4.

4.1 Exponential Functions 1

 Exponential Function
If b > 0 and b ≠ 1, then

𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒃𝒙

defines the exponential function with base b.

Domain is all real numbers (R) (−∞, ∞)

Range is (0, ∞)

4.1 Exponential Functions 2

Examples:
𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 , 𝑔 𝑥 = 10𝑥 , ℎ 𝑥 = 𝜋𝑥 ,
𝑥−1
1
𝑗 𝑥 = , 𝑘 𝑥 = 3−𝑥+1
2
The function
𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒆𝒙
is called a natural exponential function.
The irrational number 𝑒 ≈ 2.72 is called a natural base.
Examples of non exponential functions:
𝑔 𝑥 = (−1)𝑥 , 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑥 , 𝑘 𝑥 = 1𝑥 , 𝑔 𝑥 = (−4)𝑥 ,
h(x) = 𝑥 2
4.1 Exponential Functions 3
➢ Evaluating an exponential function:
Let 𝑔 𝑥 = 1.56 𝑥 evaluate 𝑔 4 =

Example1: Approximate each number using a calculator .

Round your answer to three decimal places
5) 4−1.5 =

9) 𝑒 −0.95 =

4.1 Exponential Functions 4

➢ Graphing Exponential Functions:
𝑦 = 𝑏𝑥, 0 < 𝑏 < 1 y 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑥, 𝑏 > 1

𝒚 = 𝒃𝒙 , 𝒃 > 𝟎, 𝒃 ≠ 𝟏
Domain (−∞, ∞)
Range (0, ∞) 1
Asymptote 𝑦=0 x

If the base is greater than one function increases,

if the base is less than one function decreases.

4.1 Exponential Functions 5

➢ Graphing Exponential Functions:
y 𝑦 = 2𝑥
𝒙 𝑦 = 2𝑥
4
−1 (−1,0.5)
0 (0,1) 2
1
1 (1,2)
x
−2 −1 1 2
2 (2,4)
𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙
Domain (−∞, ∞)
Range (0, ∞) The base is 2 > 1. Function is an
Asymptote 𝑦=0 increasing function.

4.1 Exponential Functions 6

➢ Graphing Exponential Functions: 3
𝑥
𝑦=
𝑥
2
3 y
𝒙 𝑦=
2
4
−1 (−1,0.7)

0 (0,1) 2
1
1 1,1.5
x
−2 −1 1 2
2 2,2.25
𝒙
𝟑
𝒚=
𝟐
Domain (−∞, ∞)
3
Range (0, ∞) The base is > 1. Function is an
2
Asymptote 𝑦=0 increasing function.

4.1 Exponential Functions 7

➢ Graphing Exponential Functions:
𝑦 = 0.6 𝑥
y
𝒙 𝑥
𝑦 = 0.6

−1 (0,1.7) 4

0 (0,1) 2

1 1, 0.6 1
x
−2 −1 1 2
2 2, 0.36

𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟔 𝒙

Domain (−∞, ∞)
Range (0, ∞)
The base is 0.6 < 1. Function is a
decreasing function.
Asymptote 𝑦=0

4.1 Exponential Functions 8

➢ Reflection about y-axis; 𝒙 ⇒ −𝒙
𝑦 = 2−𝑥 y 𝑦 = 2𝑥

x
−2 −1 1 2

𝑦 = 2−𝑥 is the reflection of 𝑦 = 2𝑥 about the y axis

4.1 Exponential Functions 9
➢ Reflection about y-axis; 𝒙 ⇒ −𝒙
𝑦 = 2−𝑥 y 𝑦 = 2𝑥

x
−2 −1 1 2

𝑦 = 2−𝑥 is the reflection of 𝑦 = 2𝑥 about the y axis

4.1 Exponential Functions 10
 ➢ Reflection about y-axis; 𝒙 ⇒ −𝒙

𝑦 = 2−𝑥 𝑦 = 2𝑥
𝑥
y
𝑦=2 𝑦= 2−𝑥
𝒙
(𝑥, 𝑦) (−𝑥, 𝑦)
0 (0,1) (0,1)

1 (1,2) (−1,2)

2 (2,4) (−2,4) x
−2 −1 1 2

𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙 𝒚 = 𝟐−𝒙
Domain (−∞, ∞) (−∞, ∞)
Range (0, ∞) (0, ∞)
Asymptote 𝑦=0 𝑦=0

𝑦 = 2−𝑥 is the reflection of 𝑦 = 2𝑥 about the y axis

4.1 Exponential Functions 11
➢ Reflection about x-axis; 𝒚 ⇒ −𝒚
y 𝑦 = 2𝑥

x
−2 −1 1 2

𝑦 = −2𝑥

𝑦 = −2𝑥 is the reflection of 𝑦 = 2𝑥 about the x-axis

4.1 Exponential Functions 12
➢ Reflection about x-axis; 𝒚 ⇒ −𝒚
y 𝑦 = 2𝑥

x
−2 −1 1 2

𝑦 = −2𝑥

𝑦 = −2𝑥 is the reflection of 𝑦 = 2𝑥 about the x-axis

4.1 Exponential Functions 13
 ➢ Reflection about x-axis; 𝒚 ⇒ −𝒚
y 𝑦 = 2𝑥
𝑦 = 2𝑥 𝑦 = −2𝑥
𝒙
(𝑥, 𝑦) (𝑥, −𝑦)
0 (0,1) (0, −1)

1 (1,2) (1, −2)

2 (2,4) (2, −4) x

−2 −1 1 2

𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙 𝒚 = −𝟐𝒙
Domain (−∞, ∞) (−∞, ∞)
Range (0, ∞) (−∞, 0)
𝑦 = −2𝑥
Asymptote 𝑦=0 𝑦=0

𝑦 = −2𝑥 is the reflection of 𝑦 = 2𝑥 about the x axis

4.1 Exponential Functions 14
 ➢ Reflections of 𝑦 = 2𝑥 about x and y axis
y y
𝑦 = 2−𝑥 𝑦 = 2𝑥

Range
(0, ∞)

| | | |
x x

Range
(-∞, 0)
𝑦 = −2−𝑥 𝑦 = −2𝑥

4.1 Exponential Functions 15

 ➢ Horizontal Translations

y 𝑦 = 2𝑥
𝑦 = 2𝑥 𝑦 = 2𝑥−1
𝒙
(𝑥, 𝑦) (𝑥 + 1, 𝑦)
𝑦 = 2𝑥−1
0 (0,1) (1,1)

1 (1,2) (2,2)

2 (2,4) (3,4) x
−2 −1 1 2 3

𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙−𝟏
Domain (−∞, ∞) (−∞, ∞)
Range (0, ∞) (0, ∞)
Asymptote 𝑦=0 𝑦=0

𝑦 = 2𝑥−1 is the shifting of 𝑦 = 2𝑥 1unit to right

4.1 Exponential Functions 16
 ➢ Horizontal Translations

y
𝑦 = 2𝑥 𝑦 = 2𝑥+1
𝒙
(𝑥, 𝑦) (𝑥 − 1, 𝑦)
𝑦=2 𝑥+1 𝑦 = 2𝑥
0 (0,1) (−1,1)

1 (1,2) (0,2)

2 (2,4) (1,4) x
−2 −1 1 2
𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙+𝟏
Domain (−∞, ∞) (−∞, ∞)
Range (0, ∞) (0, ∞)
Asymptote 𝑦=0 𝑦=0

𝑦 = 2𝑥+1 is the shifting of 𝑦 = 2𝑥 1unit to left

4.1 Exponential Functions 17
 ➢ Vertical Translations

𝑥 𝑥 y 𝑦 = 2𝑥
𝑦=2 𝑦 =2 −1
𝒙
(𝑥, 𝑦) (𝑥, 𝑦 − 1)
0 (0,1) (0,0)

1 (1,2) (1,1)
𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1
2 (2,4) (2,3)
x
−2 −1 1 2
𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏
𝑦 = −1
Domain (−∞, ∞) (−∞, ∞)
Range (0, ∞) (−1, ∞)
Asymptote 𝑦=0 𝑦 = −1

𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1 is the shifting of 𝑦 = 2𝑥 1unit down

4.1 Exponential Functions 18
Transformation of Exponential Function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑥

Transformation Equation Description

𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑥, 𝑦 → (𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑐)
Vertical Shift
𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑐 𝑥, 𝑦 → (𝑥, 𝑦 − 𝑐)

𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑥+𝑐 𝑥, 𝑦 → (𝑥 − 𝑐, 𝑦)
Horizontal Shift
𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑥−𝑐 𝑥, 𝑦 → (𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑦)
Reflection about x-axis 𝑔 𝑥 = −𝑏 𝑥 𝑥, 𝑦 → (𝑥, −𝑦)
−𝑥
Reflection about y-axis 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑥, 𝑦 → (−𝑥, 𝑦)

Vertical stretching or shrinking 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑏 𝑥 𝑥, 𝑦 → (𝑥, 𝑐𝑦)

𝑥
Horizontal stretching or shrinking 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑐𝑥 𝑥, 𝑦 → ( , 𝑦)
𝑐

4.1 Exponential Functions 19

 ➢ Combination of translations and Reflections
Begin by Graphing 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 .then use transformation of this graph to
graph given function. Give the equation of the asymptotes. Use the graph to
determine each function’s domain and range

𝑦 = 2𝑥

𝑦 = −2𝑥+1

𝑦 = −2𝑥 𝑦 = −2𝑥+1 − 1

4.1 Exponential Functions 20

Begin by Graphing 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 .then use transformation of this graph to
graph given function. Give the equation of the asymptotes. Use the graph to
determine each function’s domain and range
𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙 𝒚 = −𝟐𝒙−𝟏 + 𝟑
Domain (−∞, ∞) (−∞, ∞)
Range (0, ∞) (−∞, 3)
Asymptote 𝑦=0 𝑦=3

𝑦 = 2𝑥 𝑦 = −2𝑥−1 + 3

𝑦 = −2𝑥 𝑦 = −2𝑥−1

4.1 Exponential Functions 21

➢ Combination of translations and Reflections

𝑦 = 2𝑥+2 − 1
𝑦 = 2𝑥+2 𝑦 = 2𝑥

𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙+𝟐 − 𝟏
Domain (−∞, ∞) (−∞, ∞)
Range (0, ∞) (−1, ∞)
Asymptote 𝑦=0 𝑦 = −1

4.1 Exponential Functions 22

 ➢ Combination of translations and Reflections

Sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥−2 − 3

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙−𝟐
y
If x changes to x – 2 , then
5 −
The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥−2 4 −
is the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 translated 3 −
2 units to the right.
2 −
1 −
The graph of 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥−2 − 3 is
the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥−2 translated |
−2 2
|
x
3 units down.
𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟐𝒙−𝟐 − 𝟑
The domain is (– , ), and the
range is (-3, ).

4.1 Exponential Functions 23

 ➢ Combination of translations and Reflections

Sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥−2 − 3

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙−𝟐
y
If x changes to x – 2 , then
5 −
The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥−2 4 −
is the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 translated 3 −
2 units to the right.
2 −
1 −
The graph of 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥−2 − 3 is
the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥−2 translated |
−2 2
|
x
3 units down.
𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟐𝒙−𝟐 − 𝟑
The domain is (– , ), and the
range is (-3, ).

4.1 Exponential Functions 24

 ➢ Combination of translations and Reflections

Sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥−2 − 3

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙−𝟐
y
If x changes to x – 2 , then
5 −
The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥−2 4 −
is the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 translated 3 −
2 units to the right.
2 −
1 −
The graph of 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥−2 − 3 is
the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥−2 translated |
−2 2
|
x
3 units down.
𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟐𝒙−𝟐 − 𝟑
The domain is (– , ), and the
range is (-3, ).

4.1 Exponential Functions 25

Begin by Graphing 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 .then use transformation of this
graph to graph given function. Give the equation of the asymptotes.
Use the graph to determine each function’s domain and range

−𝑥 𝑦
𝑔 𝑥 =𝑒 +2

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑥 + 2
Domain (−∞, ∞) (−∞, ∞) 𝑒 −𝑥
Range (0, ∞) (2, ∞)

Asymptote 𝑦=0 𝑦=2

4.1 Exponential Functions 26

Begin by Graphing 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 .then use transformation of this
graph to graph given function. Give the equation of the asymptotes.
Use the graph to determine each function’s domain and range

−𝑥 𝑦
𝑔 𝑥 =𝑒 +2

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑥 + 2
Domain (−∞, ∞) (−∞, ∞) 𝑒 −𝑥
Range (0, ∞) (2, ∞)

Asymptote 𝑦=0 𝑦=2

4.1 Exponential Functions 27

Begin by Graphing 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 .then use transformation of this
graph to graph given function. Give the equation of the asymptotes.
Use the graph to determine each function’s domain and range

−𝑥 𝑦
𝑔 𝑥 =𝑒 +2

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑥 + 2
Domain (−∞, ∞) (−∞, ∞) 𝑒 −𝑥
Range (0, ∞) (2, ∞)

Asymptote 𝑦=0 𝑦=2

4.1 Exponential Functions 28

 1 𝑥
Begin by Graphing 𝑓 𝑥 = .then use transformation of this
2
graph to graph given function. Give the equation of the asymptotes.
Use the graph to determine each function’s domain and range

𝑥−1
1
𝑔 𝑥 = −3 +1
2

𝑥 𝑥−1
1 1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔 𝑥 = −3 +1
2 2
Domain Domain
Range Range
Asymptote Asymptote
4.1 Exponential Functions 29
➢ Combination of translations and Reflections
𝑥
1
𝑦= y
2

x
−2 −1 1 2

4.1 Exponential Functions 30

➢ Combination of translations
𝑥
and Reflections
𝒙
1 𝟏
𝑦= y 𝒚=𝟑 𝟐
2

x
−2 −1 1 2

4.1 Exponential Functions 31

➢ Combination of translations and Reflections
𝑥 𝒙
1 𝟏
𝑦= y 𝒚=𝟑 𝟐
2

x
−2 −1 1 2

𝒙
𝟏
𝒚 = −𝟑
𝟐
4.1 Exponential Functions 32
➢ Combination of translations and Reflections
𝒙
𝑥 𝟏
1 y 𝒚=𝟑 𝟐
𝑦=
2

x
−2 −1 1 2

𝒙 𝒙−𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
𝒚 = −𝟑 𝒚 = −𝟑
𝟐 𝟐
4.1 Exponential Functions 33
➢ Combination of translations and Reflections

x
−2 −1 1 2

𝒙−𝟏
𝟏
𝒚 = −𝟑
𝟐
4.1 Exponential Functions 34
 ➢ Combination of translations and Reflections

𝑥−1
1
𝑦 = −3 +1
2

x
−2 −1 1 2
𝑥 𝑥−1
1 1
𝑦= 𝑦 = −3 +1
2 2
Domain (−∞, ∞) (−∞, ∞)

Range (0, ∞) (−∞, 1)

𝒙−𝟏
Asymptot 𝑦=0 𝑦=1 𝟏
e 𝒚 = −𝟑
𝟐
4.1 Exponential Functions 35
Example 6: Give the equation of the exponential function
whose graph is shown.

A) 𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 16

B) 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥+2
C) 𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 − 2
D) 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 2
4
2

-2 -1 1 2

4.1 Exponential Functions 36

Example The Graph of an exponential function is given.
Select the function for from the functions listed.

A) 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥
B) 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥+2
3
𝑥
C) 𝑓 𝑥 = 3 − 2 2

D) 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 + 2

4.1 Exponential Functions 37

Use the graph of 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 to obtain the graph of 𝑔 𝑥 = 2𝑥+3 + 2
A B C
14 14 14
12 12 12
10 10 10
8 8 8
6 6 6
4 4 4
2 2 2
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 -2 -1 1 2 3 -4 5 6

14
12
10
8
D 6
4
2
-2 -1 1 2 3 -4 5 6

4.1 Exponential Functions 38

Function Domain Range Asymptote x-intercept y-intercept

𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 (−∞, ∞)

𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1 (−∞, ∞)

𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 − 1 (−∞, ∞)

𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥+1 (−∞, ∞)

𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥−1 (−∞, ∞)

𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥+1 + 2 (−∞, ∞)

𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥−1 − 4 (−∞, ∞)

4.1 Exponential Functions 39

Function Domain Range Asymptote x-intercept y-intercept

𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 (−∞, ∞)

𝑓 𝑥 = −2𝑥 + 1 (−∞, ∞)

𝑓 𝑥 = −2𝑥 − 1 (−∞, ∞)

𝑓 𝑥 = −2𝑥+1 (−∞, ∞)

𝑓 𝑥 = −2𝑥−1 (−∞, ∞)

𝑓 𝑥 = −2𝑥+1 + 2 (−∞, ∞)

𝑓 𝑥 = −2𝑥−1 − 4 (−∞, ∞)

4.1 Exponential Functions 40

69) India is currently one of the world's fastest-growing countries. By 2040, the
population of India will be larger than the population of chine; by 2050, nearly one-
third of the world’s population will live in these two countries alone.
The exponential function 𝑓 𝑥 = 574 1.026 𝑥 models the population of India, 𝑓(𝑥),
in millions, 𝑥 years after 1974.
a. Substitute 0 for x and, without using a calculator, find India’s population in 1974.

b. Substitute 27 for x and use your calculator to find India’s population, to the nearest
million, in the year 2001 as modelled by this function

c. Find India’s population, to the nearest million, in the year 2028 as predicted by
this function.

d. Find India’s population, to the nearest million, in the year 2055 as predicted by
this function.

e. What appears to be happening to India's population every 27 years?

4.1 Exponential Functions 41

Example: Oil Spill Recovery (Exponential Decrease)
Following an oil spill, the effected coastline begins to naturally recover, decreasing the
contaminated areas by 20% each year(𝑡). The initially affected area was 150
kilometers. The following model represents the contaminated area, 𝑔(𝑡) , in
kilometres.
𝑔 𝑡 = 150 1 − 0.2 𝑡

a) What will the remaining contaminated area be after 3 years?

a) What will the remaining contaminated area be after 10 years?

4.1 Exponential Functions 42

73) In college, we study large volumes of information that, unfortunately, we do not often
retain for very long. The function
𝑓 𝑥 = 80𝑒 −0.5𝑥 + 20
describes the percentage of information, 𝑓(𝑥), that a particular person remembers x weeks
after learning the information.
a. Substitute 0 for x and, without using a calculator, find the percentage of information
remembered at the moment it is first learned.

b. Substitute 1 for x and find the percentage of information that is remembered after 1 week.

c. Find the percentage of information that is remembered after 4 weeks.

d. Find the percentage of information that is remembered after one year (52 weeks).

4.1 Exponential Functions 43

The exponential function ​𝑓 𝑥 = 544(1.032𝑥 )
models the population of a​ country, 𝑓(𝑥), in​ millions, 𝑥 years after 1975.

a. Substitute 0 for x​ and, without using a​ calculator, find the​ country's

population in 1975.

b. Substitute 22 for x and use your calculator to find the​ country's

population, to the nearest​ million, in the year 1997 as modelled by this
function.

c. Find the​ country's population, to the nearest​ million, in the year 2019 as
predicted by this function.

4.1 Exponential Functions 44

The function 𝑓 𝑥 = 70𝑒 −0.5𝑥 + 30 describes the percentage of​ information,
𝑓(𝑥), that a particular person remembers 𝑥 weeks after learning the
information.

a. Substitute 0 for 𝑥 and, without using a​ calculator, find the percentage of

information remembered at the moment it is first learned.

b. Substitute 1 for 𝑥 and find the percentage of information that is

remembered after 1 week.

c. Find the percentage of information that is remembered after 4 weeks.

d. Find the percentage of information that is remembered after one year​ (52
weeks).

4.1 Exponential Functions 45

 4.2
• Definition of Logarithm
• Logarithmic Functions
• Properties of Logarithms

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 1

 Logarithm
Remember exponential functions

y = bx where b > 0, b ≠ 1.
The exponential functions are one-to-one, and thus have
inverse functions.
The inverse of a function is found by interchanging x and
y in the equation.
y = bx
x y x=b y

we need to solve for y

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 2
 𝑥 = 𝑏𝑦
Solution for y is given by

𝑦 = log 𝑏 𝑥

It is called “logarithmic function with base b”

The number b is called the base of the logarithm, and

x is called the argument of the expression.

It is read “logarithm of x with base b.”

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 3

For all real numbers y and all positive numbers, b and x,
where b ≠ 1,

y
y = logb x if and only if x=b

If the base is e , it is called natural logarithm.

y
y = loge x = ln x if and only if x=e
If the base is 10, it is called common logarithm.

y = log10 x = log x if and only if x = 1 0 y

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 4

Example 1: Write each equation in its equivalent exponential form:

1) 3 = log 𝑏 27 2) ln 7 = 𝑦 3) log 0.01 = −2

Example 2: Write each equation in its equivalent logarithmic form:

−4 1
𝐴) 2 = B) 𝑒 𝑦 = 9 C) 102 = 𝑥
16

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 5

 Basic Logarithmic Properties

1) 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒃 = 𝟏 because 𝒃𝟏 = 𝒃

2) 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝟏 = 𝟎 because 𝒃𝟎 = 𝟏

3) 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒃𝒙 = 𝒙 because 𝒃𝒙 = 𝒃𝒙

4) The inverse property of logarithm

𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑥

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 6

Example 3:Evaluate each expression without using a
calculator:
21) log 2 16 2) log 1 9 29) log 7 7
3

34) log 81 9 41)8log8 19 42)3log2 7

9𝑥 1
95) ln 𝑒 91) ln 6 99)10log 𝑥
𝑒

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 7

Concept Check
log5 1 = log10 0.1=
log2 16 =
3/2
log1/3 2 7 =
log2 2 = log2 2 =
10−4 = 0.0001
−3 1
2 27 log 4 = −3
= 64
3 8 log 381 =8

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 8

x = log (1/625) x = log (1/81) 5 = log (1/32)
5 3 x

4
x = log ( 8 ) x = log 10 3 = log (27/64)
8 100 x

3
x = log ( 16 ) -2 = log (1/16) -2 = log 25
4 x x

4
3 = log x -1 = log x x = log ( 25 )
4 4 5

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 9

GRAPHING LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
y

y = log x
2
x
log 𝑎 𝑥 increases if 𝑎 > 1

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 10

y

y = log x
1/2

log 𝑎 𝑥 decreases if 0 < 𝑎 < 1

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 11

 y = log (-x) y y = log (x)
2 2

y = -log (-x) = log1/2(-x) y = -log (x) = log1/2(x)

2 2

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 12

Example 4: Graph 𝑔 𝑥 = log 3 𝑥.

𝑥 𝑦 = log 3 𝑥
1 0
3 1
9 2
1/3 −1
Domain:_________________
Range:__________________
Asymptote:__________________
4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 13
 Example7: 43) Graph 𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 , and 𝑔 𝑥 = log 4 𝑥, in the
same rectangular coordinate system.
𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 = log 4 𝑥 are inverse of each other.

𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥
The graphs of 𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 and
𝑔 𝑥 = log 4 𝑥 are symmetric
with respect to the line
𝑦=𝑥
𝑔 𝑥 = log 4 𝑥

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 14

 f (x) = log4(x + 2) + 1
The graph of f (x) = log4(x + 2) + 1 is obtained by shifting the graph
of y = log4x to the left 2 units and up 1 unit.

The domain is found by solving

x + 2 > 0, which yields (–2, ).

The vertical asymptote has

equation x = –2.

The range is unaffected by the

vertical shift and remains (– , ).

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 15

Example 8: Begin by graphing 𝑓 𝑥 = log 2 𝑥 .Then use
transformations of this graph to graph the given function. Give
equations of the asymptotes. Use the graphs to determine each
function’s domain and range. 𝑔(𝑥) = log 2 𝑥 + 1 + 2.

𝑓 𝑥 = log 2 𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) = log 2 𝑥 + 1 + 2

Domain (0, ∞) (−1, ∞)
Range (−∞, ∞) (−∞, ∞)
Asymptote VA 𝑥=0 𝑥 = −1

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 16

Example 9: Begin by graphing 𝑓 𝑥 = log 2 𝑥. Then use
transformations of this graph to graph the given function. Give
equations of the asymptotes. Use the graphs to determine each
function’s domain and range. 𝑔(𝑥) = log 2 𝑥 − 2 .

𝑓 𝑥 = log 2 𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) = log 2 (𝑥 − 2)

Domain (0, ∞) (2, ∞)
Range (−∞, ∞) (−∞, ∞)
Asymptote VA 𝑥=0 𝑥=2

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 17

Example 10: Begin by graphing 𝑓 𝑥 = ln 𝑥 .Then use
transformations of this graph to graph the given function. Give
equations of the asymptotes. Use the graphs to determine each
function’s domain and range. 𝑔 𝑥 = 2 − ln 𝑥.

𝑓 𝑥 = ln 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 = 2 − ln 𝑥
Domain (0, ∞) (0, ∞)
Range (−∞, ∞) (−∞, ∞)
Asymptote VA 𝑥=0 𝑥=0

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 18

Example 11: Select the function for each graph :
𝐹 𝑥 = − log 3 𝑥 𝐺 𝑥 = log 3 𝑥 − 1 𝐻 𝑥 = 1 − log 3 𝑥

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 19

Use the graph of 𝑓 𝑥 = log 𝑥 to obtain the graph of 𝑔 𝑥 = log 𝑥 − 4

A B C

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 20

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 21
 Domain of Logarithmic Functions
Since the domain of an exponential function is the set of
all real numbers, the range of a logarithmic function
also will be the set of all real numbers.

In the same way, both the range of an exponential

function and the domain of a logarithmic function are
the set of all positive real numbers.
Thus, logarithms can be found for positive numbers
only.

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 22

Example 6: Find the domain of the following functions.
𝑎) 𝑓 𝑥 = log 4 𝑥 + 3 𝑏)𝑓 𝑥 = 2 + log 2 − 𝑥

𝑑)𝑓 𝑥 = log 𝑥 2 𝑒)𝑓 𝑥 = ln 2 − 𝑥 2

+3

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 23

 𝑥
Find the domain of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = log 3
8−𝑥

2
𝑥+2
Find the domain of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = log 3
𝑥−1

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 24

The domain of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = log(1 − 𝑥 2 ), in
interval notation, is

A) (0, 1)
B) (–∞, –1)
C) (1, ∞)
D) (–∞, –1) ∪ (0, ∞)
E) (–1, 1)

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 25

The domain of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = −1 − ln 𝑥 + ln(2 − 𝑥), in
interval notation, is

A) (0, 2)
B) (–∞, 2) ∪ (2, ∞)
C) (–∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
D) (–∞, 0) ∪ (2, ∞)
E) (–2, 0)

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 26

For 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 0 and 𝑥 > 1, the expression
𝑦 = log 𝑎 ( 𝑥 − 1) is equivalent to

A) 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥−1
B) 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑦 + 1
C) 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦−1
D) 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1)𝑎
E) 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 1

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 27

If (p, 0) is the x-intercept and (0, q) is the y-intercept of the
graph of (x) = log1/3(3 – x) , then p – q =

A) 3
B) -1
C) 1
D) 2
E) 1/3

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 28

 𝑓(𝑥) = log 3 𝑥 − 1 ≠ log 3 ( 𝑥 − 1)

𝑓 𝑥 = log 3 𝑥 − 1 𝑔(𝑥) = log 3 ( 𝑥 − 1)

Asymptote x=0 Asymptote x = 1

1 unit down 1 unit right

x-intercept at x = 3 x-intercept at x = 2

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 29

 9) y =log3(x + 2)
-2 5

10) y =log2(5 – x)
A B

5 11) y = 5 – 2x

12) y = 3x – 2
-2

C D
4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 30
The adjacent graph represents the function
y
A)𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 ( 𝑥 + 1) − 3
B)𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 ( 𝑥 − 1) + 3
C)𝑓(𝑥) = − log 2 ( 𝑥 + 1) − 3 -1 7
●
● x
D)𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 ( 𝑥 + 1) − 2 -3●
(3, -1)

E)𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 ( 𝑥 + 1) + 2

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 31

The adjacent graph represents the function
y

A)𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 ( 𝑥 − 3) − 2
B)𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 ( 𝑥 − 3) + 1 1– ●
(7, 1)
C)𝑓(𝑥) = − log 2 ( 𝑥 + 3) 3 ●
(5, 0) x
D)𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 ( 𝑥 − 3) − 1
-1 – ●(4, -1)
E)𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 ( 𝑥 − 3)

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 32

The adjacent graph represents the function
y
𝐴)𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 ( 𝑥 − 3) − 2
𝐵)𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 ( − 𝑥 − 3) + 1 -1 1 2 3
 

●
𝐶)𝑓(𝑥) = − log 2 ( 𝑥 + 3) x
-1 –

●
𝐷)𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 ( − 𝑥 − 3) − 1
-2 –

●
𝐸)𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 ( − 𝑥 + 3) − 2

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 33

The adjacent graph represents the function

𝐴)𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 ( 𝑥 − 3) − 2
𝐵)𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 ( − 𝑥 − 3) + 1
𝐶)𝑓(𝑥) = − log 2 ( 𝑥 + 3)
𝐷)𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 ( − 𝑥 − 3) − 1
-3 -2 -1 1
𝐸)𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 ( − 𝑥 + 3) − 2
-1

-2

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 34

The adjacent graph represents the function
y
A)𝑓(𝑥) = log 3 ( 𝑥 − 1) − 2
B)𝑓(𝑥) = log 3 ( − 𝑥 − 1) + 1
1 –
C)𝑓(𝑥) = − log 3 ( 𝑥 − 1)
2
●
D)𝑓(𝑥) = log 3 ( − 𝑥 + 1) − 1 1 x

E)𝑓(𝑥) = log 3 ( − 𝑥 + 1) − 2 -1 – ● (4, -1)

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 35

Find the domain of the following function:
f (x) = ln x + ln (2 – x)

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 36

Find the domain of the following function:
𝑥−1
f (x) = log
3 2−𝑥

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 37

Find the domain of the following function:
f (x) = log|x2 – x|

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 38

Graph the function. State the domain, and asymptote:
y = 1 – log (1 – x) y = |ln x|

4.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 39

 4.3

4.3 PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 1

 Properties of Logarithms
For x > 0, y > 0, a > 0, a ≠ 1, and any real number
r, the following properties hold.
Product Property Quotient Property
𝑥
log 𝑎 𝑥𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 + log 𝑎 𝑦 log 𝑎 = log 𝑎 𝑥 − log 𝑎 𝑦
𝑦

Power Property Logarithm of 1

log 𝑎 𝑥 𝑟 = 𝑟log 𝑎 𝑥 log 𝑎 1 = 0

Logarithm of a log 𝑎 𝑎 = 1
4.3 PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 2
 Caution There is no property of
logarithms to rewrite a logarithm of a sum or
difference.
log3(x ± y)  log3 x ± log3 y

log3(x + 2)  log3 x + log3 2

4.3 PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 3

Expanding a logarithmic expression:
Write the single logarithmic expression as a sum or
difference of two or more logarithmic expressions.
log 2 𝑥 2 𝑦 3 = log 2 𝑥 2 + log 2 𝑦 3 = 2 log 2 𝑥 + 3 log 2 𝑦

Condensing a logarithmic expression:

Write the sum or difference of two or more
logarithmic expressions as a single logarithmic
expression.

2 log 2 𝑥 + 3 log 2 𝑦 = log 2 𝑥 2 + log 2 𝑦 3 = log 2 𝑥 2 𝑦 3

4.3 PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 4

Example 1: Expand each logarithmic expression as much as
possible.
𝑒4
1) ln 2) log b 𝑥 2 𝑦
8

3 𝑥 𝑥 𝑦3
3) log 4) log 𝑏 3
𝑦 𝑧

4.3 PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 5

 3 𝑥2𝑦
5) log 5
25

3
10𝑥 2 1−𝑥
6) log
7 𝑥+1 2

4.3 PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 6

 3 𝑚5 𝑛4
7) log 𝑝
𝑡2

3 4
𝑎 𝑏
8) log 2 3
𝑐 𝑑2

4.3 PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 7

Example 2:Condense each logarithmic expression as much as
possible.
1) 4 ln 𝑥 + 6 − 3ln 𝑥

2) 2 log 𝑏 𝑥 + 3 log 𝑏 𝑦

1
3) ൫log 5 𝑥 + log 5 𝑦) − 2 log 5 𝑥 + 1
2

4.3 PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 8

 4) log 𝑥 + log 𝑥 2 − 1 − log 7 − log 𝑥 + 1

1
5) 2𝑙𝑛 𝑥 + 5 − 𝑙𝑛𝑥 − 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 2 − 4
3

4.3 PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 9

 1 2
6) log 𝑦 𝑝 𝑞 − log 𝑦 𝑝4 𝑞 3
3 4
2 3

2 1
7) − log 5 5 𝑚 + log 5 2 5𝑚2
2
3 2

4.3 PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 10

 3 2
8) − log 3 1 6𝑝 − log 3 8 𝑝3
4
4 3

1
9) 1 + log 2 ( 𝑥2𝑦3) − log 2 ( 𝑥 6 𝑦 4 )
2

4.3 PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 11

 𝑥
10) log 2 𝑥3 𝑦2 3
− 2 log 2 𝑥 𝑦 + 3 log 2 =
𝑦

11) 3 log 2 ( 𝑦 2 𝑧) − 2 log 2 ( 𝑥𝑦 2 ) + log 2 ( 𝑥 3 𝑦𝑧 4 ) =

4.3 PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 12

Change-of-Base Theorem

For any positive real numbers x, a, and

b, where a ≠ 1 and b ≠ 1, the following
holds. log 𝑥 𝑏
log 𝑎 𝑥 =
log 𝑏 𝑎

log 𝑀 ln 𝑀
log 𝑎 𝑀 = log 𝑎 M =
log 𝑎 ln 𝑎

4.3 PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 13

Example 3: Use common logarithms or natural logarithms and a
calculator to evaluate to four decimal places
log14 87.5 = log π 63 =

4.3 PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 14

Example 4: If log 2 = A and log 3 = C , then write each
expression in terms of A and C

3
log
2

2
log
27

log 1 5

4.3 PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 15

Example 5: If log 2 = A and log 3 = C , then write each
expression in terms of A and C

log 30

9
log
4

20
log
27

4.3 PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 16

Determine whether each equation is true of false. Where
possible, show work to support your conclusion. If the statement
is false, make the necessary changes to produce a true statement.

95) ln 5𝑥 + ln 1 = ln 5𝑥

𝑥−1
99) log 6 ൬ ൰ = log 6 𝑥 − 1 − log 6 𝑥 2 + 4
𝑥 2 +4

4.3 PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 17

92) ln 8𝑥 3 = 3 ln(2𝑥)

93) 𝑥 log 10𝑥 = 𝑥 2

log 𝑥 + 2
98) = log 𝑥 + 2 − log 𝑥 − 1
log 𝑥 − 1

4.3 PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 18

 4.4 Exponential and
Logarithmic Equations

Exponential Equations

Logarithmic Equations

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 1

 Properties of Exponents and Logarithms

If A, B, C > 0, a > 0 and a ≠ 1, then the

following holds.

aB = aC is equivalent to B = C

aB = C is equivalent to B = loga C.

A = B is equivalent to loga A = loga B.

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 2

 solving an exponential equation
1
1) 22𝑥−1 = 32 2) 31−𝑥 =
27

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 3

 solving an exponential equation
1
3) 𝑒 𝑥+4 = 2𝑥 4) 8𝑥+3 = 16𝑥−1
𝑒

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 4

 solving an exponential equation
𝑥−3
5) 6 4 = 6 6) 73x + 4 = 72x − 3

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 5

 solving an exponential equation
𝑥−2 −2𝑥+3
7) 3 = 91−2𝑥 1
8) = 81−𝑥
4

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 6

 solving an exponential equation by using logarithm
1) 10𝑥 = 3.91 2) 3𝑒 5𝑥 = 1977

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 7

 solving an exponential equation by using logarithm
3) 𝑒 5𝑥−3 − 2 = 10,476 4) 7𝑥+2 = 410

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 8

 solving an exponential equation by using logarithm
2
5) 73x + 4 = 12 6) 𝑒 𝑥 = 200

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 9

 7) 32x-1 = 4x+2 8) e2x+1 · e-4x = 3e

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 10

 9) 22𝑥−3 = 51−𝑥 10) 2𝑥+1 = 32𝑥−1

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 11

 Exponential Equation Quadratic in Form:

1) e 2x – 4e x + 3 = 0 2) e 4x + 5e 2x – 24 = 0

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 12

 3) 32𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 2 = 0 4) 9𝑥 − 2 3𝑥+1 = 27

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 13

 𝑒 𝑥 − 7𝑒 −𝑥
5) 𝑒𝑥 + 6𝑒 −𝑥 −5=0 6) =3
2

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 14

 7) 𝑒 2𝑥 − 3𝑒 𝑥 + 2 = 0 8) 𝑒 2𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 − 6 = 0

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 15

9) 𝑒 4𝑥 + 4𝑒 2𝑥 − 21 = 0 10) 34𝑥 − 32𝑥 − 6 = 0

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 16

11) 2𝑥 − 10 ∙ 2−𝑥 + 3 = 0 12) 𝑒 𝑥 + 15𝑒 −𝑥 − 8 = 0

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 17

 solving logarithmic equations
If logb A = logb B , then log2(2x – 1) = log2(x+1)

A=B

If logb A = c , then log2(x3 – 19) = 3

c
A=b

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 18

 Caution Recall that the domain of
y = loga x is (0, ). For this reason, it is
always necessary to check that proposed
solutions of a logarithmic equation result in
logarithms of positive numbers in the
original equation.

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 19

 1) 5 ln 2𝑥 = 20 2) log 3 𝑥 + 6 + log 3 𝑥 + 4 = 1

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 20

3) log 2 𝑥 + 2 − log 2 𝑥 − 5 = 3 4) 2 log 3 𝑥 + 4 = log 3 9

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 21

5)2 log 𝑥 = log 25 6) log(x + 4) – log2= log (5x + 1)

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 22

 7) log2[(3x – 7)(x – 4)] = 3 8) log2(3x – 7) + log2(x – 4) = 3

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 23

 9) log(2𝑥 − 1) = log 4𝑥 − 5 − log(𝑥 − 1)

10) ln(𝑥 − 4) + ln 𝑥 + 1 = ln(𝑥 − 8)

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 24

 11) log(2 − 6𝑥) + log 𝑥 + 8 = 2

12) log(𝑥 − 2) + log 𝑥 + 1 = 1

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 25

 1
13) log 5 (𝑥 − 20) − log 5 =3
𝑥

log 5 (𝑥 − 20) + log 5 𝑥 = 3

log 5 (𝑥 2 − 20𝑥) = 3
𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 = 53 = 125
𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 − 125 = 0
𝑥 − 25 𝑥 + 5 = 0
𝑥 = 25, 𝑥 = −5
𝑥 = −5 𝑟𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑.
25 is the only solution

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 26

14) log 3 ( − 𝑥) + log 3 ( 6 − 𝑥) = 3

15) log( 𝑥 + 5) + log( 𝑥 − 2) = log( 12𝑥)

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 27

16) log2(x + 3) = log2 x + log2 3 17) 3log2 x = (log2 x)3

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 28

Application Exercises
103. The formula 𝐴 = 37.3𝑒 0.0095𝑡 models the population of
California, A, in millions, t years after 2010.

a. What was the population of California in 2010?

b. When will the population of California reach 40 million?

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 29

 The function 𝑃 𝑥 = 95 − 30 log 𝑥 models the percentage 𝑃(𝑥), of
students who could recall the important features of a classroom lecture
as a function of time, where x represents the number of days that have
elapsed since the lecture was given.
The figure below snows the graph of the function. Use this information
to solve Exercises 117,118. Round answers to one decimal place.

117. After how many days do only half the

students recall the important features of the
classroom lecture?
(Let P (x) = 50 and solve for x.) Locate the point
on the graph that conveys this information.

x 4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 30