycle:
 During the first half-cycle
(clockwise direction), the diode
is forward biased and so it
conducts electric current.
 Current flows through the load
resistor R, building a voltage Figure 11.26
across it, which decreases as
the first half-cycle comes to an  The process is referred to as
end. half-wave rectification
Second half-cycle: because half of the input cycle
 On the onset of the second half- is phased out in the output,
cycle (anticlockwise direction), when the diode is reverse
the diode is reverse biased and biased.
so it does not conduct.  The half-wave output can be
 The action repeats itself so long smoothened by connecting a
as the input voltage is being capacitor across the load
supplied. resistor.

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 Figure 11.27 shows a

smoothened half-wave output.

Figure 11.28

Example 15
Figure 11.29 shows an alternating
Figure 11.27 current (a.c.) connected across diode
D and a resistor R.
Disadvantages of half-wave
rectification
(i) The output is not smooth.
(ii) There is much power loss as one
of the half-cycles is eliminated.

Example 13 Figure 11.29

State what happens to the energy
supplied when the diode is reverse On the axis provided sketch the
biased. output as observed in CRO across R.
It appears as heat. The diode (1 mark)
warms up.

Example 14
You are provided with a diode, a
resistor R, an a.c. source of low Figure 11.30
voltage and connecting wires.
In the space provided, sketch the (b) Full-wave Rectification
circuit diagram for a half-wave This can be achieved by using:
rectifier and indicate the terminals (i) Two diodes and a centre-tapped
where the output voltage V0 may be transformer.
connected. (2 marks) (ii) Four diodes (the bridge rectifier)

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(i) Using Two Diodes Second half-cycle:

 A centre-tapped transformer  During the next half-cycle,
must be used to split the diode D2 is forward biased
transformer output. while D1 is reverse biased.
 The two diodes are connected  Hence, the conventional current
in such a way that each flows in the anticlockwise
conducts a current through the direction through the path
load resistor during a particular CDD2BRLC.
half-cycle.
 Figure 11.31 (a) and (b) shows Note:
two possible circuits for this  During both half-cycles, current
type of rectification. flows through the load resistor
RL in the same direction.
 The effective output current
through the two diodes is
represented in figure 11.32.

Figure 11.31

 The transformer output is

centre-tapped at C.

First half-cycle:
 During the first half-cycle,
diode D1 is forward biased Figure 11.32
while D2 is reverse biased.
 Hence, the conventional current Disadvantage of using two diodes
flows in the clockwise direction A large transformer is required
through the path CAD1BRLC. because of the centre-tapping.

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(ii) Using Four Diodes (Bridge

Rectifier)  Hence, the conventional current
 If four diodes are used, flows in the clockwise direction
connected in what is described through the path
as bridge connection, then the AD1BRLDD3CA.
whole of the input a.c. may be
rectified. Second half-cycle:
 The result is a unidirectional  During the second half-cycle,
pulsating output at twice the diodes D2 and D4 are forward
frequency of the input. biased while D1 and D3 are
 The circuit is connected as reverse biased.
shown in figure 11.33.  Hence, the conventional current
 The a.c. input is connected flows in the anticlockwise
across terminals AC. direction through the path
CD2BRLDD4AC.

Note:
During both half-cycles, current flows
through the load resistor RL in the
same direction.

Capacitor Smoothing (Power Pack)

 Half-wave and full-wave
rectified a.c. is very useful for
some purposes, e.g. charging
secondary cells.
Figure 11.33
 However, the half-wave and
First half-cycle: full-wave rectified a.c. cannot
 During the first half-cycle, be used to replace a direct
diodes D1 and D3 are forward current (d.c.) source in radio or
biased while diodes D2 and D4 similar electrical equipment, as
are reversed biased. it gives rise to intolerable hum.

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 This hum may be reduced  Figure 11.35 shows a

considerably by connecting a smoothened full-wave rectified
smoothing capacitor in parallel output.
with the output voltage device,
figure 11.34.

Figure 11.35

Some advantages of the bridge

rectifier:
(i) A smaller transformer can be used
because there no need for centre-
tapping.
Figure 11.34 (ii) It is suitable for high voltage
regulation.
 As the output voltage from the
rectifiers rises to its maximum, Disadvantage of the bridge rectifier
it charges up the smoothing The current fluctuates from zero to its
capacitor to its peak value. peak value many times per second if a
capacitor is not connected across the
 As the output voltage falls
load resistor.
towards zero and then builds up
to its next peak value, the
Conclusion
capacitor discharges into the
In general, the full-wave rectifier
circuit, thus preventing the final
gives a stronger and smoother output
output from reaching zero.
than the half-wave rectifier.
 The final output voltage has a
slight ripple, sometimes
described as a sawtooth output.

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