Received 6 October 2024, accepted 2 November 2024, date of publication 5 November 2024, date of current version 13 November 2024.

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3491904

A Reality Check on Maglev Technology for the

Hyperloop Transportation System: Status
Update After a Decade of Development
JONAS KRISTIANSEN NØLAND , (Senior Member, IEEE)
Department of Electric Energy (IEL), Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), 7034 Trondheim, Norway
e-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Ten years ago, the concept of the hyperloop vacuum train promised to revolutionize
transportation by offering a fast, inexpensive, and eco-friendly alternative to traditional modes of travel.
The key components of the hyperloop are a vacuum tube, magnetic levitation, and linear electric propulsion
technology, which are envisaged to achieve surface velocities approaching the speed of sound. This paper
presents the functionalities of an ideal hyperloop transportation system (HTS) with a low-cost track and
lightweight hyperloop capsule. It is shown that this ideal system is indeed difficult to achieve in reality.
Despite the potential benefits, hyperloop technology lacks experimental evidence at subsonic speeds to reach
a higher level of technological readiness. Taking one step back, the hyperloop has lessons to learn from the
maglev research and experiments in the 1970s. In fact, there are many unresolved challenges associated with
maglev technologies, even at moderate speeds, that need to be recognized before reaching the whole way
into the subsonic speed domain. This paper provides a status update after ten years of hyperloop research
and development.

INDEX TERMS Maglev, transportation electrification, electric propulsion, linear reluctance motor (LRM),
linear induction motor (LIM), electromagnetic suspension (EMS), electrodynamic suspension (EDS).

I. INTRODUCTION develop a more efficient mass transportation system that can

Vacuum transportation has a fascinating, long-forgotten address future sustainability goals and also be cost-justifiable.
history dating back over two centuries to when George A decade ago, there was a great deal of excitement
Medhurst, an English inventor, proposed moving through surrounding hyperloop technology as a promising solution
tunnels of thin air [1]. Despite Medhurst’s visionary ideas, for passenger and cargo transportation. Hyperloop has since
some of them were met with ridicule, as expressed through received criticism for being a rebranding of a 200-year-old
satirical art [2]. It was not until a century later that Robert idea [6]. Despite numerous feasibility studies published since
Goddard proposed airless tunnels assisted by magnetic then, the development of hyperloop technology is still in its
levitation (maglev) [3]. At that time, the bullet train was infancy. What has been accomplished is merely a fraction of
already viewed as an engineering blunder by Imperial College what was initially intended. Several years ago, the European
Professor Rod Smith [4]. Even though many nowadays Commission launched calls for hyperloop projects with the
consider the modern rail as outdated, it is, in reality, difficult goal of achieving technology readiness level 6 (TRL6) in
to beat the low rolling resistance of the high-speed rail [5]. Europe by the end of the decade. This goal contradicts
The competing maglev solutions need to expend significant the fact that many hyperloop developers initially promised
power to provide levitation. In fact, it is quite challenging to a fully functional commercial system by now. In reality,
climbing the technology-readiness chain has proven to be
The associate editor coordinating the review of this manuscript and more challenging than anticipated. The TRL system is
approving it for publication was Derek Abbott . an international classification that determines the stage of
2024 The Authors. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
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J. K. Nøland: Reality Check on Maglev Technology for the Hyperloop Transportation System

development of a technology, with TRL 1 representing basic

technological principles and TRL 9 indicating that the system
has been tested in an operational and functional environment.
At TRL 6, one or more hyperloop prototypes are expected to
be validated in a relevant environment by 2030.
The transportation sector’s emissions in the EU have
increased by 33 % since 1990, whereas other industries, such
as agriculture and manufacturing, have reduced emissions
by 32 % [7]. This trend underscores the importance of
adopting sustainable mobility solutions to address the climate
crisis. To reduce travel-related emissions by 90 % by 2050
[8], the EU has identified hyperloop as a key strategic
solution [9]. Because the hyperloop is envisioned to be fully
electric, it is considered a clean mobility technology [10].
Despite its potential, the intensive infrastructure requirements
of the hyperloop pose significant challenges. Nevertheless,
Europe has a robust hyperloop presence in both industry and FIGURE 1. Required acceleration distance as a function of target speed
academia and is poised to take a global leadership role [11], for different acceleration levels using eq. (1). 1.0 G refers to the
[12], [13], while there are also a lot of important work going gravitational acceleration of 9.81 m/s2 .

on in the US and in Canada as well. Nonetheless, the most

competitive maglev competences exist in countries such as TABLE 1. Reported hyperloop test track speed records.
Japan and China. Therefore, it would be of great benefit to
transfer more of this knowledge to hyperloop developments.
Hyperloop developers have been struggling to find the
optimal maglev solution for hyperloop transportation, and
limited efforts have been made to test them under relevant
conditions to mature their TRL, which is a major focus of
this perspective paper.
Currently, the maximum commercial speed records for
high-speed rail and maglev technologies are 349 km/h (CR Since Elon Musk proposed the hyperloop route from
Hexie) and 428 km/h (Shanghai Transrapid), respectively Los Angeles to San Francisco in 2013 [15], several other
[14]. Nevertheless, high-speed rail has reached 574 km/h hyperloop demonstration projects have been suggested.
(TGV) and maglev has achieved 603 km/h (L0 series) [14]. These include HyperloopOne’s route from Chicago to
The present article provides the following information. Columbus to Pittsburg, TransPod’s Calgary to Edmonton, and
First, different hyperloop developers and their recent activ- HyperloopTT’s Dubai to Abu Dhabi.
ities are briefly described. Second, the key objectives of Some companies have recently shifted their focus from
an ideal scalable hyperloop system will be discussed. passenger transport, with cargo as a supplement, to freight
Subsequently, the opportunities and importance of deliv- logistics only. For instance, Hyperloop One, an early
ering a sub-scale laboratory demonstrator for maturing entry in the field, downscaled its ambitions for passenger
the hyperloop’s core technologies are presented before transportation in 2022 and dismissed half of its employees
a brief literature review of recent research is presented. [16]. In 2023, it was announced that HyperloopOne will
Finally, the paper concludes with a future technology completely shut down its activity [17]. Although they were
outlook. able to build prototypes in the Nevada desert, they still
had doubts that they could solve their major engineering
challenges.
II. STATUS UPDATE FROM HYPERLOOP DEVELOPERS Early in 2024, it was reported by the South China
The Hyperloop concept has been developed by eleven major Morning Post that the state-owned aerospace company
companies worldwide. They are mostly located in Europe and China Aerospace Science and Industry Corporation (CASIC)
North America, as shown in Table 3. Their target subsonic had reached a record-breaking speed of 623 km/h with
speeds range between 700 km/h and 1200 km/h, approaching the T-Flight train in 2023 on a full-scale 2-kilometer test
the speed of sound, and they usually consider route distances track within a low-vacuum tube [18], [22]. The track was
up to 1500 km. The number of passengers per capsule is designed extremely precise flatness and and geometry of
also an open question, as larger vehicles will generate more 3 mm tolerance in a six meter wide tunnel. CASIC aims to
throughput, whereas smaller vehicles will be easier to design extend the track length to 60 kilometers in the second phase to
but will have to compensate for shorter headways between reach up to 1000 km/h and with a long-term goal of reaching
each capsule. 2000 km/h, which is beyond the speed of sound.

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TABLE 2. Key hyperloop developers worldwide and their general performance targets.

European hyperloop currently needs to catch up to Asia. it requires auxiliary support wheels during take-off and
In Veendam, September 9th, 2024, Hardt Hyperloop reported landing. By making the capsule energy-autonomous and
that their vehicle moved smoothly through the first 90 meters self-propelled, infrastructure costs along the track can be
of the 420-meter long European Hyperloop Center (EHC) significantly reduced, because only passive components are
facility at a speed of almost 30 km/h, with an acceleration of required. This solves the scalability problem of the current
0.2 G [21]. The next key milestone is to reach 80–100 km/h in hyperloop solutions. Moreover, the subsonic electrodynamic
a low-pressure environment while also testing their peculiar levitation of this configuration has low magnetic drag energy
lane-switching solution, which is expected to be completed at sufficiently high subsonic speeds [25]. However, even
in the upcoming year. The current European hyperloop speed though the magnetic drag tends to be low at higher speeds,
record was achieved by TUM Hyperloop in 2019, reaching it must not be confused with the fact that the power
463 km/h in the SpaceX Hyperloop Pod Competition [19]. consumption of the levitation system still increases at higher
Table 1 lists a summary of reported test track speed records. speeds.
To understand the required acceleration distance (s) needed As an idealized system, the concept of a self-propelled,
to reach a certain speed target (v), eq. (1) express this relation energy-autonomous hyperloop solution depicted in Fig. 2 is
with respect to the acceleration (a). challenging to realize. An easier technical solution would be
based on the concept of the ‘track as a propulsor’, which is
v2 similar to the classical German Transrapid maglev system
s= (1)
2a [26]. However, this approach has already been deemed a
Fig. 1 plots the required acceleration distances, showing high commercial failure owing to the exorbitant initial cost of track
sensitivity to the acceleration. With 1.0 G in acceleration, infrastructure [27], which was far too expensive to pay back.
6 km is needed to reach the speed of sound. Please note that Initially, some hyperloop companies pursued the ‘track as
the track length would also need to be longer than that to a propulsor’ approach again, which enables a lightweight
consider deceleration. capsule that can be developed more quickly but at the expense
In addition to the hyperloop developers listed in Table 3, of scalability (e.g., Hardt Hyperloop’s original design).
there are also other initiatives facilitating hyperloop research Recent research has also reflected this trend. However,
and development. These include the Hyperloop Development a major challenge with this approach is the inability to
Program (HDP) [23], which is a public-private partnership continuously utilize the infrastructure-intensive track because
and an ecosystem bringing together more than 25 companies the headway between capsules cannot be lower than 30 s [28].
and research institutes throughout Europe that collaborate With a cruising speed of 1000 km/h, 30 s headway implies
to develop the hyperloop. Under this program, the EHC that there is more than 8 km of unutilized track between each
is an open testing facility for technology demonstration in capsule. Thus, the utilization of the infrastructure is indeed
Groningen, Netherlands [24]. very low.
An alternative idea is to propose an aerodynamic propul-
III. FUNCTIONALITIES OF AN IDEAL sion system onboard the capsule to address the scalability
HYPERLOOP SYSTEM problem (as initially proposed by Zeleros); however, this
Departing from the hyperloop status update in the last approach is ineffective owing to the high design pressure and
section, Fig. 2 outlines the objectives and key features excessive air inside the tube. In fact, the optimal pressure
of a scalable hyperloop concept that uses onboard linear levels for the hyperloop being are in the range from 0.11 % to
electromagnetic propulsion and electrodynamic suspension. 1.70 % of the atmospheric level [29]. In the case of Zeleros’s
This design eliminates the need for active track components aerodynamic propulsion [30], the drag is up to a hundred
to maintain levitation while the capsule is in motion, although times higher than the ideal range. The only remaining

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FIGURE 2. Highlights of the key objectives of a passive guideway hyperloop transportation system.

TABLE 3. Overview of two passive track design options to ensure a scalable hyperloop transportation system imagined in Fig. 2.

TABLE 4. Major challenges with the two passive track design options in Fig. 2 and Table 3.

option is a solution based on the idealized system shown capsule and the other with a capsule floating over the track.
in Fig. 2. Option 1 is the solution proposed by Hardt Hyperloop [32],
Two examples of passive track design are shown in employing an LSRM. Hardt’s concept was pioneered in
Fig. 3 to illustrate the challenges in building a scalable the 1970s and revisited by Swissmetro in the 2000s [33],
hyperloop concept. These passive guideway design examples [34]. Important studies in this area include Levi (1973) [35],
(options 1 and 2) use either a linear synchronous reluctance Slemon [36], and Boldea et al. (1988) [37]. A test setup in
motor (LSRM) or double-sided linear induction motor Canada investigated a 3-pole homopolar linear synchronous
(DS-LIM) as the primary propulsion component during motor on a 2-meter diameter rotary wheel test setup. It was
cruising, where key technologies are listed in Table 3. Both found that there are overly high eddy current losses at high
options minimize track electrification, but require significant speeds when solid poles are used [36], which emphasizes the
onboard battery storage. Table 4 summarizes the challenges need for laminations, as is required for the LSRM.
with both options. Option 1’s main drawbacks are that it requires laminations
The two passive guideway concepts shown in Fig. 3 along the track, requires vertical support, and does not
have different capsule arrangements: one with a hanging take advantage of ground support. With an electromagnetic

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FIGURE 3. Two proposed low infrastructure solutions depicted in cross-sectional and side view [26], [31], [32].

suspension system (EMS), the guideway needs to be elevated be published for the newly developed hyperloop technolo-
into a track roof, which significantly increases infrastructure gies. High-speed maglev vehicle studies were conducted by,
support costs, as the load-bearing weight cannot be directly for example, Japan Airlines, in which a double-sided LIM
transferred to the ground. was operated up to 300 km/h [40]. The US and West-German
Option 2 also faces significant challenges in terms of governments also heavily supported double-sided LIM-based
cost. If one compares it with the simplicity of high- maglev test vehicles [41]. In adittion, the Transrapid 04 uses
speed rail, option 2 needs to wrap around the guideway, a double-sided LIM [42].
making it extremely expensive compared to high-speed Previous studies have shown that the pole pitch of the linear
rail. There are also challenges with respect to finding a induction motor should be increased when operated at higher
lane-switching solution for the system. The mechanical speeds to counteract the end-effect, which greatly degrades
support of the vertical plate of the linear induction motor the thrust at high speeds. The normal forces also start to
will also be structurally challenging and costly to maintain. become an issue for the LIM at high speeds. LIMs would
Very small angular dimensional tolerance inaccuracies will likely need to be many meters long to operate in the subsonic
be catastrophic. The use of a vertical plate makes cornering speed range of approximately 1000 km/h, which might be
extremely difficult to achieve when operating with a required impractical. To operate a double-sided LIM at subsonic
long linear motor [38], [39]. speeds several unresolved challenges must be overcome:
Another issue with option 2 is that the LIM topology is 1) First, it is mechanically difficult to build aluminum
typically used for low-to-medium speed propulsion, such sheets to stay precise vertically and maintain very small
as 110 km/h. In fact, an immense amount of research was airgap over many kilometers, as slight angle deviations
conducted on LIMs and double-sided LIMs in the 1970s and cause airgap changes.
the early 1980s for high-speed transportation, which seems to 2) Second, lane-switching or cornering is a major issue
have been forgotten as they are not frequently cited [40], [41], when considering long double-sided LIMs,
[42], [43], [44]. Since the pioneering theoretical research 3) Third, the wrap around and elevated guideway designed
of Professor Laithwaite in the 1970s [38], [39], practical for very tight tolerances will be extremely cost
advances in the use of LIMs in transportation have been prohibitive to build.
modest. 4) Fourth, the successful demonstration of a high-speed
For example, General Electric conducted high-speed tests LIM design is yet to be achieved.
of the DS-LIM up to 483 km/h using a 2-meter diameter These myriad mechanical and electrical issues were not
rotating disks [45]. Such laboratory studies do not appear to solved in the 1970s and the 1980s at speeds of 400 km/h to

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FIGURE 4. Levitation and propulsion record player test rigs for assessing hyperloop levitation solutions.

500 km/h, and it will not be easier for higher velocities with justify the much higher costs for use in a maglev system that
even longer double-sided LIMs. Hyperloop developers today also requires laminations to be installed along the girders.
need to be familiar with unresolved issues at lower speeds A path forward would be to first consider these issues from
before pursuing subsonic speeds [41], [42]. the customer’s perspective. If trains do not hang or wrap
Nevertheless, option 2 could achieve energy savings around a girder, why would transit operators now start using
onboard the capsule by utilizing an integrated electromag- such costly designs when they were not adopted in the 1980s?
netic launch system that integrates a permanent magnet linear The design of a passive flat guideway maglev system that can
synchronous motor (PM-LSM) installed on the track. This be integrated into existing infrastructure would likely lead to
additional track motor could be located near the stations and the lowest cost design and, therefore, be more competitive
would leverage the magnetization from the auxiliary hybrid with existing high-speed trains.
electromagnetic suspension during acceleration. Moreover,
the same auxiliary suspension is responsible for stabilizing IV. INNOVATIVE LABORATORY DEMONSTRATORS
the primary electrodynamic suspension during cruising [31]. The current state of research on the electrical domain of
With respect to this issue, several control algorithms are hyperloops is quite limited. Even though there have been
proposed to stabilize the levitation under variable load some small-scale concept demonstrations at lower speeds
conditions and disturbances [46], [47]. [48], hyperloop propulsion investigations at relevant subsonic
To establish electromagnetic launch with option 2, coils are speeds are merely simulation-based and not experimental.
distributed along the track to ensure sufficient acceleration For example, Yi et al. studied a multi-megawatt, subsonic
force during the launch segment of the track, while energy hyperloop propulsion system via three-dimensional (3-D)
harvesting using a linear induction motor is possible during electromagnetic finite element analysis (FEA) [49]. They
deceleration or acceleration, providing energy buffering that reported a cruising efficiency of 70 %, and a power factor
meets the charging restrictions of onboard storage. as low as 30 % when operating at 1000 km/h. However, it is
Overall, owing to the inherent drawbacks of option 2, worth noting that this was just a simulation study and that
option 1 appears to be a more competitive solution. However, the assumption of an ultra-high track conductivity will cause
the costs are still perceived to be excessive, considering that heating and likely structural problems along the guideway.
track laminations must be installed on the track roof or the A similar simulation work was done for the hyperloop
vehicle must wrap around the track, as in the case of option 2. suspension [50]. Other hyperloop feasibility studies have
There are good infrastructure cost reasons that have prevented been limited to analytical analysis, system modeling and sim-
the widespread use of suspension trains (trains that hang from ulation, and miniaturized-scale experiments at low surface
or wrap around a track structure). Therefore, it is difficult to speeds [51].

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FIGURE 5. Record-player test setup and the high-speed, 483-km/h, double-sided LIM from general electric in 1975 [45].

TABLE 5. Rotational speed as a function of outer surface velocity for a disk with a diameter of 1.77 m based on eq. (2).

To address these hyperloop knowledge gaps, experimental on a 0.5-km DevLoop track outside Las Vegas; they only
testing techniques should be developed at subsonic speeds reached a top speed of 161 km/h [59]. These test tracks
(≥ 700 km/h). Time- and space-saving laboratory approaches were too small to evaluate all the hyperloop performance
are required to test the key electromagnetic components characteristics. To achieve a hyperloop speed of 800 km/h
at relevant cruise and top speeds approaching the speed with a 1 G acceleration, a linear track of at least 4 km would be
of sound. If successful, it can provide experimental evi- needed, not considering the distance needed for braking. For
dence to support claims of feasible technical performance a more realistic acceleration of 0.1 G or 0.2 G, the required
through magnetic suspension, guidance, and electromagnetic acceleration distance is at least 39 km or 19 km, respectively.
propulsion technologies at subsonic speeds. An example of To avoid the need for a long track, a rotary test bench
a laboratory demonstrator suitable for testing propulsion, approach is proposed to approximate the real application,
guidance, and levitation technologies is shown in Fig. 4. as shown in Fig. 4. In this approach, the track surfaces
These types of wheeled designs have been previously are transformed into the outer edges of the rotary disks in
used to study maglev prototypes [52], [53], [54], [55]. two record player arrangements. Using this setup, subsonic
Earlier research investigated surface velocities between 300 testing can be conducted in a safe, space-efficient, cost-
and 500 km/h while hyperloop targets even higher speeds. effective, and convenient manner within the limitations of
Argonne Labs established a testing platform facility, as shown small-scale laboratories at university facilities. Additionally,
in the 1990s [56], [57], [58], but the testing was conducted the testbench can be reused for rapid prototyping of EDS
only at much lower operating speeds. Recently, Hyperloop levitator or DS-LIM primary. Although the proposed labora-
companies have published testing reports. For example, Hardt tory arrangement has a stationary lift ski and propulsor while
Hyperloop reported a similar propulsion test rig in 2023 and the track surfaces are in motion, in contrast to real-world
evaluated the performance of their LSRM design at speeds applications, it still replicates the same physical phenomena.
up to 300 km/h [32]. However, the tested speed was not even The benefit of a large disk radius is that the rotational speed
half of their proposed cruising speed. can be reduced for the same tip-speed, resulting in lower
The alternative to using small-scale rotary-based test- centrifugal forces and curvature.
stands is too costly to demonstrate the suspension and As an example, a disk with a diameter of 1.77 meters can
propulsion components at subsonic or near-sonic speeds achieve a tip-speed of 1000 km/h at a rotational speed of
along a long linear test track. One of the most recent linear approximately 3000 rpm, which is the practical high-speed
vehicle high-speed testing demonstrations was conducted by condition of a rotary machine. Eq. (2) expresses the surface
the TU Munchen Hyperloop team in 2019. They achieved a speed (v) as a function of the disc diameter (D) and the
hyperloop speed record of 463 km/h at a pod design com- rotational speed in rotations per minute (n).
petition under low-pressure tube conditions without human
passengers. In October 2020, Hyperloop One conducted its n
first human test with the Pegasus XP-2 two-passenger pod v = πD (2)
60

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TABLE 6. Specifications of general electric’s high-speed, double-sided linear induction motor (LIM) test setup from 1975 [45].

Table 5 shows how the disk’s rotational velocity impacts the of hyperloop is in its early stages and requires further
outer surface velocity for the 1.77-m diameter disc. development. While European governments have a high
Assume s turbulent flow with a 1.77-m diameter disk interest in the hyperloop, efforts to develop the hyperloop
rotating 3000 rpm in open air. The air density (ρ) is 1.2 kg/m3 in the US are more based on private funding. This funding
and the air kinematic viscosity (v) is 1.5 · 10−5 kg/ms. appears to be reducing as the commercial and cost prospects
Approximately 11.8 kW of power (P) is needed to overcome for the hyperloop become less clear [16].
the air drag for a disk with a thickness (L) of 10 cm according
to eq. (3) [60]. It is a significant amount of power needed but
V. REVIEW OF RECENT RESEARCH
still feasible to achieve at a space-limited lab facility.
While hyperloop during the last decade has been concen-
1 trated around student competitions and hyperloop startup
P= CρLπ 4 D4 n3 (3)
864000 companies, the research has been limited. However, Table 7
shows that technical research has started to take off within
It is important to note that the electromagnetic behavior
different technical segments, including tube and capsule
of the subsonic experimental devices in Fig. 4 is similar
design, propulsion, suspension, guidance, communication,
with or without the soft-vacuum conditions proposed for the
wireless charging, power system integration, etc. IEEE
hyperloop. Therefore, a vacuum chamber is not required to
journals and magazines focus on all technical aspects except
evaluate the electromagnetic performance. However, without
tube and capsule research, which are usually reported in other
vacuum, significant power consumption is required to spin
aerodynamic journals outside of the IEEE.
up the disk and sustain its surface velocity, resulting in extra
power consumption. At reduced pressure, convective heat
transfer is replaced by radiation. VI. CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK
It is worth noting that the experimental approach presented After a decade of hyperloop development, there are still
in Fig. 4 is challenging to implement owing to the difficulty significant basic research needs that must be addressed to
in balancing rotors at such high angular speeds. Nevertheless, mature hyperloop’s key maglev technologies. The literature
the types of general test platform facilities shown in Fig. 4 conducted review in this paper shows that the technical
would enable the testing of core hyperloop components at research is catching up with the hyperloop developments
much higher speeds (including subsonic and beyond) within that were initiated a decade ago. Nevertheless, the technical
a limited laboratory environment. Moreover, they can be used research tends to be isolated and addresses different subsys-
to test alternative emerging passive propulsion and levitation tems, and more interdisciplinary research would therefore
concepts, such as electrodynamic wheels (EDWs) [40]. be essential to take hyperloop research a step further.
General Electric’s high-speed test setup reached 483 km/h In particular, it is worth noting that many of the magnetic and
with a rotational speed of 631 rpm. Its key specifications are electromagnetic cost challenges faced and never addressed
listed in Table 6 and it is depicted in Fig. 5. An example of one by classical maglev approaches are going to be even more
of the largest reported maglev rotary test wheels was built in challenging when hyperloop maglev vehicles operate at
Canada with a 7.6-meter diameter, but it only reached surface subsonic surface speeds. Moreover, there are significant cost
velocities of up to 100 km/h [57], [58], and superconducting challenges to achieving a scalable hyperloop transportation
magnets were also used in the experimental studies, which system with a passive track infrastructure, as highlighted by
have also been a recent focus [74], [75]. two potential options presented in this paper. The solutions
Although many theoretical studies and simulations have that most hyperloop companies and research focus on today
been conducted on hyperloop propulsion and suspension might not end up being the most competitive solution to
technologies, experimental proof of their core concepts at realize, as the technical challenges that are faced at lower
subsonic speeds remains lacking. However, one conceptual demonstration speeds are not comparable to those faced at
fast wireless charging test setup for hyperloop has been the target speeds.
developed [78]. Developing realistic test setups that can There has been significant hyperloop development in
be conducted in a space-limited laboratory is essential to Europe, while maglev competencies are mostly based in
test these technologies. According to a 2018 innovation Asia, who also reports the most impressive hyperloop
report from the UK [83], critical short-term research and demonstrations. Therefore, knowledge transfer is deemed
development needs for hyperloop include propulsion, lev- essential for dealing with significant technical and cost
itation, energy storage, and thermal management, as well challenges in realizing a hyperloop transportation system
as the need for adequate testing facilities. Furthermore, the at the desirable target speeds. Moreover, there is a lot of
report highlights that electrotechnical research in the field basic experimental research from the 1970s and the 1980s

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TABLE 7. Review of technical hyperloop research reported in the literature.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT [9] S. D. Keersmaecker and S. Meder, ‘‘Sustainable and smart
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