Chapter One

Overview of programming

2
 Introduction
o Computer is an electronic device that accepts data, performs
computations and makes logical decisions according to instructions that
have been given to it;

o Then produces meaningful information in a form that is useful to the user.

o Computer system has two major components: hardware and software

3
o Computer programs, software programs, or just programs are the

instructions that tells the computer what to do.

o Computer programming (programming or coding) is the process of

writing, testing, debugging/troubleshooting, and maintaining the source

code of computer programs.

o A computer program consists of two elements:

o Code – action

o Data – characteristics

o Computer programs (also know as source code) is often written by

professionals known as Computer Programmers.

o Source code is written in one of programming languages.

4
 Programming Language
o A programming language is an artificial language that can be used

to control the behavior of a machine, particularly a computer.

o Programming languages, like natural language, are defined by

syntactic and semantic rules which describe their structure and

meaning respectively.

o The syntax of a language describes the possible combinations of

symbols that form a syntactically correct program.

o The meaning given to a combination of symbols is handled by

semantics.
5
 Cont…

For example:

#include <iostream.h>

int main() {
cout << "Hello Ethiopia!\n“;
return 0;
}

6
 Levels of Programming Language
o A main purpose of programming languages is to provide instructions to a

computer.

o Available programming languages come in a variety of forms and types.

o Programming languages can be divided in to two major categories:

 Low-level languages (Machine and Assembly language)

 High-level languages
o There are 3 types of programming language:

 Machine language
 Assembly language
 High level language

7
 Machine Languages
o Computers only understand one language and that is binary language or the

language of 1s and 0s.

o Binary language is also known as machine language, one of low-level languages.

o It is understood by the computer without translation

o It is written as strings of 1 and 0

 Advantage:

 Executed very fast by the computer.

 Limitation:

 It is machine dependent

 It is difficult to program

 It is error prone

8  It is difficult to modify
 Assembly Language
o It correspondences symbolic instructions and executable machine codes

and was created to use letters (called mnemonics) to each machine

language instructions to make it easier to remember or write.

Example: ADD A, B – adds two numbers in memory location A and B

o The assembly language must be translated to machine code by a separate

program called assembler.

o The machine instruction created by the assembler from the original

program (source code) is called object code.

o Thus assembly languages are unique to a specific computer (machine).

o Assemblers are written for each unique machine language.

9
 Cont…
o Advantages Assembly Machine

 Easier to understand and use

 Easy to locate and correct errors

 Easier to modify

o Limitations

 Machine dependent

 Knowledge of hardware required

 Machine level coding

o Machine and assembly Language being machine dependent are referred to as

Low Level Languages.

10
 High-level Languages
 High-level languages are more English-like and, therefore, make it easier

for programmers to "think" in the programming language.

 They permitted a programmer to ignore many low-level details of the

computer's hardware.

 Closer the syntax, rules, and mnemonics to "natural language“.

 They are symbolic languages that use English words and/or mathematical

symbols instead of mnemonics.

 For the translation purpose we do have compilers and interpreters.

11
 Cont…
o Advantage

 Machine independence

 Easy to learn and use

 Fewer errors

 Easier to maintain

o Limitation

 Lack of flexibility

12
 Cont…
o High-level languages also require translation to machine language

before execution.
o This translation is accomplished by either a compiler or an

interpreter.
 Compilers translate the entire source code program before execution.

 Interpreters translate source code programs one line at a time.

Interpreters are more interactive than compilers.

E.g. FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator), BASIC (Bingers All Purpose Symbolic

Instruction Code), PASCAL, C, C++, Java, C#, python etc..

13
 The Compiler vs Interpreter
 Compiler
o Can diagnose the following kinds of errors

 Illegal characters
 Illegal combination of characters
 Improper sequencing of instructions in a program
o But it can‟t diagnose logical errors .

 It translate the whole program

Interpreter
 Translate line by line.
 Can diagnose logical errors
 The advantage of an interpreter over a complier is fast response to
changes in the source program.
14
 Basic Elements of Programming
o What is C++?

o C++ is a case-sensitive, general-purpose, object-oriented

programming language.

o C++ is an extension of C programming language.

o C++ includes all the elements of the C language plus it has

additional features for working with objects, classes, events and

other object oriented concepts.
o C++ is one of the various high level programming languages by

which we can write computer instructions.

15
 Cont…
 We use the Integrated Development Environment (IDE) of C++, like Turbo C++

or Borland C++, and Quincy to develop programs using this language.

 C++ programing Features

o Simple
o Machine Independent or Portable

o Rich Library: C++ inbuilt functions makes the development fast.

o Memory Management: supports the feature of dynamic memory

allocation

o Speed: The compilation and execution time of C++ language is fast.

o Pointer: C++ provides the feature of pointers.

16
 cont..
o Recursion: Provides code reusability for every function

o Extensible: C++ language is extensible because it can easily adopt

new features.
o Object Oriented: C++ is object oriented programming language.
o Compiler based: C++ is a compiler based programming language

17
 C++ Basic Elements
o A token is the smallest independent unit of meaning in a program, as

defined by the compiler.

o There are different types of tokens:

 Identifiers
 Variables
 Keywords  Constants
 Literals  Operators

 Data types  Escape characters

o Tokens should be separated by white space to make the source code more

readable.

o White space includes blanks, horizontal and vertical tabs, new lines, form

18 feeds, and comments.

 Keywords (reserved words)
o These reserved words may not be used as constant or variable or any

other identifier names.

o Reserved/Key words have a unique meaning within a C++ program.

o These symbols, the reserved words, must not be used for any other

purposes.
o All reserved words are in lower-case letters.

o The following are some of the reserved words of C++.

19
o

20
 Identifier

oAn identifier is name associated with a function or data object

and variables used to refer to that function or data object.
oA C++ identifier is a name used to identify a variable, function,
class, module, or any other user-defined item.
oAn identifier must:
oUse upper and lowercase letters, and the digits from 1 to 9.
oIdentifiers can be as long as you like, but most compilers will
only recognize the first few hundred characters.
oStart with a letter or underscore
oNot be a reserved word
21
 Literals
o Literals are constant values which can be a number, a character of a

string.
o For example the number 129.005, the character „A‟ and the string “hello

world” are all literals.

o There is no identifier that identifies them.

Comments
o A comment is a piece of descriptive text which explains some aspect of

a program.
o Program comments are totally ignored by the compiler and are only

intended for human readers.

22
 Basic Data Types
o When you define a variable in C++, you must tell the compiler what

kind of variable it is.

– This information tells the compiler how much room to set aside

and what kind of value you want to store in your variable.

o Several data types are built into C++.

– The varieties of data types allow programmers to select the type

appropriate to the needs of the applications being developed.

23
o The data types supported by C++ can be classified as basic

(fundamental) data types, user defined data types, derived data

types and empty data types.

o Basic (fundamental) data types in C++ can be conveniently divided

into numeric and character types.

o Numeric variables can further be divided into integer variables and

floating-point variables (real numbers).

o Both the numeric data types offer modifiers that are used to vary the

nature of the data to be stored.

o The modifiers used can be short, long, signed and unsigned.

24
 C++ Data Types and Ranges

25
 Variables
o A variable is a symbolic name for a memory location in which data can

be stored and subsequently recalled.

o Variables are used for holding data values so that they can be utilized in

various computations in a program

o All variables have two important attributes:

– Type: Once defined, the type of a C++ variable cannot be changed.

– Value: The kind of values a variable can assume depends on its type.

o Variables in C++ are given names by the programmer, the way he/she

thinks it is meaningful and that it reflects clearly what it represents in the

program.
1-26
 Constants
 There are two types of constants in C++: literal and symbolic constants

o Literal constants

 These are values typed directly into the program when they are needed

and they can be numbers, characters or strings.

int num = 35;

char char_var = „a‟;

35 and „a‟ above are literal constants.
 Note that character constants use single quotation marks around.

 There are also string constants which use double quotation marks.

1-27
  Symbolic Constants
 C++ introduces the concept of a named constant that is just like a

variable, except that its value cannot be changed.

 The qualifier const tells the compiler that a name represents a

constant.
 Any data type, built-in or user-defined, may be defined as const.

 If you define something as const and then attempt to modify it,

the compiler will generate an error. Example:

const float PI = 3.1416;

const double SALESTAX = 0.05;

const int MAXNUM = 100;

1-28
 Operators
o Operators are symbols that tells the compiler to perform specific

mathematical or logical operations.

o These operators work on either a single or two operands and so can be

called either unary or binary based on the number of their operands

respectively.

o The followings are C++ operators for specific purpose.

Assignment

Arithmetic

Relational

Logical
29
Increment/ decrement operators
 Assignment Operators (=)
o The assignment operator is used for storing a value at some memory

location (typically denoted by a variable).

o Its left operand should be an lvalue (left value), and its right operand may

be an arbitrary expression.
– The latter is evaluated and the outcome is stored in the location denoted

by the lvalue.
– An lvalue is anything that denotes a memory location in which a value

may be stored.
o The assignment operator has a number of variants

=, +=, -=, *=, /= etc.

30
 Cont..

31
 Arithmetic Operators
o C++ provides five basic arithmetic operators.

o Except for remainder (%) all other arithmetic operators can accept a mix

of integer and real operands.

– Generally, if both operands are integers then the result will be an

integer. However, if one or both of the operands are real's then the result

will be a real (or double to be exact).

o The remainder operator (%) expects integers for both of its operands.

– It returns the remainder of integer-dividing the operands.

32
 Cont..

33
 Relational Operators
o C++ provides six relational operators for comparing numeric quantities.

o Relational operators evaluate to 1 (true outcome) or 0 (false outcome).

34
 Logical Operators
o C++ provides three logical operators for combining logical expression.

o Like the relational operators, logical operators evaluate to 1 or 0.

o Logical negation is a unary operator, which negates the logical value of its

single operand.
– If its operand is nonzero it produces 0, and if it is 0 it produces 1.

35
o Increment/Decrement Operators
o The auto increment (++) and auto decrement (--) operators provide

a convenient way of, respectively, adding and subtracting 1 from a

numeric variable.

o When used in prefix form, the operator is first applied and the

outcome is then used in the expression.

o When used in the postfix form, the expression is evaluated first and

then the operator applied. Example: int k=5;

36
 Escape operators
o The backslash causes an “ escape ” from the normal way characters are

interpreted and there are some basic characters that we use in escape sequence
i.e. preceding them with a backslash.

o Escape sequences are usually used with string constants that are sent to the cout.

37
Examples:

cout<<”This is a line \n and this is too.”;

The above statement outputs:

what is the out put?

cout<<”\” Run, John, run, \”she said .”;

The output looks like

what is the output?

38
 Precedence of Operators

o The order in which operators are evaluated in an expression is significant

and is determined by precedence rules.

o These rules divide the C++ operators into a number of precedence levels.

o Operators in higher levels take precedence over operators in lower levels.

o We can force an expression to be evaluated first by placing the bracket ( )

around it.

39
40
 Expressions and Statements
o Expression is any statement or part of a statement that evaluates to a value

(returns a value) as a result of computation.

o A statement may have one or many expressions.

o Expressions are made up of sequences of operators, operands in the form of

constants and variables, and punctuators, which specify a computation as per the
rules of the underlying language

o Their arrangement should in a correct syntax.

o Expressions are evaluated based on the operators they contain and the context in

which they are used.

o An expression ending with a semicolon (;) is called a statement.

o Statements specify the action(s) that the program performs.

41
  Input / Output Statements
o The most common way in which a program communicates with the
outside world is through simple, character-oriented Input / Output
(IO) operations.

o C++ provides two useful operators for this purpose: >> for input and
<< for output. Example
 #include <iostream.h>
 int main() {
 int a, b, sum;
 cout << “Enter number a:” << endl;
 cin>>a;
 cout << “Enter number b: “ << endl;
 cin>>b;
 sum = a+b;
 cout << “sum is: “ << sum << endl;
42
 return 0; }
 Control statements
o Flow control in a program is sequential, from one

statement to the next, but may be diverted to other paths

by branch statements.

o Declaration statements are used for defining variables.

o Assignment-like statements are used for simple,

algebraic computations.

o Branching statements are used for specifying alternate

paths of execution, depending on the outcome of a logical

43
condition.
 Cont..
o Loop statements are used for specifying computations, which

need to be repeated until a certain logical condition is satisfied.

o Jumping statements are used to divert the execution path to

another part of the program.

44
 Conditional Statements
o Selection statements are used for specifying alternate paths of execution,

depending on the outcome of a logical condition

o The conditional expressions are mainly used for decision making.

o The following statements are used to perform the task of the conditional

operations.
if statement

If-else statement

else-if statement

Nested if –else statement

Switch statement

45
 if statement
o The if statement is used to express conditional expressions.

o If the given condition is true then it will execute the statements

otherwise skip the statements.

o The general form is:

if (conditional expression) {

statement-1;

statement-2;

……… STATEMENT-N

o The expression is evaluated and if the expression is true the statements will be executed.

o If the expression is false the statements are skipped and execution continues with the

next statements.
46
 Example: write the program To check percentage of a student and display pass if it is greater than

50.

#include <iostream.h>

int main() {

float percent;

cout<<"Enter your percentage: ";

cin>>percent;

cout<<" You scored "<< percent << “ %"<< endl;

if (percent>=50) {

cout<<"Congratulation: You have passed";

return 0;

}
47
 if - else statement
o It is a two way branching statement.

o It is similar to if statement but the only difference is if the condition is false then

a different block of statements are executed which is inside else statement.

o The Syntax of if-else statement:

if (condition)
{
statements;
... ... ...
}
else
{
statements;
... ... ...
48 }
 Cont..
//write the program to Checking even/odd numbers
#include<iostream.h>
int main () {
int n;
cout<<"Enter a Number: " ;
cin>>n;
if (n%2= =0)
{
cout<<n<<" is Even!"; }
else
{
cout<<n<<" is Odd!"; }
return 0;
}

49
 else-if statements
o It used when there are two or more conditions that needs to be checked to

decide which block of statement is to be executed.

o Syntax of else-if statement

if (condition 1) {
statements;
}
else if (condition 2) {  Thus control will be transferred out of the entire nest once
statements;
a true condition is encountered.
}
else if (condition n) {  The final else clause will be apply if none of the exp is
statements; true.
}
 The number of else if statements depends upon the number
else {
statements; of conditions to be checked.
}
50
 Cont..
 When a logical expression is encountered whose value is true the
corresponding statements will be executed and the remainder of the nested
else if statement will be bypassed.

Fig: flow chart of

else-if statements

51
 example

52
 Nested if-else statement
o It is possible to nest if-else statements, one within another.

o There are several different form that nested if-else statements can

take.

o An if statement inside another if statement is known as nested if

statements.

o Nested if statements are used if there is a sub condition to be

tested after one condition has been checked.

o The depth/number of nested if statements depends upon the

number of conditions to be checked.

53
 Cont…

54
 Cont..

55
//Demo to check even no. and divisible by 5 else
#include <iostream.h> {
int main() { if (n%5 == 0)
int n;
{
cout<<"Enter a number: ";
cout<<"Number is not even
cin>>n; but divisible by 5";
if (n%2 == 0) }
{ else
if (n%5 == 0)
{
{
cout<<"Number is not even
cout<<"Number is even and divisible by 5"; and not divisible by 5";
} }
else { }
cout<<"Number is even but not divisible by 5";
return 0;
}
}
}​
56
 switch statement
o The switch statement provides a way of choosing between a set of

alternatives, based on the value of an expression.

o The general form (Syntax) of the switch statement is:
switch (expression)
{
case Constant1:
statements;
break;
case Constant2:
statements;
break;
default:
statements;
break;
57
}
o First expression (called the switch tag) is evaluated, and the outcome is compared

to each of the numeric constants (called case labels), in the order they appear, until

a match is found.

o The statements following the matching cases are then executed.

o Execution continues until either a break statement is encountered or all intervening

statements until the end of the switch statement are executed.

o The final default case is optional and is exercised if none of the earlier cases

provide a match.

 Rules for Switch Statements

 Values for 'case' must be integer, Boolean or character constants.

 The order of the 'case' statements is not more obligatory.

 The default clause may occur first (convention places it last)

58
 If-else vs. switch statements

59
60
61
 Looping Statements
o Looping is a way of repeating a series of instructions several times
to execute a block of statements.

o A loop allows to execute a statement or block of statements

repeatedly.

o The statements in the block may be executed any number of times,

from zero to infinite number.

o If a loop continues forever, it is called an infinite loop.

o In looping, a sequence of statements are executed until some
conditions from the termination of the loop are satisfied

62
 Cont..
 A program loop consists of two statements:
1. Body of the loop

2. Control statements

 The control statement tests certain conditions and then directs the repeated
execution of the statements contained in the body of the loop.

 A looping process, in general, would include the ff. four steps:

1. Setting and initialization of a counter

2. Test for a specified condition for execution of the loop

3. Execution of the statements in the loop

4. Increment/Decrement the counter

63
 Cont..
 Depending on the position of the control statement in the loop, a control
structure can be either as the entry-controlled loop or as exit-controlled loop.

 In entry-controlled loop, the control conditions are tested before the start of
the loop execution.

 In exit-controlled loop, the test is performed at the end of the body of the loop
and therefore the body is executed unconditionally for the first time.

 Three types of loops in C++:

1. while loops

2. do …while loops

3. for loops

64
 While Statement
o The while statement (also called while loop) provides a way of

repeating a statement while a condition holds.

o The general form of the while statement is:

while (expression)

statement;

o First expression (called the loop condition) is evaluated. If the

outcome is nonzero then statement (called the loop body) is

executed and the whole process is repeated.

o Otherwise, the loop is terminated.

65
 o For example: suppose we wish to calculate the sum of all numbers

from 1 to some integer denoted by n.

o This can be expressed as:

i = 1;
sum = 0;
while (i <= n)
{
sum += i;
i++;}
 The while loop is top tested i.e., it evaluates the
condition before executing statements in the body.
66
Then it is called entry control loop.
 //Adding whole numbers from 0 -20
#include<iostream.h>
int main()
{
int i=0;
int sum=0;
while(i<=10)
{
sum+=i;
i++;
}
cout<<"\n\t The Sum is "<<sum;
67 return 0;
 for Statement
o The for statement (for loop) is similar to the while statement,

but has two additional components: an expression which is

evaluated only once before everything else, and an
expression which is evaluated once at the end of each
iteration.

o The general form of the for statement is:

for (expression1; expression2; expression3)

statement;

o First expression1 is evaluated. Each time round the loop,

68 expression2 is evaluated.
 Cont..
o If the outcome is nonzero then statement is executed and expression3

is evaluated. Otherwise, the loop is terminated.

o The general for loop is equivalent to the following while loop:

expression1;

while (expression2)

statement;

expression3;

}
69
o The general form of the for statement is:

for ( expression1; expression2; expression3 )

statement;

70
 Cont..
o The most common use of for loops is for situations where a variable is

incremented or decremented with every iteration of the loop.

o The following for loop, for example, calculates the sum of all integers from

1 to n.
sum = 0;
for (i = 1; i <= n; ++i)
sum += i;

o This is preferred to the while-loop version.

o C++ allows the first expression in a for loop to be a variable definition.

for (int i = 1; i <= n; ++i)

sum += i;
71
 Cont..
o A loop becomes infinite loop if a condition never becomes false.

for (;;)// infinite loop

statements;
//Example of infinite loop
#include <iostream.h>
int main ()
{
for( ; ; )
{
Cout<<"This loop will run forever.\n";
}
return 0;
}

72
 // Demo add the first 10 natural numbers
#include<iostream.h>
int main()
{
int sum = 0;
for (int i=1; i<=10; i++)
{
sum += i;
}
cout<<"the sum is "<<sum<<endl;
return 0;
}

73
 do…while Statement
o The do statement is similar to the while statement, except that its body

is executed first and then the loop condition is examined.

o The general form of the do statement is:

do
statement;
while (expression);
o First statement is executed and then expression is evaluated.

o If the outcome of the latter is nonzero then the whole process is

repeated. Otherwise, the loop is terminated.

o It is useful for situations where we need the loop body to be executed at

least once, regardless of the loop condition.

74
 o For example, suppose we wish to repeatedly read a value and print its square,

and stop when the value is zero.

o This can be expressed as the following loop:

do {

cin >> n;
cout << n * n << '\n';
}
while (n != 0);

o Unlike the while loop, the do loop is never used in situations where it would

have a null body.

o Although a do loop with a null body would be equivalent to a similar while

loop, the latter is always preferred for its superior readability.

75
//example
#include<iostream.h>
int main()
{
int n;
do
{
cout<<"Enter the number "<<endl;
cin >> n;
cout << n * n << "\n";
}
while (n != 0);
cout<<"End of the loop executed!!!";
return 0;
}
76
 //write the program Adding (n) numbers using do-while loop
#include<iostream.h>
int main()
{
int counter=0, sum=0, n;
cout<<"enter the required number"<<" ";
cin>>n;
do
{
sum=sum + counter;
counter=counter+1;
}
while(counter<n);
cout<<"the sum of the number is"<<" "<<sum;
cout<<"end of the do while loop";
return 0;
77
}
 Nested Looping Statements
o Many applications require nesting of the loop statements, allowing on loop

statement to be surrounded with in another loop statement.

o Nesting can be defined as the method of embedding one control structure with

in another control structure.

o While making control structures to be reside one with in another, the inner and

outer control structures may be of the same type or may not be of same type.

o But, it is essential for us to ensure that one control structure is completely

embedded within another.

78
 //what is the output of the following program?
#include<iostream.h>
int main()
{
int i;
int j;
for(i=5;i>=1;i--)
{
for(j=1;j<=i;j++)
{
cout<<i;
}
cout<<endl;
}
return 0;
}
79
 Jumping Statements
o Jump statements are used to divert the execution path to another part of the

program.

o Jump statements cause an unconditional jump to

another statement elsewhere in the code.

o They are used primarily to interrupt switch statements and loops.

o The followings are the types of jumping statement used in C++ program.

1. Break statements

2. Continue statements

3. goto statements

4. Return statements

80
 Break Statement
o Using break we can leave a loop even if the condition for its end

is not fulfilled.

o It can be used to end an infinite loop, or to force it to end before

its natural end.

o When used in a for, while, do-while or switch structures:

 Causes immediate exit from the structure

 Program execution continues with the first statement after the

structure.
 Commonly used to escape early from a loop, or skip the

remainder of a switch structure.

81
 Cont..
// break loop example
#include <iostream.h>
int main ()
{
int n;
for (n=10; n>0; n--)
{
cout << n << ", ";
if (n==3)
{
cout << "countdown aborted!";
break;
}
}
return 0;
}
82
 Continue Statement
o The continue statement terminates the current iteration of a loop and instead

jumps to the next iteration.

o For example, we are going to skip the number 5 in our countdown:

// Continue loop example

#include <iostream.h>
int main ()
{ Output
for (int n=10; n>0; n--)
10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 4, 3, 2, 1,FIRE!
{
if (n==5) continue;
cout << n << ", ";
}
cout << "FIRE!\n";
return 0;
}
83
 goto statement
o goto allows to make an absolute jump to another point in the

program.

o The goto statement provides the lowest-level of jumping.

o The general form:

goto label;
where label is an identifier which marks the jump destination
of goto.

o The label should be followed by a colon and appear before a

statement within the same function as the goto statement itself.

o The destination point is identified by a label, which is then used

84 as an argument for the goto statement.
 //goto example

#include<iostream.h>

void main() {

cout << "\n Statement 1.";

cout << "\n Statement 2."; Output

cout << "\n Statement 3.";
Statement 1.
goto last;
Statement 2.
cout << "\n Statement 4."; Statement 3.

cout << "\n Statement 5."; End of Program.

last:

cout << "\n End of Program.";

return 0;
85
}
 // goto loop example
#include <iostream.h>
int main ()
{
Output
int n=10;
10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1,FIRE!
loop:
cout << n << ", ";
n--;
if (n>0)
goto loop;
cout << "FIRE!\n";
return 0;
86
}
 return Statement
o The return statement enables a function to return a value to its caller.
o The general form/syntax of return statement is:
return expression;
where expression denotes the value returned by the function.
o The type of this value should match the return type of the function.
o For a function whose return type is void, expression should be empty.
return;
o The main function may have return type int.
o The return value of main is what the program returns to the operating system when it
completes its execution.
For example:
#include<iostream.h>
int main (void)
{
cout << "Hello World\n";
return 0;
}
87
88