2 hours, HLT500

9am Tuesday
Calculator

Question 1
OSI model vs. TCP (10 Marks)
https://www.guru99.com/difference-tcp-ip-vs-osi-model.html
https://www.guru99.com/difference-tcp-ip-vs-osi-model.html
https://ztrkouzhan.medium.com/tcp-ip-model-13ad80e44171
OSI model layers
The difference between Straight Through and Cross Over Cable
https://www.guru99.com/difference-between-straight-through-crossover-cables.html#:
~:text=Straight%2Dthrough%20cables%20are%20mainly,Router%20and%20Computer
%20to%20Computer.

Straight Through Cross Over

Straight-through cable is a type of CAT5 A Crossover cable is a type of CAT

with RJ-45 connectors at each end, and where one end is T568A configuration,
each has the same pin out. and the other end as T568B
Configuration.
 It is one of the most commonly used It is used only for certain applications.
cable formats for network cables.

Straight-through cable Pin connection is Pin 1 is crossed with Pin 3, and Pin 2 is
one-to-one crossed with Pin 6

are mainly used for connecting crossover cables are mostly used for
non-similar devices connecting similar devices

connects a computer with a DSL Connects Router to Router and

modem Computer to Computer.

Question 2 (20 Marks)

⁠Subnetting ipv4
https://forums.techarena.in/networking-security/1407066.htm?s=e69965a8df63ea954c
3d243fd22357f1

Question 3 (30 Marks)

IPV6 address types (6 Marks)
https://study-ccna.com/types-of-ipv6-addresses/
https://networklessons.com/ipv6/ipv6-address-types

Unicast Multicast Anycast

represents/identifies a Identifies multiple interfaces Shared address

single interface.
Uniquely identifies an represents a dynamic group of Identifies a group of networks
interface on an ipv6 hosts. Packets sent to this interfaces (usually on different
address address are delivered to many nodes).
Packets addressed to a interfaces. For example, servers that support
unicast address are the same function can use the
delivered to a single host. For example, all routers on the same unicast IP address. Packets
link (one-to-many distribution) sent to that IP address are
forwarded to the nearest server.
Used in one to many Anycast addresses are used for
communication scenarios. load-balancing. Known as
 “one-to-nearest” address.

IPv6 multicast addresses start An anycast address specifies a

with FF00::/8. set of interfaces, possibly at
different locations, that all share a
They should only be used as single address. A packet sent to
destination addresses, never as an anycast address goes only to
source addresses. the nearest member of the
anycast group.

Used as either destination or

source address of ipv6 packets

Unicast
global unicast unique local link local

used on public They are used in private These addresses are used for
networks. networks and aren’t sending packets over the local
routable on the Internet. subnet.
similar to IPv4 public Communication over a single link,
addresses have a similar function as Scope is local link
IPv4 private addresses. Only within a network segment to
they are routable on the which a host is connected
internet Used on the intranet,
cannot access public Routers do not forward packets with
designed for use on any networks this addresses to other subnets.
network IPv6 requires a link-local address to
They are not allocated by be assigned to every network
an address registry and interface on which the IPv6 protocol
are not meant to be is enabled.
routed outside their
domain. Not routable
They are mostly used for
Routable on LAN auto-address configuration and
neighbour discovery
These addresses are
reserved for local use in
home and enterprise These addresses are used on a
environments and are not single link or a non-routed common
public address space. access network, such as an Ethernet
LAN. They do not need to be unique
 These addresses might outside of that link. Link-local
not be unique, and there addresses may appear as the source
is no formal address or destination of an IPv6 packet.
registration. Routers must not forward IPv6
packets if the source or destination
contains a linklocal address.
Packets with these Link-local addresses may appear as
addresses in the source the source or destination of an IPv6
or destination fields are packet. Routers must not forward
not intended to be routed IPv6 packets if the source or
on the public Internet but destination contains a linklocal
are intended to be routed address.
within the enterprise or
organisation. these addresses only work on the local
link, we never route these addresses.
These addresses are used to send and
receive IPv6 packets on a single
subnet.

They have a prefix of These addresses have a These addresses have a prefix of
2000::/3, (all the prefix of FD00::/8. FE80::/10.
addresses that begin
with binary 001).

These addresses are Link-local addresses are A host can automatically derive its
assigned by the IANA automatically configured own link-local IP address, or the
on all interfaces. address can be manually configured.

2000::/3 - 3FFF FC00::/7 - FDFF FE80::/10 - FEBF

fdf8:f53b:82e4::53 fe80::200:5aee:feaa:20a2

Unspecified Loop back

This address may only be This address is used when a

used as a source address host talks to itself over IPv6.
by an initialising host before This often happens when
it has learned its own one program sends data to
address. another.
indicates the absence of
an address and it can The loopback address is
never be assigned to a used by a node to send a
host. packet to itself.
It can be used by an IPv6
host that does not yet Is a unicast localhost
have an address address
 assigned to it. For
example, when the host Data packets sent ::1/128
sends a packet to are actually sent to local
discover if an address is end
used by another node, the
host uses the unspecified Used for loop back test of
address as its source local protocol stacks
address.

::/128 ::1/128

0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1.

IPV6 compression (8 Marks)

https://www.whatsmydns.net/ipv6-shorten?q=0066%3A0006%3A0007%3A6777%3A88
09%3A9090%3A0000%3A0000

Rule-1: When only 0 (zero) is available in a field then it is removed from

the IPv6 address notation.

IPv6 = FE82:1234:0:1235:1416:1A12:1B12:1C1F

After compression,
IPv6 = FE82:1234::1235:1416:1A12:1B12:1C1F

Rule-2: When continuous 0s (zeros) are available in IPv6 address notation

then all zeros are replaced by ::
IPv6 = FE82:0:0:0:0:1A12:1234:1A12

After compression,
IPv6 = FE82::1A12:1234:1A12

Rule-3: When zeros are present in discontinuous places then at only one
junction, 0s (zeros) are replaced by ::.
IPv6 = 2001:1234:0:0:1A12:0:0:1A13

After compression,
IPv6 = 2001:1234::1A12:0:0:1A13
or
= 2001:1234:0:0:1A12::1A13

Unspecified Address: When in hexadecimal notation of IPv6 all fields are

0. It is denoted by ::.
:: = 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0

Loop Back Address: When in hexadecimal notation of IPv6 all fields are 0
except the last field and last field value is 1. It is denoted by ::1.
::1 = 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1

Consider the fully expanded address:

2001:0DB8:0000:0000:0000:FF00:0042:8329
The address is now: 2001:DB8:0:0:0:FF00:42:8329
The address is now: 2001:DB8::FF00:42:8329

0066:0006:0007:6777:8809:9090:0000:0000 in shortened form:

66:6:7:6777:8809:9090::

IPV6 subnetting (16 Marks)

https://itfreetraining.com/handouts/ipv6/subnetting-manually.pdf

https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=1143610049047463

https://community.infosecinstitute.com/discussion/64513/any-good-ipv6-subnetting-h
owtos

https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/previous-versions//bb726997(v=technet.10)?redirect
edfrom=MSDN#ECAA

Question states you need to configure IPV6 addresses on all computers in

network. A global address prefix is assigned as 3FFA:FF2B:4D:B000::/51. You
have to assign a subnet to four departments. Which subnetted address prefix
will you assign to the fourth department?

F = B000 (the hexadecimal value of the subnet ID being subnetted otherwise

known as the starting subnet)
n = 4 (number of subnets required)
s = 2 (the number of bits you are using for subnetting)
m = 51 (the prefix length of the address prefix being subnetted)
f = m - 48 OR 51 - 48 = 3

i = 2^16-(f+s)

i is the incremental value between each successive subnet ID.

Hence i = 2^16 - (3 + 2) or 2^11 = 2048 (800 Hex)

Hence first subnet is F = B000
Second subnet = B000 + 800 = B800
Third Subnet = B800 + 800 = C000
Fourth Subnet = C000 + 800 = C800

The net subnet prefix of course if the existing prefix (51) plus the number of
bits required to add 4 new subnets which was 2 OR
51 + 2 = 53

My example is subnetting 2001:DB8:ACAD::/48 into /64.

1. Work out the number of bits used for subnetting by subtracting the current prefix
length from the desired prefix length. So, 64-48 = 16 subnetting bits.
2. Work out the number of subnets possible given the subnetting bits by taking 2 to the
power of the subnetting bits. So, 2^16 = 65,535 possible subnets.
3. Work out the number of hexits (hex digits) represented by the subnetting bits by
dividing the number of subnetting bits by 4 and rounding up to the next integer. The
resulting number denotes where we increment the subnets. So, 16/4 = 4 hexits.
Therefore, we increment the subnets in the 4th hexit following the D in the example
prefix above.
4. Work out how to increment the subnets by finding the binary equivalent of the
subnetting bits and subtracting it in decimal form from 16 (I don't know why it's 16). So,
the binary equivalent of 16 bits is 11111111 11111111. We then take the first 4 bits (or
nibble) which is 1111 or 15 in decimal. 16-15 = 1, meaning the subnets will increase by
1 in the 4th hexit following the D.
5. Increment the subnets in the correct hexit.

2001:DB8:ACAD::/64

2001:DB8:ACAD:0000::
2001:DB8:ACAD:0001::
2001:DB8:ACAD:0002::
...
2001:DB8:ACAD:FFFF::

https://blogs.infoblox.com/ipv6-coe/fun-with-ipv6-subnetting/
The allocation we’ve received is 2001:db8:3eff::/48
Let’s assume we’re going to need 16 subnets for each building. This
first group of prefixes will not require our method as we simply
adhere to the 4 bits of the first nibble boundary.

This gives us 16 prefixes enumerated by the first character of our fourth block:

2001:db8:3eff::/52
2001:db8:3eff:1000::/52
2001:db8:3eff:2000::/52
2001:db8:3eff:3000::/52
.
.
.
2001:db8:3eff:F000::/52

Now let’s say for the sake of illustration that our typical campus
building uses 20 VLANs.

Since the least number of bits that produces an integer value greater than 20 is 5
(2^5 = 32) we’ll use 5 bits to subnet our /52 prefix.

First, by:

a = p – 48 # where p = prefix length of the parent subnet and a = number

of fixed bits in the subnet ID

From our example:

a = 52 – 48 = 4

a=4

So we have 4 bits that are fixed (which we already knew but the value is
used in later formulae).

Next, by:

s=2^b # where s = subnets created and b = bits used to subnet

s = 2 ^ 5 = 32

s = 32
As we outlined above, we’ll create 32 subnets using 5 bits.

Next, by:

i = 2 ^ 16 – (a + b) # where i = the (decimal) increment value between the

created subnets (which we must convert back to hexadecimal)

i = 2 ^ 16 – (4 + 5) = 2 ^ 16 – 9 = 2 ^ 7 = 128

i = 128

Converted to hexadecimal:

i = 0x80

Finally, by:

p_1 = 48 + a + b # where p_1 = the prefix length of the created subnets

p_1 = 48 + 4 + 5 = 57

So now that we know the increment and prefix length value we can
enumerate the new subnets:

2001:db8:3eff::/57
2001:db8:3eff:80::/57
2001:db8:3eff:100::/57
2001:db8:3eff:180::/57
.
.
.
2001:db8:3eff:F80::/57

Et voila: Our 32 new subnets.

how many /64 interface subnets would each of these /57s provide?
By:

n = 2 ^ (64 – p_1) # where n = number of /64 subnets provided by each

new subnet
n = 2 ^ (64 – 57) = 2 ^ 7 = 128

So each /57 will provide us with 128 /64 interface subnets.

https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/previous-versions//bb726997(v=technet.1
0)?redirectedfrom=MSDN#ECAA

Your Internet Service Provider sells you the IPv6 network of

2001:1111:2222::/48. Your company has a total of one hundred (100) broadcast
domains so you decide to divide this network into IPv6 subnets using the
technique of same-length subnet masking.

Your plan is to start with Subnet-Zero as your first subnet, and to have as few
networking bits as possible per subnet so you can maximize your quantity of
hosts-per-subnet.

Given above-mentioned design, which of the IPv6 networks below represents

the twenty-eighth (28th) IPv6 subnet?

Either way, for 100 networks, you need to borrow additional 7 bits, extending the
prefix length from /48 to /48+7 = /55. This will actually create 128 new subnets
SSSS SSSH HHHH HHHH
0000 0000 0000 0000 = 0x0000 => 2001:1111:2222:0000::/55 (1st)
0000 0010 0000 0000 = 0x0200 => 2001:1111:2222:0200::/55 (2nd)
0000 0100 0000 0000 = 0x0400 => 2001:1111:2222:0400::/55 (3rd)
0000 0110 0000 0000 = 0x0600 => 2001:1111:2222:0600::/55 (4th)
0000 1000 0000 0000 = 0x0800 => 2001:1111:2222:0800::/55 (5th)
... and so on.
Since all zeros is the first subnet, the 28th subnet is 27x2 =
54 = 0x36, so 2001:1111:2222:3600::/55.

extend the prefix length from /48 to /64, yielding 65536 possible subnets,
2001:1111:2222:0000::/64 for the 1st subnet
2001:1111:2222:0001::/64 for the 2nd subnet
2001:1111:2222:0002::/64 for the 3rd subnet
...
2001:1111:2222:001b::/64 for the 28th subnet (0x1b = 27 since we're numbering from 0)

if you have an IPv6 address of 2001:db8:abcd:1234::1/64

This will create four subnets with network prefixes of
2001:db8:abcd:1234:0::/66,
2001:db8:abcd:1234:4000::/66,
2001:db8:abcd:1234:8000::/66, and
2001:db8:abcd:1234:c000::/66.
https://community.cisco.com/t5/networking-knowledge-base/ipv6-
subnetting-overview-and-case-study/ta-p/3125702
Question 4 (20 Marks)
Stating Routing.
Topology IPV4

Question 5 (20 Marks)

Routing Protocols
OSPF
VLAN
STP
https://www.networkstraining.com/distance-vector-vs-link-state-protocols/

Distance Vector Link State

Sends entire database Sends link state information
Bandwidth required is less due to Bandwidth required is more due to
local sharing, small packets and no flooding and sending of large link
flooding. state packets.

Based on local knowledge, since it Based on global knowledge, it have

updates table based on information knowledge about entire network.
from neighbours.

Slow convergence Fast convergence

Traffic is less Traffic is more.

Resource usage low Resource usage high

Knowledge of the network from Routers have a complete view

directly connected neighbors the network
Structure is flat Structure is hierarchical
Simple to configure Hard to configure
Dos not know the network Knows the entire network
topology topology
Susceptible to routing loops Less susceptible to routing
loops
Broadcasts for updates sent Multicast for updates sent
Count of infinity problem No count of infinity problem.

Frequent updates Event triggered updates

Path calculation: hop count Path calculation: shortest path
metric
Working tables: route table Route, topology and neighbor
table
Routing tables Link State Advertisements
Make use of Bellman Ford Algorithm Dijkstra algorithm
E.g. RIP, IGRP E.g OSPF, IS-IS
Examples of distance vector routing
protocols include:

Routing Information Protocol

(RIP) – uses only hop count as the
measure of distance

Interior Gateway Routing

Protocol (IGRP) – uses multiple
metrics for each route including
bandwidth, delay, load, and
reliability. It is currently considered
obsolete and should not be
implemented in production
networks.

Enhanced Interior Gateway

Routing Protocol (EIGRP) – often
called an “advanced distance
vector routing protocol,” which
sends only incremental updates
which reduces the workload on the
router and the amount of data to be
transmitted
Link-state and distance-vector routing protocols are two different approaches to achieving
the same goal: exchanging routing information and determining the best paths for forwarding
packets through a network. Here are the key differences between them:

1. **Algorithm Type**:
- **Link-State**: Link-state routing protocols, like OSPF and IS-IS, use the Dijkstra
algorithm to calculate the shortest path to each destination based on a complete view of the
network topology. Each router maintains a database of link-state advertisements (LSAs)
describing its directly connected links, and floods these LSAs to other routers in the network.
Routers then use the collected LSAs to build a complete map of the network and calculate
the shortest path to each destination.
- **Distance-Vector**: Distance-vector routing protocols, like RIP and EIGRP, use the
Bellman-Ford algorithm to iteratively exchange routing information with neighboring routers.
Each router maintains a routing table listing known destinations and the distance (cost) to
reach them. Routers periodically broadcast their entire routing table to neighboring routers,
which then update their own tables based on received updates. This process continues until
convergence is achieved.

2. **Routing Table Updates**:

- **Link-State**: In link-state routing, routers flood link-state advertisements (LSAs) to all
other routers in the network when there is a change in the network topology. Each router
then independently calculates the shortest path tree based on the received LSAs.
- **Distance-Vector**: In distance-vector routing, routers periodically broadcast their entire
routing tables to neighboring routers, regardless of whether there are changes in the network
topology. This can lead to more frequent updates and increased overhead, especially in
larger networks.

3. **Convergence**:
- **Link-State**: Link-state routing protocols converge relatively quickly because routers
have a complete view of the network topology and can independently calculate the shortest
path to each destination.
- **Distance-Vector**: Distance-vector routing protocols may experience slower
convergence, especially in larger networks, due to the iterative nature of routing table
updates and the potential for routing loops. Techniques like split horizon and poison reverse
are used to mitigate routing loops, but they can still occur, causing longer convergence
times.

4. **Scalability**:
- **Link-State**: Link-state routing protocols tend to scale well in large networks because
they provide a more accurate view of the network topology and allow for hierarchical design
with multiple areas.
- **Distance-Vector**: Distance-vector routing protocols may suffer from scalability issues
in larger networks due to frequent updates and the potential for routing loops. Techniques
like route summarization and route filtering can help alleviate these issues, but they may not
be as effective in very large networks.

In summary, link-state routing protocols provide a more accurate view of the network
topology and converge quickly, making them suitable for larger and more complex networks.
Distance-vector routing protocols are simpler and easier to implement but may suffer from
slower convergence and scalability issues in larger networks. The choice between them
depends on factors like network size, complexity, and performance requirements.