UNIT IV: (Measurement, Scaling and Sampling)

kl/dfkg, dfkqmd / gd"gf 5gf}6

r/x¿ (Variable)
cg';Gwfg sfo{ ;DkGg ug{sf] nflu cg';Gwfg ljlwsf ljleGg cfjZos r/0fx¿ k"/f
ug'{kb{5 . cg';Gwfgsf] ;d:ofsf] ljZn]if0f ug{ k|ofKt tYofª\sx¿sf] cfjZostf
kb{5 h'g ;d:of;Fu cfa4 x'G5 jf ;DalGwt /xG5 . o:tf tYofª\sx¿ u'0ffTds jf ;ª\
VofTds (Qualitative and quantitaive) b'j} k|sf/df s'g} klg x'g ;Sb5g\ . s'g} u'0f,
ljz]iftf jf tYox¿sf] hfgsf/L lbg] jf k|ltlglwTj ug]{ c+s, tx jf ;+s]tnfO{ kl/jTo
(Variables) elgG5 . cg';Gwfgsf] qmddf ;+sng ul/g] tYofª\sleq klg w]/} k|sf/df
kl/jTo (Variables) x'g ;Sb5g\ . h:t}M hg;ª\Vofdf ;DaGwdf ;+sng ul/g] tYofª\
sdf pd]/, dlxnf, k'?if, k]zf cflb h:tf s'/fx¿ cfpFb5g\ . oL x/]sn] 5'§f5'§} k|
sf/sf] kl/jTo{sf] ;s]t ub{5g\ . km]l/ Pp6} kl/jTo{leq klg To;sf u'0f jf
ljz]iftfsf] cfwf/df ljleGg ¿k b]Vg ;lsG5 . h:t}M pd]/leq jRrf, o'js, k|f}9, a[4
cflb .
sf cg';f/ æs'g kl/df0fhGo ;ª\Vof jf ljz]iftfsf] k|ltlglwTj ug]{ c+s jf
P.V. Young
tx jf ;+s]t g} kl/jTo{ xf] .Æ
cfl>t / :jtGq r/x¿ (Dependent and Independent variables)
s'g} klg ljifodf lgolGqt ¿kdf ul/Psf] k|of]uaf6 k|fKt x'g] ;ª\Vof jf
j:t'nfO{ cGo s'g} ljifo jf j:t'nfO{ cGo s'g} ljifo;Fusf] t'ngfdf l:y/ jf cl:y/
agfpg] k|oTg ul/G5 . to:f k|sf/sf kl/jTo{x¿ b'O{ k|sf/sf x'g ;Sb5g\ . Psy/L
kl/jTo{x¿ cGo kl/jTo{sf] kl/jt{gsf] c;/af6 k|efljt x'Fb}gg\ /
logLx¿nfO{ :jtGq kl/jTo{ (Independent variable) elgG5 . csf]{y/L kl/jTo{x¿ cGo
s'g} kl/jTo{df cfwfl/t x'G5g\ / ltgLx¿sf] cfwf/df kl/jt{g jf l:y/ xs'g]
uB{5g\ . o:tf kl/jTo{x¿ (Variables) nfO{ cfl>t kl/jTo{ (Dependent variable) elgG5 .
h:t}M sf/0f / c;/sf] t'ngf ubf{ sf/0fnfO{ :jtGq kl/jTo{ / c;/nfO{ cfly{s
kl/jTo{sf] ¿kdf lng ;lS5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu cfo cfh{g a9\of] eg] pkef]u klg
a9\5 / cfo cfh{g sd eof] eg] pkef]u klg 36\5 .
To:t} kl/jTo{ jf j:t'sf] PsfOnfO{ s'g} cj:yfdf lglZrt ;ª\VofTds dfgdf JoQm
ug{ ;lsG5 eg] s'g} cj:yfdf ;lsFb}g . ;ª\VofTds dfg x'g] cyjf ;ª\Vofdf JoQm
ug{ ;lsg] kl/jTo{nfO{ ;ª\VofTds kl/jToo{ (Quantitaive variable) elgG5 . ;ª\Vofdf
JoQm ug{ g;lsg] kl/jTo{nfO{ u'0ffTds kl/jTo{ (Qualitative variable) elgG5 .
h:t}M cfDbfgL, hg;ª\Vof, ef}lts ;fwg cflb ;ª\VofTds kl/jTo{ x'g\ eg]
/fhg}lts dxTj hgtfsf] :jf:Yo lzIffsf] u'0f:t/ cflb u'0ffTds kl/jTo{ x'g\ .
r'gf}ltk"0f{ sfd pTk|]/0ff

:jtGq r/ cfl>t r/
jfXo r/ (Extraneous/Intervening variable)

Prepared by Deepak Basnet 1

afXo r/x? cg';Gwfgdf cfpg] To:tf r/x? x'g\ h;sf] ;DaGw cfl>t
tyf :jtGq r/x?;Fu /x]sf] x'G5 . olb To:tf r/x? cg';Gwfgsf] qmddf dfkg
ul/Pg eg] oL r/x?n] :jtGq / cfl>t r/x?aLrsf] ;DaGwdf ptf/r9fj Nofpg]
sfd ub{5g\ . oL r/x?n] :jtGq / cfl>t r/x?sf] ;DaGwdf k|ToIf c;/
kfb{5g\ .
dWojtL{ r/ (Moderating variables)

;fdfGo ¿kdf x]bf{ cfl>t / :jtGq r/x¿nfO{ sf/0f / c;/sf] ;DaGwdf klg
JoQm ul/G5 t/ Jojxf/df To:tf w]/} ;d:ofx¿ x'g ;Sb5g\ hxfF Pp6f d'Vo r/
t];|f] cb[Zo r/ x'Fbf x'Fb} klg :jtGq r/df lge{/ /x]sf] x'G5 . pQm t];|f]
r/sf] pkl:yltn] ubf{ ltgLx¿aLrsf] ;DaGw ;'wf/ / Jojl:yt ug{ ;lsG5 .
h;nfO{ dWojtL{ r/ (Moderating variable) elgG5 . t;y{ dWojtL{
r/nfO{ cfl>t / :jtGq r/x¿aLrsf] k|s[lt / ;DaGwnfO{ k|fljlws ¿kdf k|
fof]lus q'l6 (Experimental eror) elgG5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu s'g} j:t'sf] pTkfbg
d'Vo ¿kdf pkef]Qmfsf] qmozlQm, :Jfb, z'4tf cflbaf6 d"Nof+sg
ul/G5 . logLx¿ afx]s pTkfbgdf c;/ k'¥ofpg] cGo y'k|} sf/s tTjx¿ -h:t}
pTkflbt j:t'sf] d"No, ahf/df To:t} cGo pTKffbg cflb sf/s tTjx¿ h'g k|
ToIf ¿kdf dfkg ul/Psf x'Fb}gg\_ nfO{ dWojtL{ r/sf] ¿kdf lng ;lsG5 .
pbfx/0fsf] nflu s'g} sDkgLsf] Joj:yfksn] tflnd / pTkfbgsf]
aLrdf ;x;DaGw kQf nufpg cg';Gwfg ubf{ hlt w]/} tflnd k|fKt x'G5
Tolt w]/ pTkfbg a[l4df ;xof]uL x'G5 eGg] lgisif{ lgsfNof] . oxfF
pTkfbg / tflndsf] aLrdf Positive correlation 5 t/ of] ;DaGw s]an Young worker
x¿df dfq ;+ej x'G5 . dfgf}F %) aif{ d'lgsf sfdbf/x¿nfO{ dfq tflnd lbg
plrt 5 . hxfF Training, independent variable xf] . Productivity dependent variable xf] t/
pd]/ (age) nfO{ Intervening variable elgG5 . of] ;Fu;Fu} hldgsf] pj{/f,
ljpsf] :t/ tyf sfo{ 306f afXo r/x? x'g\ .

Productivity Training
Dependent variable Independent variable
Moderating variable
Age of the worker

Extraneous/Intervening variable
Types of land/seed quality/labour hour

kl/dfkgsf] dfkqmd (Scale of Measurement)

k|fljlws ¿kdf (Techincally) eGbf gfk s'g} kIfsf] gSzf+sg ug]{ Ps k|lqmof xf]
h'g s'g} lgodsf] cfwf/df s'g} Ps kIfnfO{ csf]{ kIfsf] cfwf/df t'ngf ul/G5 .
h:t}M wd{sf] cfwf/df xfdL lxGb", lzv cflb eGb5f}F . u'0fsf] cfwf/df /fd|f],
g/fd|f] / c;n, v/fa cflb eGb5f}F . o;k|sf/ kl/dfkg (Measurement) u'0ffTds
tYosf] ;ª\VofTds >]0fLdf kl/jlt{t ug]{ ljlw xf] egL æu'8 P08 xf6Æ (Good and
Hatt) eGb5g\ .

Prepared by Deepak Basnet 2

Jofks cy{df x]g]{ xf] eg] kl/dfkg s'g} 36\gf, tYo jf ljz]iftfsf] :t/ lgwf{/0f
ug{sf nflu c+s k|bfg ug]{ Ps k|lqmof xf] . o:t} qmddf Stevens eGb5g\, "In the
broader sense, measurement is the assignment of numerals and object or events according to rules." o;
kl/efiffaf6 xfdL s] eGg ;Sb5f}F eg] kl/dfkg ;ª\VofTds kl/jTo{x¿df
cToGt} ;lhnf] x'G5 / o;df 36\gf, j:t' jf tYox¿nfO{ Pp6f lglZrt lgodsf]
cfwf/df qmda4 agfpg ;lsG5 .
cg';Gwfg sfo{df ;+sng ul/g] tYofª\sx¿sf] k|s[lt ljleGg lsl;dsf] x'G5 .
To;}n] klg tYox¿sf] kl/dfkg km/s kb{5 . o;sf] cfwf/df xfdL eGg ;Sb5f}F ls
ljleGg tYox¿ kl/dfkg ug{ pkof]u ul/g] oGq cyjf pks/0f jf tl/sfnfO{
kl/dfkgsf] dfkqmd elgG5 . kl/dfkg tYox¿sf] ;ª\VofTds jf u'0ffTds k|s[lts
x]/]/ dfkgsf] Scale km/s x'G5 . kl/dfkgsf dfkqmdx¿nfO{ ltgLx¿sf] ul0ftLo
u'0fx¿sf] cfwf/df ljrf/ ug{ jf lng ;lsG5 . Jofks ¿kdf k|of]u x'g] dfkgsf
dfkqmd -:s]n_ nfO{ lgDgcg';f/ juL{s/0f ug{ ;lsG5 .
-s_ gflds dfkqmd (Nominal scale)

s'g} klg ;fdflhs 36gfsf ;DaGwdf ;ª\VofTds ;++s]t kbfg ug]{ kl/dfkgsf]
dfkqmd (Scale of measurement) nfO{ gflds dfkqmd (Nominal scale) elgG5 . o;sf]
pbfx/0fsf] ¿kdf af:s]6an (Basket ball) sf v]nf8Lx¿sf] ;ª\VofnfO{ lng ;lsG5 .
o:tf] ;ª\Vof ltgLx¿nfO{ lrgfpgsf] nflu k|of]udf Nofpg ;lsG5 . o;n] tL
v]nf8Lx¿sf] qmdnfO{ hgfpg ;Sb}g . gflds dfkqmd s'g} JolQm, j:t' cflb
7Ls af6f]df /fVg] Pp6f ljZj;gLo tl/sf xf] . o;df s;}n] Tof] eGbf sdL jf a9L
agfpg :Sb}g . h:t}M s;}n] km'6an (Football) sf] v]nf8L ;ª\Vof yk]/ jf 36fP/
Pp6f cy{k"0f{ d"No (Meaningful value) k|bfg ug{ ;Sb}g . cyjf Back df /xg]
cf};t v]nf8L ;ª\VofeGbf a9L agfO{ cf}lrTotf k|bfg ug{ ;Sbg} .
-v_ qmlds dfkqmd (Ordinal scale)

qmda4 dfkqmdsf] ;a}eGbf ;fgf] kl/dfkgsf] dfkqmd qmlds dfkqmd (Ordinal

scale) xf] . ;fwf/0f cy{df qmlds dfkqmdn] 36gf, tYo / kl/jTo{nfO{ Ps lglZrt
qmddf ldnfP/ /fVg] sfd ub{5 . o:tf] sfo{ s'g} lglZrt lgodsf] cfwf/df x'G5 /
b'O{ 36\gf, tYo cflbsf] aLrdf ;dfg cGt/ /x]sf] x'G5 . klbs qmd ljz]if u/L
u'0ffTds 36gf;Fu ;DalGwt cg';Gwfg sfo{df k|foM k|of]u ul/G5 . qmlds
dfkqmd (Ordinal scale) n] s'g} kbx¿sf] l:ylt pRrb]lv lgDg (Higher to lower) jf
lgDgb]lv pRr (Lower to higher) ;Dd ldnfpg] sfo{ ub{5 . of] dfkqmdsf] s'g}
lglZrt jf 7Ls d"No x'Fb}g / s'g} b'O{ kbx¿aLrsf] km/s Psgf;sf] gx'g
klg ;Sb5 .
o;k|sf/ qmlds dfkqmdsf] k|of]un] s'g} Ps tYosf] jf egfOsf] ;DaGwdf 7"nf]
jf ;fgf]sf] t'ngf (Comparison) u/L cy{ lbg] sfo{ ub{5 t/ slt 7"nf] jf slt ;fgf]
eGg] s'/f hgfpg eg] ;Ifd x'Fb}g . pbfx/0fsf] nflu 1 / 2 aLrsf] km/s 5 / 6
aLRsf] km/s eGbf w]/} jf yf]/} jf a/fa/ h] klg x'g ;S5 .

Prepared by Deepak Basnet 3

-u_ cGt/fn dfkqmd (Interval sclae)

;fdfGo ¿kdf eGbf gflds dfkqmd / qmlds dfkqmd b'j}sf] ljz]iftf ePsf]
dfkqmdnfO{ g} cGt/fn dfkqmd elgG5 . o:tf] dfkqmdnfO{ gflds dfkqmd
cyjf qmlds dfkqmd b'j}df juL{s/0f ug{ ;lsG5 . o:tf] juL{s/0fdf
b'O{ kbx¿aLrsf] b"/L cyjf cGt/fn (Interval) eg] nueu ;dfg /x]sf] x'G5 . o:tf]
x'gfsf] sf/0f o;df >]0fLsf] juL{s/0f lglZrt lgodsf] cfwf/df ul/Psf] x'G5 .
o;n] ubf{ juL{s/0fn] /fv]sf dfGotfx¿ :jLsfo{ (Accepted) x'G5g\ .
cGt/fn dfkqmdn] juL{s[t >]0fLdf cGt/fnsf] ;dfgtf (Equality) sf] nflu qmlds
dfkqmdeGbf a9L ;Tottf k|bfg ub{5 . cGt/fn dfkqmdnfO{ zlQmzfnL
kl/dfkgsf] ¿kdf lnOG5 lsgeg] o;df tYofª\szf:qLo kl/dfkg (Statistical measurement)
k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 . dWodfg (Median) s]Gb|Lo gfksf] pko'Qm kl/dfkgsf] ¿kdf
lng ;lsG5 / hals k|dfl0fs ljrng (standard deviation) ljR5]bg gfk (Measure of dispersion) sf]
pko'Qm kl/dfkgsf] ¿kdf lnOG5 .
-3_ cg'kftL dfkqmd (Ratio scale)

cg'kftL dfkqmddf kl/dfkgsf] k"0f{ z"Gotf /x]sf] x'G5 . æk"0f{ z"GotfÆ

(Absolute zero) eGg] zAb o;nfO{ h;/L ljZjf; ul/Psf] 5 To:tf] 5}g . csf]{ zAbdf
eGg'kbf{ cg'kftL dfkqmddf cGTo dfkqmd -gflds, qmlds / cGt/fn_ ;dfj]z
/x]sf x'G5g\ . of] dfkqmdsf] gsf/fTds ljGb' /x]sf] x'Fb}g . h:tf] ydf]{ld6/
(Thermometer) df z"Go tfkqmdsf] dfkqmd /xG5 . o;df z"Go dfkqmdsf]
cy{ tfklxgtf (Heatless) eGg] xf]Og . lsgeg] o;sf] tn -50c jf -2000c ;Dd dfkqmd /xg
;Sb5 .
;fdflhs 36gfsf ef}lts jf ;ª\VofTds u'0fx¿ ePsf tYox¿df o:tf] dfkqmd ;Dej eP
klg dfgjLo k|a[lQ / wf/0ffut tYox¿sf] dfk ug{ eg] ;lsFb}g . od;f juL{s/0f /
leGgtfsf] :yfkgf ug{ ;lsG5 . OsfO{x¿aLrdf ;dfg b"/L jf cGt/fn sfod ug{ klg
;lsG5 . Tolt dfq geO{ o;df hf]8 / 36fp ;d]t ug{ lsG5 eg] u'0fg / efu
klg ;Dej /G5 . ljleGg dfk cg'kftsf] ¿kdf klg ug{ ;lsG5 .
o;/L cg';Gwfgdf kl/dfkgsf nflu ljelGg k|sf/sf dfkqmdx¿ k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 .
dfly pNn]v ul/Psf kl/dfkgsf dfkqmddf gfldsb]lv cg'kftL
dfkqmd;Dd ;"Rgfsf] ljZj;gLotf qmdzM a9]sf] kfOG5 . csf]{lt/ cj:yf, tYofª\
sx¿sf] k|s[lt cflbsf] k|s[ltnfO{ x]/]/ klg cg';Gwfgstf{ cfkm"n] s'g rflxF
dfkqmd k|of]u ug{ a9L ljZj;gLotf x'G5 eGg] s'/fsf] lgSof}{n ug'{kb{5 .
cg';Gwfgstf{n] ef}lts lj1fgdf kl/jTo{x¿nfO{ cg'kftL dfkqmdåf/f JofVof
ug'{ kmfObfhgs x'G5 eg] Jojxfl/s lj1fgdf ;fdfGotofM cGt/fn dfkqmdåf/f
JofVof ug'{ pko'Qm x'g hfG5 .
kl/dfkgsf uNtLsf ;|f]tx¿ (Sources of Error in Measurement)

cg;Gwfgdf kl/dfkgdf k"jf{u|x/lxt (Prejudiceless), lgikIf / ljZj;gLo

(Impartial) (Reliable)
x'g'kb{5 . To;}n] cg';Gwfg p2]Zod"ns /xf];\ eGgfsf nflu

Prepared by Deepak Basnet 4

cg';GWfgstf{ To;sf ;Defljt e"nx¿af6 hf]lug] k|of; ug'{ /fd|f] x'G5 . kl/dfkg
sfo{df b]vfkg{ ;Sg] e"nsf ;|f]tx¿ (Sources) tn n]lvP adf]lhd x'g ;Sb5 M
-s_ pQ/bftf (Respondents): cg';Gwfgsf] qmddf tYofª\sx¿ ;+sng ubf{ s'g}
s'g} gsf/fTds s'/fx¿sf] af/]df ;"rgf lbg pQ/bftf (Respondent)
lxlRsrfpg ;Sb5 . o;af6 olb p;n] oyfy{ s'/fx¿ n'sfP/ ;Lldt tYo jf ;"rgf (Data
or information) pknAw eof] eg] cg';Gwfgstf{ cfkm"n] rfx]sf] h:tf]
cg';Gwfgsf] p2]Zo k|fKt ug{ ;lSb}g . To:t} pQ?bftfx¿ sltko cj:yfdf
oyfy{ eGbf klg cg'dfgsf] e/df pQ/x¿ lbg k|of; ug{ klg ;Sb5g\ . o;n] klg
cg';Gwfgsf] nIo k|flKtdf c;/ k'¥ofpg ;Sb5 . To;}n] cGt/jftf{sf] ;dodf
pQ/bftfsf] sdhf]/Lsf sf/0f kl/dfkgsf nflu unt s'/f k|fKt x'g ;Sb5 .
-v_ kl/l:ylt (Situation): kl/dfkgsf] k|lqmofdf c;/ ug{sf nflu kl/l:ylt klg Ps k|d'v
tTjsf] e"ldsf v]Ng ;Sb5 . cGt/jftf{ tyf tYofª\s ;+sng (Interview) or data
collection) sf] ;dodf ljBdfg kl/l:yltn] ;fIffTsf/stf{ / pQ/bftfsf] k|Zgf]Q/ jf
cGt/lqmofdf uDeL/ c;/ ug{ ;Sb5 . olb s'g} JolQmsf] af/]df pQ/bftfn]
hfgsf/L lbg' k/]sf] 5 / Tof] JolQm;Fu ;DalGwt s'g} kl/l:ylt ePsf p;n]
cfjZos / oyyf{ s'/f? geg]/ cyjf p;Fu zq'tf gxf];\ eGg] ;f]+r /fv]/
sfo{ ug{ ;Sb5 . o;n] klg kl/dfkgsf] pko'Qmttf xfl;n x'g ;Sb}g .
-u_ kl/dfks (Measurers): ;fIffTsf/stf{ cfkm}Fn] pQ?bftfnfO{ k|Zg ug{ ghfg]/
cyjf x/]s k6s bf]xf]¥ofP/ k|Zg ubf{ km/s lsl;dsf] tYox¿ jf ;"rgfx¿ k|fKt
x'g ;Sb5g\ . p;sf] z}nL, x]/fO{, pT;fx cflbn] klg ;"rgfx¿sf] k|flKtdf
dxTjk"0f{ e"ldsf v]n]sf] x'G5 . axf];L, oflGqs Joj:yfkg, k|lqmof cflbn]
klg tYofª\s k|fKt ug]{ s'/fx¿df c;/ ul//x]sf] x'G5 . unt c+sg, tflnsLs/0f,
unt tYofª\sLo xnsf] sf/0f klg kl/dfkg unt x'g ;Sb5 . To;}n] kl/dfks
cfkm\g} sf/0fn] klg kl/dfkgdf e"n x'g ;Sb5 .
-3_ ;fwg jf cf}hf/ (Instrument): unt ;fwg jf cf}hf/sf] k|of]uaf6 ul/g] dfkg
sfo{df klg e"n b]vf kb{5 . hl6n zAbsf] k|of]u pQ/bftfsf] af]weGbf
aflx/sf k|Zgx¿sf] k|of]u, c:ki6 n]vfO{ jf 5kfO{, pQ/sf nflu sd 7fpF,
pQ/ 5gf]6sf] 5'6 gePsf] cflb k|fljlws jf ;fwgsf] cefj ePdf klg kl/dfkgdf
e"nsf] l:ylt /xg ;Sb5 .
o;}n] cg';Gwfgstf{n] 7Ls k|sf/sf] kl/dfkgdfly ;"lrt ul/Psf
e"nx¿nfO{ Wofgdf /fvL kl/dfkg sfo{ ;DkGg u/]sf] v08df ;To kl/0ffd k|fKt
x'g ;Sb5 . p;n] ;s];Dd dfly pNn]v ul/Psf sdhf]/Lx¿ jf e"nsf ;|f]tx¿ x6fpg] k|
of; ug'{ w]/} /fd|f] x'G5 .

dgf]j[lQ dfkg (Atittude Measurement)

dflg;n] s'g} 36gf, j:t' jf cGo s'/fx¿sf af/]df tof/ u/]sf] / JoQm u/]sf]
wf/0ffnfO{ dgf]j[lQ (Attitude) elgG5 . ;fdflhs lj1fgdf dflg;sf Jojxf/ Pjd\
36gfx¿sf af/]df cWoog ug'{x'g] x'G5 . To;}n] o:tf s'/fx¿sf] cWoogsf nflu

Prepared by Deepak Basnet 5

dgf]a[lQsf] dfkg ug'{kb{5 . dgf]a[lQ dfkgsf] d'Vo p2]Zo s] sf/0fn] dflg;n]
To:tf] Jojxf/ b]vfpF5 To;sf] cWoog ug'{ xf] . ;fdflhs lj1fgsf
cg';Gwfgstf{x¿n] dflg;sf dgf]a[lQx¿ hfFRgsf nflu ljleGg vfnsf dfkqmd
(Scale) x¿sf] k|of]u ub{5g\ . To:tf dfkqmdx¿nfO{ dgf]a[lQ dfkqmd elgG5 .
dfkqmd tof/ ug]{ sfo{ u'0f:t/Lo s'/fx¿;Fu ;DalGwt tYox¿nfO{ kl/df0fdf
abNg] ljlw xf] . o;n] cjwf/0ffnfO{ dfkg ug]{ cfwf/ tof/ ub{5 . ;fdfGo cy{df
eGg] xf] eg] dgf]a[lQ dfkgn] u'0ffTds ;"rgfx¿ jf tYofª\sx¿sf] ;ª\Vofdf
abNg] sfo{ ub{5 . o:tf] dfkqmd lgDgcg';f/ tof/ ug{ ;lsG5 M
-s_ klxNo}sf cg';GWfgstf{x¿n] ljsf; Pjd\ hfFr u/]sf] dfkqmdsf] 5gf]6 ug]
{ . o;sf nflu cg';Gwfgstf{n] ;Gbe{ ;fdu|Lx¿sf] ulx/f] k'g/fjnf]sg
ug'{kb{5 .
-v_ dfkqmdsf] ljsf; log} klxNo} ljsf; ul/Psf dfkqmdsf] h:tfsf] t:t} k|of]u
u/]/ jf To;df s]xL kl/jt{g u/]/ jf cfkm}F gofF dfkqmd tof/ u/]/
ug{ ;lsG5 .
-u_ gofF dfkqmd tof/ ug]{ xf] eg] To:tf] dfkqmd j}w (valid) x'g'kb{5 . To;sf
nflu lgDg sfo{x¿ ug'{kb{5 M
 dxTjk"0f{ ljrf/ kQf nufpg] .
 gd"Gf l;h{gf ug]{ .
 tYofª\s ;+sng ug]{ .
 dfkgsf] z'4Ls/0f ug]{ .
 ljZj;gLotf kQf nufpg] .
 j}wtf kQf nufpg] .
 cfwf/e"t dfGotfsf] ljsf; ug]{ .
dfkgsf] ljsf; ug]{ ljlw (Techniques of Measurement)

dfkgsf] ljsf; ug]{ rf/ ljlwx¿ 5g\ . ltgLx¿ tn lbOPsf] 5 M

!= dfkgsf] 5gf]6 (Choice): pQ/bftfx¿nfO{ ljsNkx¿ lbO{ s'g} pko'Qm
ljsNksf] 5gf] 6ug{ cg'/f]w ul/G5 . olb pQ?bftfn] Pp6f dfq ljsNk /f]h]df
p;n] c? ljsNkx¿ eGbf pQm ljsNknfO{ dg k/fpF5 eGg] a'lemG5 .
@= k|fyldstf lgwf{/0f (Ranking): ljleGg ljsNkx¿ lbO{ tL ljsNkx¿nfO{ k|
fyldstfsf cfwf/df juL{s/0f ug{ elgG5 . o;/L pQ/bftfn] k|Fyldstf lgwf{/0f
u/L;s]kl5 p;sf] wf/0ff kQf nufpg ;lsG5 .
#= >]0fLs/0f (Rating): s'g} klg 36gf jf ljifosf] ljz]iftfsf] :t/ cg'dfg ug'{
pQ/bftf cg'/f]w ul/G5 / ;f]xL cfwf/df To:tf 36gf jf j:t'sf] cj:yf lgwf{/0f
ul/G5 .

dgf]a[lQ jf wf/0ff dfkqmdsf] lgdf{0f (Construction of Attitude Scale)

wf/0ff u'0ffTds ljifo ePsf]n] o;sf] dfkgsf nflu ;+s]t jf c+x¿sf] k|of]u
ul/G5 . dflg;sf wf/0ffx¿ km/s km/s x'G5g\ . To;}n] ltgLx¿sf] dfkg ug{sf

Prepared by Deepak Basnet 6

nflu ljleGg ljlwx¿sf] kof]u ul/G5 . tL dWo] s]xL dxTJk"0f{ ljlwx¿ lgDg
cg';f/ 5g\ M
!= :j]lR5s dfkqmd (Arbiratry scale): slxn]sflxF olb ljifoj:t' cToGt gofF
5 / ;f]sf] dfkgsf nflu gofF ljlw cfjZos /xG5 eGg] cg';Gwfgstf{nfO{ nfu]df
p;n] cfkm\gf cWoogsf nflu pkof]uL, ;fGble{s / pko'Qm ljlwsf] lgwf{/0f
u/L nfu" ug{ ;Sb5 . To:Tf] ljlwnfO{ :j]lR5s dfkqmd (Arbitrary scale) elgG5 .
o:tf] ljlwsf] ljZj;gLotf / j}wflgstf cg';Gwfgstf{n] b]vfpg ;Sg'kb{5 . ;fdflhs
36gfx¿sf] cWoog ubf{ ;fdflhs 3w6fsf k|s[ltx¿ km/s km/s x'g] x'gfn]
cg';Gwfgstf{n] cfjZostf cg';f/ dfkqmd tof/ u/L nfu" ug]{ u/]sf] kfOG5 .
To;}n] of] ljlw ;fdflhs 36gfx¿sf] cWoogdf cToGt w]/} k|of]u x'g] u/]sf] 5 .
t/ of] To:tf] ljlw xf] h;n] 36gfsf wf/0ffx¿sf] dfkg u5{ egL k'li6 ug{ cToGt
ufx|f] x'G5 .
@= of]lut >]0fL dfkqmd jf ls6{ dfkqmd (Sumamted rating scale or Likert scale):
of] dfkqmd /]lG;; lns6{ eGg] JolQmn] ;g\ !(#@ df ljsf; u/]sf x'g\ . To;}n]
of] ljlw lns6{ dfkqmdsf] gfdaf6 cToGt k|l;4 5 . of] dfkqmdn] Pp6f ljjj/0f
k|:t't ub{5 h;n] 36gfk|lt JolQmsf] cg's"n jf k|lts"n wf/0ff b]vfpF5 .
o;df ;xefuLnfO{ s'g} ljj/0fk|ltsf] ;xdlt jf c;xdlt k|s6 ug{ cg'/f]w ul/G5 . k|
To]s pQ/sf nflu ;f+lVos dfg (Value) tf]lsPsf] x'G5 h;n] ;xdlt jf c;xdltsf]
:t/nfo{ b]vfpFb5 . To:tf k|bfg ul/Psf dfg (Value) nfO{ hf]8]/ ;du| ;xefuLx¿sf]
wf/0ffsf] dfkg ul/G5 . o;/L ;Dk"0f{ k|fKtfÍx¿sf cfwf/df wf/0ff dfkg ul/g]
x'gfn] o;nfO{ of]lut >]0fL dfkqmd (Sumamted rating scale) klg elgG5 .
o;nfO{ tnsf] pbfx/0faf6 :ki6 kfg{ ;lsG5 . olb s'g} sDkgLn] sDkgLsf]
;+/rgfsf af/]df cfkm\gf sd{rf/Lx¿sf] wf/0ff a'emg rfxG5 eg] lgDg ljj/0f
(Statement) df sd{rf/Lx¿sf] wf/0ff lns6{ dfkqmd k|of]u u/L a'em\g ;Sb5 M

syg M k|hftflGqs g]t[Tjz}nL ckgfpg' kb{5 M

!= @ c;xdt # clglZrt $ ;xdt %
k"0f{ ;xdt k"0f{ ;xdt
gf]6 M lns6{ dfkqmd, %, & / ( a'Fb] x'g ;Sb5 .
dflysf dfkqmdx¿df sd{rf/LnfO{ cfkm\gf] wf/0ff k|:t't ug{ cfu|x ul/G5 .
o;/L k|fKt wf/0ffx¿nfO{ hf]8]/ x]l/G5 . olb cf};t lgsfNbf # eGbf sd cfPdf
sd{rf/Lxn] ;xeflutfd"ns ;+r/gfsf sfd ug{ ?rfpF5g\ eGg] s'/f :ki6 x'G5 eg]
# eGbf a9L c+s cfPdf lg/+s'z ;+u7gfTds ;+/rgfdf sfd ug{ ?rfpF5g\ eGg]
a'lemG5 . o;/L s'g} klg ljifo jf 36fsf ;DaGwdf JolQmsf wf/0ff a'em\gsf nflu
cg';Gwfgstf{x¿n] of] dfkqmd ljlwsf] k|of]u cToGt} w]/} ub{5g\ .
lns6{ dfkqmdsf] /rgf (Construction of LIkert Scale)

-s_ cfkm\gf] p2]Zo / cg';Gwfgsf] ljifonfO{ Wofg lbO{ y'k|} ljj/0f (Statement)
x¿ tof/ ug'{kb{5 . o:tf ljj/0fx¿ tof/ ubf{ k|fKt ljrf/x¿af6 cg';Gwfgstf{n]

Prepared by Deepak Basnet 7

 dfkg ug{ vf]h]sf] wf/0ff k|fKt x'g ;Sb5 jf ;Sb}g ;f] s'/fsf] ;d]t ljrf/
ug'{kb{5 .
-v_ o:tf k|ZgfjnLdf k|of]u ePsf ;Dk"0f{ tYox¿n] Pp6} k|sf/sf] wf/0ffsf]
dfkg ug'{kb{5 .
-u_ of] ljlwdf sygnfO{ k|ZgfjnLsf ¿kdf tof/ u/L ;DalGwt JolQm jf ;d"x ;dIf
cfkm\gf] cjwf/0ff k|:t't ug{ cg'/f]w ug'{kb{5 .
-3_ pQ/bftfn] lbPsf pQ/x¿df cToGt} cg's"n wf/0ffnfO{ ;aeGbf a9L c+s /
cToGt k|lts"n wf/0ffnfO{ cToGt sd c+s lbOG5 . t/ o;sf] pN6f] lsl;daf6
klg dfkqmd lgwf{/0f ug{ ;lsG5 .
-ª_ k|To]s JolQmn] lbPsf] c+sx¿nfO{ hf]8]/ s"n k|fKtfÍ lgsflnG5 .
-r_ s"n k|fKtfÍ;Fu d]n gvfg] c+sx¿ ePdf ltgLx¿nfO{ x6fOG5 .
-5_ a'Fbfx¿ h;n] ;aeGbf a9L km/s b]vfpg ;Sb5g\ To:tf
a'FBfx¿nfO{ dfkqmd tof/ ug{ k|of]u ug'{kb{5 . ;fdfGotofM o:tf]
dfkqmd k|of]u ubf{ slDtdf % j6f ljsNkx¿sf] dfkqmd lgwf{/0f ul/G5 .
-h_ k"j{ k/LIf0fsf] glthfnfO{ x]/]/ s'g ljj/0fnfO{ clGtd k/LIf0fdf ;dfj]z ug]
{ / s"gnfO{ gug]{ eGg] s'/f lgwf{/0f ug'{kb{5 .
#= a/fa/ cGt/fn jf y|i6g dfkqmd (Equal-appearing interval scale or Thrustone scale): of]
dfkqmd ljlw Pn=Pn= y|i6g (L.L. Thurstone) n] ljsf; u/]sf x'g\ . of] dfkqmd ljlwdf
;d:of;FU ;DalGwt 36\gf, kl/l:ylt / ljifox¿;Fu ;DalGwt
tYox¿nfO{ lg0f{ostf{sf] ;d"x (Panel of judges) n] 5gf]6 ub{5g\ . o:tf tYox¿sf]
d"Nof+sg ljifo;Fu ;DalGwt If]q, wf/0ffsf] :t/ / wf/0ffsf] k|ltlglwTj eP gePsf
cfwf/df ul?G5 . o;df klxnf] cj:Yfdf ;+rfngsf] >]0fLa4tf lgwf{/0f ug]{ /
lg0f{ostf{x¿n] wf/0ff ljj/0fnfO{ dfkqmd d"No k|bfg ug]{ / bf];|f] cj:yfdf
To:tf wf/0ffut ljj/0fx¿df pQ/ lbg nufpg] sfo{ ul/G5 . o; dfkqmddf w]/}
ljj/0fx¿ x'G5g\ h;df ;xdt jf c;xdt wf/0ff /fVg ;lsG5 . j:tut
k/LIf0fsf ;Dk"0f{ r/x¿ ;dfg dxTjsf x'G5g\ / s]xL r/0fx¿nfO{ a9L c+s
lboPsf] x'G5 . of] ljlwdf k"0f{ ;xdt, t6:y / k"0f{ c:jLs[t u/L tLgj6f
dfkqmddfq k|of]udf NofOG5 . o;nfO{ tnsf] pbfx/0faf6 :ki6 ug{ ;lsG5 .
syg (statement) dfkqmd d"No
d of] ;+:yf;Fu s]xL ;dosf nflu ;Gt'i6 5' . *=@
of] ;+:yfdf sfd geP dnfO{ ;d:of k5{ . &=%
of] ;+:yfdf sfd ug]{ jftfj/0f /fd|f] 5 . $=)
of] ;+:yfsf lgod sfg'g :ki6 5g\ . ^=#
dflysf ;Dk"0f{ k|zgfjnLx¿NfO{ ljz]if1x¿sf] ;d"xn] klxNo} lgwf{/0f u/]sf
x'G5g . pQ/bftfn] tL dWo] cfkm\gf] ljrf/ a9L k|:t't ug{ ;Sg] ljj/0fdfq 5gf]6

Prepared by Deepak Basnet 8

ub{5g\ . pQbftfn] 5gf]6 u/]sf] ljj/0fnfO{ klxNo} lbOPsf] c+ssf] cf}ift /
dlWosf lgwf{/0f ul/G5 h;n] ;xdlt / c;xdltnfO{ b]vfpFb5 . olb s'g}
pQ/bftfn] @ / $ gDa/ ljj/0f 5gf]6 u/]df To;sf] c+s (Score o;/L lgwf{/0f
ul/G5 .
bf];|f] ljj/0fsf] c+s &=% / rf}yf] ljj/0fsf] c+s ^=# sf] cf};t lgsflnG5 .
7 .5+6 . 3
2 = 6.9

oxL k|lqmof k|of]uu/L c+ssf cfwf/df qmd (Rank order) lgwf{/0f ul/G5 .
$= ;l~rt jf u6\Dofg dfkqmd (Cumulative or Guttman Scale): o;nfO{ n'O; u6\Dofg
:Sofnf]u|fd ljZn]if0f klg elgG5 . cGo dfkqmd?df ljleGg ljj/f0x¿df pQ/bftfn]
;xdlt jf c;xdlt hgfpFb5 t/ of] dfkqmddf pQ/bftfsf] k|ltlqmofnfO{ ;l~rt
ul/G5 . of] dfkqmddf olb Pp65f ljj/0f pQ/ lbg ;Sg] pQ/bftfn] cGo ljj/0fdf
klg k|ltlqmof lbg ;Sb5 egG] cg'dfg ul/G5 . To;}u/L bf];|f] ljj/0fsf] k|
ltlqmof lbg ;Sg]n] t];|f] ljj/0fsf] klg k|ltlqmof lbg ;Sb5 eGg] dfGotf /flvG5
t/ t];|F] ljj/0fdf k|ltlqmof lbg g;Sg]n] klxnf] / bf];|f] ljj/0fx¿df klg k|ltlqmof
lbg ;Sb}g eGg] dfGotf /flvG5 .
dflysf] ljj/0fnfO{ lgDgcg';f/ b]vfpg ;lsG5 .
pQ/bftf ljj/0f — — s"n c+s
klxnf] pQ/bftf ! ! ! #
bf];|f] pQ/bftf ) ! ! @
t];|f] pQ/bftf ) ) ! !
rf}yf] pQ/bftf ) ) ) )
dflysf pbfx/0fdf s] b]vfOPsf] 5 eg] pQ/ lbg g;Sg] pQ/bftf c+s klg
b]vfOPsf] 5 / pQ/ lbg;Sg] pQ/bftfsf] c+s klg b]vfOPsf] 5 To;}n]
o;nfO{ ;l~rt dfkqmd (Cumulative scale) elgPsf] xf] . of] dfkqmdn] Pp6f dfq
kIfsf] dfkqmd lgwf{/0f ub{5 . Pp6f dfq kIF x]g]{ x'gfn] Pp6f pQ/bftfn]
Pp6f ljj/0fdf a9L ;xdlt hgfpF5 eg] c? ljj/0fx¿df klg c?n] eGbf a9L ;xdlt
hgfpF5 eGg] dfGotf /flvG5 . u6\Dofg dfkqmd agfpFbf lgDg s'/fx¿df Wofg
lbg'kb{5 M
!= dfkg ug'{kg]{ s'/fx¿sf cfwf/df ljj/0fx¿sf] 5gf]6 ug]{ .
@= nueu !)) hgfsf] ;d"xdf /x]sf] gd"gfdf ljj/0fx¿sf] k"j{ k/LIf0f ug]{ .
#= *) k|ltzt eGbf a9L ;xdlt / c;xdlt ePsf ljj/0fx¿nfO{ x6fpg] .
$= cToGt} w]/} cg's"n k|ltlqmof / cToGt} sd cg's"n k|ltlqmofx¿sf] qmd
ldnfP/ /fVg] .
%= cg's"n / k|lts"n 5'6\ofpg g;Sg] k|ltlqmofx¿nfO{ x6fpg] .
^= k|To'Tkflbtf u'0fs (Coefficient of reproducibility) lgwf{/0f lgDg cg';f/ ug]{ .

Prepared by Deepak Basnet 9

 -s_ cg's"n k|ltlqmof h'g k|a[lQ;Fu ldNb}g To;nfO{ q'l6 elgG5 .
ltgLx¿sf] ;ª\Vof lgwf{/0f ug]{ .
-v_ k|To'Tkflbtfsf] lgwf{/0f lgDgfg';f/ ug]{ M
!—q'l6x?sf ] ;ª\Vof
k|To'Tkflbtf = k|ltlqmofbftfsf ] ;ª\Vof
-u_ k|To'Tkflbtfsf] lx;fa ubf{sf] dfg () sf] a/fa/ ePdf Psn cfoflds
dfkqmd ePsf] dflgG5 .
&= k|To]s k|ltlqmofbftfsf] c+s ltgLx¿n] lbPsf] cg's"n k|ltlqmofsf] cfwf/df
lgwf{/0f ug]{ .

Joj;flos cg';Gwfgdf a9L k|of]u x'g] dgf]a[lQ dfkqmdx¿

(Attitude Scale Commonly Used in Business Research)

dfly dfkqmd tof/ ug]{ ljlwsf cfwf/df d'Vo dfkqmdx¿sf af/]df JofVof ul/of] .
dflysf ljlwx¿sf cfwf/df ;fdflhs / Jojxfl/s lj1fgsf cg';Gwfgstf{x¿n] ljleGg k|
sf/sf dfkqmd / ljleGg dfkqmdsf 9fFrfx¿ ljsf; u/]sf 5g\ . s]xL Joj;flos
cWoogdf dgf]a[lQ dfkg ug]{ dxTjk"0f{ dfkqmdx¿ lgDgcg';f/ 5g\ M
!= lns6{ dfkqmd (Likert's Scale)

/]lG;; lns6{ (Rensis Likert) eGg] JolQmn k||a[lQ dfkgsf] nflu k|of]u ul/g]
o; :s]nsf] ljsf; ;g\ !(#@ df u/]sf x'g\ . o; :s]nnfO{ a8{ (Bird) eGg] JolQmn]
Summated scale sf] ¿kdf gfdfs/0f u]kl5 jt{dfg ;dodf of] :s]nnfO{ Summated scale sf]
gfdn] klg lrlgG5 . lns8{ :s]ndf ljleGg ljsNkx¿ — cToGt ;xdlt (Strongly
agree), ;xdlt (agree), clgl0f{t (undecided), c;xdt (disagree) / cToGt c;xdt (strongly
disagreee) ;lxt s'g} d'2f;Fu ;DalGwt sygx¿sf] >[+Vnf pknAw u/of{ s'g}
JolQm cyjf ;d"xnfO{ tL ljsNkx¿df k|ltlqmof hgfpg elgG5 . o;/L pknAw
u/fOPsf sygx¿;Fu} lbOPsf k|To]s ljsNKsf] cnu cnu dfg lgwf{/0f ul/Psf]
x'G5 / pQm JolQm cyjf ;d"xn] k|To]s sygdf ljsNkdf hgfPsf k|ltlqmofx¿af6
k|fKt dfgsf] of]u lgsflnG5 . Tof] dfg g} ;DalGwt JolQm Pjd\ ;d"xsf] k|fKtfÍ
x'G5 . olb s'g} JolQmsf] k|a[lQsf] dfkg ug{ ;sf/fTds sygx¿ k|of]u ul/Psf] 5
eg] cToGt ;xdtb]lv cToGt c;xdt ;Dd qmdzM %, $, #, @ / ! c+s k|bfg
ul/G5 . To;}u/L gsf/fTds syg k|of]u ul/Psf] 5 eg] cToGt ;xdtb]lv cToGt
c;xdt ;Dd qmdzM !, @, #, $ / % u/L ;sf/fTds sygdf eGbf ljkl/t c+s k|bfg
ul/G5 .
ljsNkx¿ ;sf/fTds syg gsf/fTds syg
cToGt ;xdt % !
;xdt $ @
clgl0f{t # #
c;xdt @ $
cToGt c;xt ! %

Prepared by Deepak Basnet 10

o;/L pNn]v ul/Psf sygx¿;Fu} lbOPsf cToGt ;xdt, ;xdt, clgl0f{t, c;xdt /
cToGt} c;xdt h:tf ljsNkx¿dWo] s'g} Pp6f ljsNkdf pQ/bftfn] k|ltlqmof
hgfpFb5 . o; 9+un] k|To]s syg;Fu} lbOPsf ljsNkx¿df hgfPsf] k|ltlqmofsf]
cfwf/df pQm JolQmsf] k|fKtfÍsf] lgwf{/0f ul/G5 .
@= u|flkms /]l6Ë dfkqmd (Graphic rating scale): o; ljlwdf
pQ/bftfnfO{ lglZrt ;ª\Vofleq /x]/ u|fkmsf] s'g} ljGb'df cfkm\gf] wf/0ff
/fVg elgG5 h;af6 pQ/bftfx¿sf] wf/0ff a'em\g ;lsG5 . o:tf] dfkqmd ljlw
Joj;flos cg';Gwfgdf cToGt w]/} k|of]u x'G5 . o;nfO{ pbfx/0faf6 :ki6
kfg{ ;lsG5 M
!—!) ;Ddsf] dfkqmddf cfkm\gf] xflsdnfO{ s;/L d"Nof+sg ug'{x'G5 <

Excellent -cToGt}
/fd|f]_

All right -l7s}_

Very bad -cToGt}

v/fa_
ca dflysf !—!) ;Ddsf dfkqmd dWo] s'g} Ps ljGb'sf] 5gf]6 ug{ pQ/bftfnfO{
cg'/f]w ul/G5 . To;n] pQ/bftfx¿sf] wf/0ff k|:t't ub{5 . ;f]xL cfwf/df
cg';Gwfgstf{n] sd{rf/Lx¿n] ljefuLo k|d'vnfO{ /fd|f] jf g/fd+|f] s:tf]
dfGb5g\ eGg] s'/f kQf nufpg ;lsG5 .
#= cfO6d cg';f/ /]6Lª dfkqmd (Itemized rating scale): o; ljlwcg';f/ pQ/bftfnfO{
cfkm\gf] wf/0ff k|:t't ug]{ ;d"x (Category) lbOPsf] x'G5 . ltgLx¿dWo] p;n]
s'g} klg pko'Qm ;d"xsf] 5gf]6 ug{ ;Sb5 . To:tf] dfkqmdnfO{ cfO6d
cg';f/sf] /]l6ª dfkqmd elgG5 . w]/} kl/l:yltx¿nfO{ ldnfP/ r/x¿sf] dfkg
ug{ ;Sg] x'gfn] of] dfkqmdsf] k|of]u Joj;flos cg';Gwfgdf cToGt} w]/} k|
of]u x'G5 .
o;nfO{ tnsf] pbfx/0faf6 :ki6 kfg{ ;lsG5 M
;+u7gsf] gLltdf kl/jt{gdf tkfO{Fsf] rf;f]nfO{ s;/L b]vfpg'x'G5 <
c;fWo} sdhf]/ sdhf]/ s]xL xb;Dd l7s} c;fWo} /fd|f]
gofF ljt/0f Joj:yfn] s:tf] sfd u/]sf] 5 <
! @ #
k6Ss} 5}g clnsln 5 cToGt} w]/}
pQ/bftfx¿nfO{ lbOPsf dWo] ;a}eGbf pko'Qm ljsNksf] 5gf]6 ug{ cg'/f]w
u/L pQ/bftfsf] wf/0ff a'em\g] k|of; ul/G5 .
Prepared by Deepak Basnet 11
$= >]0fL >[+Vnf juL{s/0f dfkqmd (Rank order rating scale): ;fdfGotofM o;
ljlw cg';f/ dfkqmd tof/ ubf{ pQ/bftfnfO{ cfkm\gf k|fyldstfx¿nfO{ cToGt}
w]/} k|fyldstfb]lv cToGt sd k|fyldstf;Dd >[+vnfa4 ug{ cg'/f]w ul/G5 . of]
t'ngfTds ljlw xf] . s'g} ljifok|lt ;+:yfx¿sf] k|fyldstf dfkg ug{ of] ljlwsf] k|
of]u ul/G5 . o;n] pQ/bftfnfO{ ;DalGwt j:t'x¿df km/s 5'6\ofpg jfWo
agfpFb5 . o;sf] sdhf]/L eg]sf] o;n] qmlds (Ordinal) tYofª\ssf] dfq ljsf; ub{5 .
h:t} tnsf la:s'6x¿nfO{ k|fyldstfsf cfwf/df !—% gDa/ lbP/ >]0fL 5'6\ofpg
cg'/f]w ul/G5 M
la:s'6 >]0fL
lyg cf/f/f]6 —
6fOu/ —
kfOgfkn —
Un'sf]h —
kfn]{ hL —
dfly lbOPsf la:s'6x¿nfO{ pQ/bftfsf] k|fyldstfsf cfwf/df !—% gDa/ lbG5 .
oxL lbPsf gDa/sf cfwf/df cg';Gwfgstf{n] pkef]Qmfsf] k|Fyldstf kQf
nufpg ;Sb5 .
%= cy{leGgtf :s]n (Semantic differential scale): o; ljlwdf pQ/bftfx¿nfO{ Pp6f
s'g} ljifodf cfkm\gf] ljrf/ b'O{ k"0f{ ljkl/t s'/fx¿ h:t}M c;fWo} /fd|f] /
c;fWo} g/fd|f] ljrdf lbOPsf & j6f gDa/x¿dWo] s'g} Pp6fnfO{ 5fGg cg'/f]w
ul/G5 . /]l6ª b'O{j6f k"0f{ ¿kdf leGg ljrf/x¿sf af/]df u/fpg' kb{5 . s'g} j:t'
jf 36gfk|lt pQ/bftfsf] wf/0ff / k|ltlqmof a'em\gsf nflu of] ljlw cToGt}
pkof]uL dflgG5 .
tn lbOPsf s'/fx¿sf cfwf/df tkfO{Fsf] ;+u7gsf] sfd ug]{ jftfj/0fnfO{ /]l6ª
ug'{xf];\ M
c;fWo} /fd|f] (Excellent) ! @ # $ % ^ & c;fWo} g/fd|f] (Worst)

^= cGo ;fdfGo dfkqmdx¿ (Other simple scales): ;dosf] cGt/fn;Fu} ljleGg

dfkqmdx¿sf] ljsf; ePsf] 5 . cg';Gwfgstf{x¿n] cfkm\gf dfGotfsf cfwf/df
ljleGg vfnsf dfkqmdx¿sf] 9fFrf tof/ u/L k|of]u u/]sf] kfOG5 . o:tf
dfkqmdx¿sf] ljsf; l56f], ;lhnf] / t'ngfTds ¿kdf sd vlr{nf] x'g] ePswfn]
logLx¿sf] k|of]u Jofks ¿kdf ePsf] kfOG5 . s]xL To:tf dfkqmdx¿ lgDgcg';f/
5g\ M
-s_ ;fdfGo ju{ k|Zgx¿ (Simpel category questions): o:tf k|Zgx¿df x'G5 jf x'Gg
egL wf/0ff /flvG5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu lj1fkgn] laqmLdf a[l4 ePsf] 5 ls 5}g
yfxf kfpgsf] nflu lgDgcg';f/ k|ZgfjnL tof/ ug{ ;lsG5 M
la1fkgn] laqmLdf a[l4 ePsf] 5 ls 5}g <
5 5}g

Prepared by Deepak Basnet 12

-v_ ax' 5gf]6 k|Zgx¿ (Multiple choice questions): o:tf k|Zgx¿df tLg jf tLgeGbf
a9L ljsNkx¿ lbOPsf] x'G5 h;dWo] Pp6f jf s]xL ljsNkx¿sf] 5gf]6 ug{
cg'/f]w ul/G5 . u|fxsx¿n] s'g a:t' a9L dg k/fpF5g\ egL ;j]{If0f ug{sf nflu
of] ljlwsf] k|of]u ul/G5 . olb u|fxsx¿n] s'g rfprfp a9L dg k/fpF5g\ egL
hfGg rfx]df lgDgcg';f/ k|Zg tof/ ug{ ;lsG5 M
tkfO{FnfO{ s'g rfprfp a9L dg k5{ <
/f/f rfprfp
jfOjfO rfprfp
dfof]h rfprfp
/dkd rfprfp, cflb
-u_ v'nf k|Zgx¿ (Open-ended questions): pQ/bftfx¿sf] s'g} ljifo jf
36ghfsf ;DaGwdf lj:t[t / uxg ljrf/ a'em\gsf nflu of] ljlwsf] k|of]u
ul/G5 . ;fdfGotofM o:tf ljrf/x¿n] lg0f{o k|lqmofdf cToGt 7"nf] ;xof]u
k'¥ofpFB5g\ . o:tf k|Zgx¿df s'g} ljsNkx¿ lbOPsf] x'Fb}g / pQ/bftfx¿n]
cfkm\gf ljrf/x¿ lj:t[t ¿kdf /fVg ;Sb5g\ . pbfx/0fsf nflu M
!= tkfO{Fsf] ljrf/df k|lt:kwL{x¿;Fu d'sfljnf ug{sf] nflu s:tf] lsl;dsf]
/0fgLlt ckgfpg'knf{ <
@= tkfO{Fsf] ljrf/df ahf/df gofF pkef]Qmfsf] ?rLdf s:tf] lsl;dsf] kl/jt{g
cfPsf] 5 h:tf] nfU5 <
/fd|f] dfkgdf x'g'kg]{ dfkb08x¿ jf ljz]iftfx¿ (Criteria or Characteristics of Good
Measuring)

s'g} klg cg';Gwfg sfo{ pko'Qm, ljZj;gLotf / ts{;+u7g x'gsf] nflu To;
sfo{df ;+nUg x'g] tYofª\ssf] d'Vo b'O{j6f u'0f k|fdfl0fstf / ljZj;gLotfdf
lge{/ /xG5 . t;y{ Pp6f /fd|f] dfkgdf x'g]kg]{ dfkb08x¿ jf
ljz]iftfx¿nfO{ o;k|sf/ :ki6 kfg{ ;lsG5 M

-s_ k|dfl0fstf (Validity)

k|dfl0fstf ePsf] dfkg jf k|df0fdf ljZj;gLotf x'g ;Sb5 / dfkqmddf ljZj;gLotf

cfjZos 5 . t/ k|ofKt 5}g To;}n] k|dfl0fstf o;sf nflu k|ofKt cj:yfsf] ¿kdf
lng ;lsG5 . s'g} klg dfkn] h] gfKg vf]h]sf] xf], jf:tljs ¿kdf ToxL dfkg
ug{ ;Sof] eg] To;nfO{ k|dfl0fstf elgG5 t/ k|df0fx¿df jf tYofª\sx¿df of] k|
dfl0fstf :yfkgf ug]{ s'/f eg] lgs] hl6n 5 . ;fwf/0f ¿kdf x]bf{ s'g}
b'O{ JoloQm jf 36gfaLr olb jf:tljs leGgtf 5 / Tof] dfkqmdaf6 :ki6 x'G5 eg]
To;nfO{ k|dfl0fs dfkqmd (valid scale) eGg ;lsG5 .
sf cg';f/, æPp6f dfkn] k|dfl0fstf b]vfpg ;Sb5 ha o;n] h] gfKg]
Goode and Hatt
bfjf ub{5 ToxL dfKg ;Sb5 .Æ

Prepared by Deepak Basnet 13

 sf cg';f/ æjf:tjdf cg';Gwfgstf{n] h'g s'/fnfO{ dfkg ug{ vf]h]sf] 5
F.N. Kerlinger
To;}nfO[ dfkg u/]sf] 5 jf 5}g To;}df p;sf] dfkgsf] k|dfl0fstf lglxt /xG5 .Æ
dflysf kl/efefiffx¿af6 s] :ki6 5 eg] tYofª\sx¿sf] k|dfl0fstf ltgLx¿sf] dfkg k|
lqmofdf g} 5 . s'g} kgl tYofª\saf6 cfzf ul/Psf] cyjf gfKg vf]lhPsf] s'g}
1fgnfO{ slt;Dd To;n] k|bfg ug{ ;Sb5 To;df g} tYofª\ssf] k|dfl0fstf
(validity) /x]sf] x'G5 . ;xL lsl;daf6 tYofª\sx¿sf] dfkg ug'{ g} k|dfl0fstfsf] d"n
p2]Zo /x]sf] x'G5 . cg';Gwfg sfo{sf] d"No / dxTj klg To;df k|of]u x'g]
tYofª\sx¿sf] ljZj;gLotfdf lge{/ /xG5 . TO;}n] cg';Gwfg sfo{ k|f/De
ug'{eGbf klxn] tYofª\sx¿sf] k|dfl0fstf k/LIf0f ug'{kg]{ cyjf hfFr ug'{kg]
{ x'G5 . k|dfl0fstfsf] hfFr ug]{ lgDg ljlwx¿ 5g\ M
-c_ cGt/j:t' jf cfd"v k|dfl0fstf (Content or Face Validity)

of] ljlw ljz]if u/L cg';Gwfgstf{;Fu ;DalGwt 5 . o;df cg';Gwfgstf{n] s'g}

tYofª\s jf dfksf] ;DaGwdf To;sf] k|dfl0fstfsf] nflu ljleGg ts{ (logics) k|:t't
ub{5 cyjf ljifoj:t'sf] p2]Zo /x]sf] / To;sf] dfkg ug{ ;Sg] u'0f /x]sf] ts{sf]
cfwf/df dfksf] k|dfl0fstf hfFr ul/G5 . dfkqmddf ;lDdlnt ljleGg k|sf/sf
ljifoj:t'sf] lardf ts{k"0f{ cGt/;DaGw :yflkt ug{ vf]lhPsf] x'G5 . o;}sf]
cfwf/df JofVof ul/G5 ls dfk jf tYofª\sn] 7Ls jf ;xL dfk ul//x]sf] 5 .
-cf_ Jojxfl/s k|dfl0fstf (Pragmatic validity)

jt{dfg cj:yfdf cyjf eljiodf Joxjf/df 36\g] ljleGg k|sf/sf

36gfx¿aLrsf] ;x;DaGwsf] JofVof cyjf t'ngfsf] cfwf/df tYofª\sx¿sf] cyjf
dfksf] k|dfl0fstf hfFr ug]{ ljlwnfO{ Jojxfl/s k|dfl0fstf elgG5 . ;]N6Lh
h]xf]bfn] b'O{k|sf/sf Jojxfl/s k|dfl0fstfsf] rrf{ u/]sf 5g\ M
 eljiojf0fL k|dfl0fstf (Predictive validity): of] k|dfl0fstfn] dfkqmdåf/f
kl/dfkgsf] cfwf/df Jojxf/sf] eljiojf0fL Pjd\ jf:tljs
Jojxf/aLr ;x;DaGw :yflkt ug]{ sfo{ ub{5 . ljleGg k|sf/sf k"J{ cg'dflgt
Pjd\ 36gfx¿sf] aLRdf pRr ;x;DaGw kfOG5 eg] To;df k|dfl0fstf ePsf]
7x/ ul/G5 . h:t}M s'g} ljBfyL{sf] a'l4sf] dfkaf6 eljiodf pQm
ljBfyL{sf] ljljw glthf af/]df eljiojf0fL ug{ ;lsG5 . To;/L ul/Psf
eljiojf0fL nueu pxL x'g hfG5 .
 ;djtL{ k|dfl0fstf (Concurrent validity): eljiojf0fL k|dfl0fstf / ;djtL{ k|
dfl0fstf nueu p:t} p:t} x'g\ t/ Pp6f s'/f s] km/s 5 eg] eljiojf0fL k|
dfl0fstfdf eljiodf 3l6g 36gfx¿sf] cyjf Jojxf/x¿sf] t'ngf ul/G5
eg] ;djtL{ k|dfl0fstfdf jt{dfgdf 3l6g 36gf cyjf Jojxf/sf] t'ngf ul/G5 .
o;df s'g} k'/fgf] lgisif{ jf dfkqmd;Fu klg jt{dfg Jojxf/nfO{ t'ngf
ug{ ;lsG5 .
 lgdf{0f k|dfl0fstf (Construct validity): s'g} k/LIf0f jf dfkqmdsf] k|
dfl0fstfsf] hfFr (test) s'g} cjwf/0ffsf] cfwf/df jf ;Gbe{df u/G5 eg]
To;nfO{ lgdf{0f k|dfl0fstf (Construct validity) elgG5 . h'g cjwf/0ffsf] hfFr
Prepared by Deepak Basnet 14
 ug'{ 5 To;sf] ljleGg sf/ssf] k/:k/ ;DaGwsf] ljZn]if0f u/]/ cg'dfg jf
k/LIf0fsf] k|dfl0fstfsf] hfFr ul/G5 . h:t} M ;fdflhs leGgtfsf] nflu
dfkqmdsf] k|dfl0fstf hfFRg' 5 eg] klxn] To;sf ljleGg tTjx¿ zlQm
ljlxgtf, Psf+sLkg, lgodlxgtf cflbnfO{ gfk]/ To;sf]
kl/0ffdnfO{ k/:k/ ;DaGwsf] cwf/df æsf/s ljZn]if0fÆ (Cause analysis) elgG5
.

-v_ k|df0f ljZj;gLotf (Evidence Reliability)

s'g} klg ;fdflhs ;d:ofsf] ;dfwfgsf] nflu ul/g]

cg';Gwfg ;DalGwt ;d:ofx¿;Fu ;Da4 tYofª\sx¿sf] ;+sng / To;sf] ljZn]if0fdf
lge{/ ub{5 . ljZn]if0fsf] glthf cg';Gwfg sfo{ ;DkGg ug{ ;+sng ul/Psf
tYofª\sx¿sf] k|s[lt, k|dfl0fstf / ljZj;gLotfdf cfwfl/t x'G5 . dfly pNn]v
ul/;lsPsf] 5 ls cg';Gwfg Tolta]nf k|efjsf/L x'G5 ha ;d:of;Fu ;DalGwt k|
ofKt / pko'Qm tYox¿sf] ;+sng ug{ ;lsG5 . cg';Gwfgstf{n] cfkm"n] ;+sng
ug]{ tYofª\sx¿sf] k|dfl0fstf (validity) / To;sf] ljZj;gLotfsf] af/]df klg Wofg
k'¥ofpg'kb{5 . ;d:ofsf] k'li6sf] nflu hDdf ul/g] tYox¿ hlt ljZj;gLo (Reliable)
x'G5g\ glthf klg TolQs} ljZj;gLo x'G5 . tYofª\sx¿ cg';Gwfgsf cfwf/ x'g\ .
ltgLx¿sf] k|dfl0fstf / ljZj;gLotf plrt lgisif{sf] cfwf/ xf] cyjf k|df0fsf] ;Totfn]
s] a'emfpFb5 eg] hlt k6s k|of]u ubf{ jf k/LIf0f ubf{ klg glthf Pp6}
cfpFb5 . To;nfO{ ljZj;gLotf klg eGg ;lsG5 . ljZj;gLotf ePsf k|df0fx¿ jf
tYofª\sx¿sf] cfwf/df ;xL jf oyfy{ lgisif{ lgsfNg ;lsG5 . ;xL, jf:tljs /
oyfy{ lg0f{osf] k|flKt cyjf pknlAw g} cg';Gwfgsf] p2]Zo /xG5 . s'g} klg
dfkqmdsf] Pp6f k|d'v u'0f ljZj;gLotf xf] . dfkqmddf ljZj;gLotfsf d'Vo
b'O{k|sf/ 5g\ M
-c_ :yfloTj (Stability): w]/}k6s k/LIf0f ubf{ jf k|of]u ubf{ ;w}F Ps}k|sf/sf]
glthf lbg' cyjf k'g/fj[lQ k/LIf0fdf kl/0ffd :yfoL x'G5 . kl/0ffd olb :yfoL jf l:y/
jf ;dfg 5 eg] To;nfO{ :yfloTj u'0f ePsf] eGg' ;fGble{s x'G5 .
-cf_ ;d¿ktf (Equivalence): ljleGg cg';Gwfgstf{ Ps} lsl;dsf] k|ltbz{ (Sample) df
k/LIf0f ubf{ Ps} k|sf/sf] cyjf ;dfg lsl;dsf] glthf cfpFb5 eg] dfkqmd jf k|
df0fsf] ;d¿ktf 5 eGg l;sG5 .

-u_ Jojxfl/stf (Practicability)

Goode and Hattn] k|df0fx¿sf] ljZj;gLotf hfFr ug'{ d'Vo tLgj6f ljlwx¿ pNn]v
u/]sf 5g\ . tLgLx¿ lgDgk|sf/ 5g\ M
-c_ k/LIf0f k'g k/LIf0f (Test Retest Method): o;sf] gfdaf6 g} s] :ki6 ePsf] 5 eg]
s'g} dfk jf tYofª\snfO{ k6s k6s k/LIf0f ug'{ / To;sf] t'ngf ubf{ glthfdf
s]xL km/s k5{ ls kb}{g < o;sf nflu s'g} tYofª\sLo ljlw jf cGo u'0ffTds ljlw
ckgfpg ;lsG5 . o; cGtu{t s'g} k|ltbz{ (Sample) jf ;fgf] ;d"xdfly b'O{k6s

Prepared by Deepak Basnet 15

ul/Psf] k/LIf0fsf] k|fKt kl/0ffd ;x;DaGwåf/f ug{ ;lsG5 . olb b'j} kl/0fdaLr
pRr ;DaGw 5 eg] dfkqmdsf] l:y/tf (Stability) a9L 5 eGg] yfxf kfpg ;lsG5 .
-cf_ j}slNks cyjf ;dfgfGt/ kq (Alternative or Parallel forms): o; ljlwdf Pp6} ljifo jf
j:t' (subject or thing) nfO{ dfk ug]{ a]nfdf b'O{ ;dfg dfkqmdsf] k|of]u Pp6f
gd"gf jf ;d"xdf ul/G5 / k|fKt ePsf] kl/0ffdsf] t'ngf ul/G5 . o; ljlwnfO{ ;dkq
ljlw (Equivalent form) jf ;dfgfGt/ kq (Parallel form) jf ax'kqljlw (multiple form) klg elgG5 .
o; ljlwdf k/LIf0f k'gM k/LIf0f ljlwdf h:tf] pQ/bftf cfkm}n]
kl/0ffdsf] ;DaGwdf ofb u/]/ n]Vg ;Sb}g / To;dfly ;do Jojwfgsf] k|efj kb}{g
.
-O_ cw{ ljefhg ljlw (Split half method): o; ljlwaf6 k|df0fsf]
ljZj;gLotfsf] ;DaGwdf l:y/tf (Stability) / ;d¿ktf (Equivalence) h:tf b'O{ d"ne"t
s'/fnfO{ gfKg ;lsG5 jf ljZj;gLotfsf] hfFr ul/G5 . o;df ;DalGwt dfknfO{ b'O{
a/fa/ efudf ljefhg ul/G5 . of] b'O{ efudf ljefhg ug{sf] nflu dfkqmd]sf
ljhf]/ jf hf]/ ;ª\Vofsf] cfwf/df jf ofb[lR5s ljlw (Odd and even method) klg elgG5 .
;d"x ljefhgkl5 b'j} dfkqmd gd"gfsf] k|of]u ul/G5 . logLx¿sf] k|of]uaf6 k|
fKt x'g] kl/0ffdnfO{ ;x;DaGwsf] cfwf/df t'ngf ul/G5 . t'ngf
ubf{ ;x;DaGwsf] pRrtfsf] Vofn ul/G5 / dfkqmd (Scale) jf k|df0f (Evidence) sf]
ljZj;gLotfsf] hfFr ul/G5 .

hg;ª\Vof gd"gf 5gf}6 (Population and Sampling)

cg';Gwfgsf] u'0f:t/ cWoogsf] qmddf k|of]u ul/Psf] cg';Gwfg ljlw / tYofª\s ;

+sngsf ;fwgx¿df dfq lge{/ geO{ cg';Gwfgstf{n] cjnDag u/]sf] gd"gf
5gf}6 ljlwdf klg e/ kb{5 . t;y{, cg';Gwfgstf{n] ;du| cg';Gwfg of]hgfsf] k|
f/Dedf g} gd"gf 5gf}6 k|lqmofsf] af/]df lg0f{o ug'{kb{5 . jf:tjdf ;do,
vr{ / kx'Frsf lx;fan] ;Dk"0f{ hg;ª\Vofsf k|To]s PsfOaf6 cfjZos dfqfdf
tYofª\s ;+sng ug{ vlr{nf] x'g'sf ;fy} ;Dej klg gx'g ;Sb5 . To;}n]
cWoogsf] hg;ª\VofnfO{ k|ltlglwTj ug{ ;Sg] ;fgf] ;d"xsf] 5ggf}6 u/L
pQm ;d"xaf6 cfjZos kg]{ tYofª\s ;+sng ug'{kb{5 . o; 9Ën] 7"nf] hg;ª\
Vofaf6 5gf}6 ul/Psf] ;fgf] k|ltlglwd"ns ;d"xnfO{ gd"gf (Sample) elgG5 . olb
cg';Gwfgstf{nfO{ hg;ª\Vofsf] af/]df k"0f{ hfgsf/L 5}g eg] 5gf}6 ul/Psf
gd"gfn] pQm hg;ª\VofnfO{ k|ltlglwTj ug{ ;S5 cyjf ;Sb}g n]vfhf]vf
ug{ sl7g x'G5 . oxfF gd"gf 5gf}6sf] af/]df lj:t[t ¿kdf rrf{ ug'{eGbf cufl8
hg;ª\Vof (Population), gd"gf (Sample) / gd"gf 5gf}6 (Sampling) sf] af/]df :ki6 ul/Psf]
5M
hg;ª\Vof (Population)

cg';Gwfgsf] nflu 5gf}6 ul/Psf ;Dk"0f{ dflg; Pjd\ j:t'x¿sf] ;d"xnfO{ g}

cWoogsf] hg;ª\Vof elgG5 . csf]{ zAbdf, cg';Gwfgstf{sf] ?lr cg';f/sf Ps
jf ;f] eGbf a9L ;dfg ljz]iftfx¿ ePsf JolQmx¿sf] ;d"xnfO{ hg;ª\Vof

Prepared by Deepak Basnet 16

elgG5 . ;fdfGotofM xfdLx¿n] hg;ª\VofnfO{ dflg;x¿sf] ;d"x dfq eGg]
a'emb5f}F t/ cg';Gwfgsf] efiffdf hg;ª\Vofn] dflg;x¿sf] ;d"xnfO{ dfq ;"lrt
ub}{g . cWoogsf] nflu 5gf}6 ul/Psf cGo ;lhj -hgfj/, k+IfL, df5f, af]6lj?jf,
cflb_ / lghL{j -ljBfno ejg, kmlg{r/, r§fg cflb_ j:t'nfO{ klg cWoogsf] hg;ª\
Vofsf] ¿kdf lnOG5 . cg';Gwfgsf] hg;ª\Vof ;Lldt (Finite) cyjf c;Lldt (Infinite) s'g}
klg k|s[ltsf] x'g ;S5 . ;Lldt hg;ª\VofnfO{ u0fgf ug{ ;Dej x'G5 eg] c;Lldt
hg;ª\VofnfO{ u0fgf ug{ ;Dej x'Fb}g . h:t}M lxdfno SofDk;df cWoog ug]{
ljBfyL{x¿sf] ;ª\VofnfO{ ;ª\VofnfO{ u0fgf ug{ ;lsG5 t/ glbgfnfdf kfOg]
df5fx¿sf] ;ª\VofnfO{ u0fgf ug{ ;lsFb}g .
gd"gf (Sample)

7"nf] hg;ª\Vofaf6 5gf}6 ul/Psf] k|ltlgwd"ns ;d"xnfO{ g} gd"gf elgG5 .

csf]{ zAbdf, hg;ª\Vofsf] k|ltlglwd"ns c+znfO{ g} gd"gf elgG5 . (The
representative proportion of the population is caled a sample) . t;y{, gd"gf hg;ª\Vofsf] Pp6f
c+z xf] . oxL c+zsf] uxg ¿kdf cWoog u/L lgsflnPsf lgisif{x¿nfO{ 7"nf]
hg;ª\Vofdf ;fdfGoLs/0f ul/G5 . h:t}M lxdfno SofDk;df cWoog ug]{ %))
ljBfyL{x¿dWo]af6 ;dfg ;Defjgfo'Qm gd"gf 5gf}6 ljlwsf] cfwf/df %) hgf
ljBfyL{ 5gf}6 ul/G5 eg] o;/L 5gf}6 ul/Psf] ljBfyL{sf] ;d"xnfO{ gd"gf
elgG5 .
gd"gf 5gf}6 (Sampling)

cWoogsf] hg;ª\Vofaf6 gd"gf 5gf}6 ubf{ h'g k|lqmof cjnDag ul/G5

To;}nfO{ gd"gf 5gf}6 k|lqmofsf] ¿kdf lnOG5 . t;y{, gd"gf 5gf}6 To:tf] k|
lqmof xf] h;åf/f JolQm, j:t' / 36gfx¿sf] ;fgf] ;ª\Vof 5gf}6
ul/G5 / ;Dk"0f{ hg;ª\Vofsf] af/]df s]xL s'/f kQf nufpg ljZn]if0f ul/G5 .
(Sampling is the process by which a relatively small number of individuals, objects or events is selected and
. o;/L 7"nf] ;d"xaf6 s]xL
analyzed in order to find out something about the entire population)
PsfOx¿ 5gf}6 ug]{ k|lqmof g} gd"gf 5gf}6 xf] . cg';Gwfgdf gd"gf 5gf}6
ubf{ ljz]iftM ;dfg ;Defjgfo'Qm / ;dfg ;Defjgf/lxt ljlwx¿sf] k|of]u ul/G5 .
7"nf] hg;ª\Vofaf6 Pp6f k|ltlglwd"ns gd"gf 5gf}6 ug{ ;s]sf] v08df pQm
gd"gfn] hg;ª\Vofsf ;Dk"0f{ ljz]iftfx¿nfO{ ;d]6]sf] x'G5 . kl/0ffd:j¿k o;/L
5gf}6 ul/Psf] gd"gfaf6 lgsflnPsf lgisif{x¿nfO{ cWoogsf] hg;ª\
Vofdf ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ ;lsG5 . To;}n] 7"nf] hg;ª\Vofaf6 k|ltlglwd"ns gd"gf
5gf}6 ug{ tn pNn]v ul/Psf rf/j6f r/0fx¿ cjnDag ug'{kb{5 —
-s_ hg;ª\VofnfO{ kl/eflift ug]{ (Defining the population): gd"gf 5gf}6 k|
lqmofsf] klxnf] r/0fdf cWoogsf] hg;ª\VofnfO{ :ki6 ¿kdf kl/eflift
ug'{kb{5 . cg';Gwfgsf] efiffdf ;dfg ljz]iftf ePsf ;hLj tyf lghL{j
j:t'x¿sf] ;d"xnfO{ g} cWoogsf] hg;ª\Vof elgG5 . o:tf] hg;ª\Vofdf dflg;x¿,
hgfj/x¿, af]6lj?jfx¿, oftfoftsf ;fwgx¿, z}lIfs ;ª\Vofx¿ cflbdWo] hf]
sf]xLnfO{ klg ;dfj]z ug{ ;lsG5 .

Prepared by Deepak Basnet 17

-v_ hg;ª\Vofsf] ;"rL tof/ ug]{ (Listing the Population): hg;ª\Vofaf6 k|
ltlglwd"ns gd"gf 5gf}6 ug{ ;DalGwt hg;ª\Vofsf k|To]s PsfOx¿sf] ;"rL tof/
ug'{kb{5 . o; lsl;dn] tof/ u/]sf] ;"rLnfO{ gd"gf 5gf}6 vfsf (Sampling frame) klg
elgG5 . olb hg;ª\Vofsf] cfsf/ 7"nf] 5 eg] To; cj:yfdf pQm hg;ª\Vofsf k|To]s
PsfOsf] ;"rL tof/ ug{ sl7g x'G5 . ljz]iftM ;Lldt (Finite) hg;ª\Vofdf dfq o;
lsl;dsf] vfsf tof/ ug{ ;Dej x'G5 .
-u_ k|ltlglwd"ns gd"gf 5gf}6 ug]{ (Selecting a representative sample): gd"gf
5gf]6 vfsf (Sampling frame) tof/ ul/;s]kl5 pQm vfsfaf6 kIfkft/lxt 9Ën]
kltlglwd"ns gd"gf 5gf}6 ug'{kb{5 . o; lsl;dn] 5gf}6 ul/Psf] gd"gfn]
cWoogsf] hg;ª\Vofsf] af/]df ;Dk"0f{ hfgsf/Lx¿ k|bfg ug{ ;Sg'k5{ . csf]
{ cy{df, cWoogsf] hg;ª\VofnfO{ k|ltlglwTj ug{ ;Sg'k5{ .
-3_ cfjZos gd"gf k|fKt ug]{ (Obtaining an adequate sample): cWoogaf6 lgsflnPsf
lgisif{x¿nfO{ 7"nf] hg;ª\Vofdf ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ gd"gfsf] cfsf/ pko'Qm
x'g'kb{5 . olb cWoogsf] hg;ª\Vof ;hftLo (Homogeneous) k|s[ltsf] 5 eg] ;fgf]
cfsf/sf] gd"gf klg kof{Kt x'G5 . t/ hg;ª\Vofsf] :j¿k ljhftLo (Heterogeneous) 5 eg]
7"nf] cfsf/sf] gd"gf rflxG5 . t;y{, hg;ª\Vofsf] :j¿ksf] cfwf/df pko'Qm
cfsf/sf] gd"gf 5gf}6 ug'{kb{5 .
dfly pNn]v ul/Psf] bf];|f] r/0fdf hg;ª\Vofsf k|To]s PsfOsf] ;"rL tof/ ug{ ;a}
cj:Yfdf ;Dej x'Fb}g . olb hg;ª\Vofsf] cfsf/ cToGt} 7"nf] 5 eg]
cg';Gwfgstf{nfO{ ;Dk"0f{ hg;ª\Vofsf] af/]df hfgsf/L gx'g ;S5 . o;/L
cWoogsf] ;Dk"0f{ hg;ª\Vofsf] af/]df k|i6 hfgsf/L geP tfklg pQm hg;ª\
Vofsf] lglZrt c+zsf] af/]df eg] cg';Gwfgstf{nfO{ hfgsf/L x'G5 .
cg';Gwfgstf{sf] hfgsf/Ldf /x]sf] o:tf] hg;ª\VofnfO{ kx'Frsf] hg;ª\Vof
(Accessible population) elgG5 h'g hg;ª\Vofaf6 cg';Gwfgstf{n] cWoogsf] gd"gf
5gf}6 u5{ . o;/L kx'Frsf] hg;ª\Vofaf6 5gf}6 ul/Psf] gd"gfn] nlIft hg;ª\Vof
(Target population) nfO{ k|ltlglwTj ug{ ;S5 eGg] dfGotf /flvG5 .

gd"gf 5gf}6 ug'{kg]{ sf/0fx¿ (Reasons for Selection Sample)

cg';Gwfgdf gd"gf 5gf}6 Ps dxTjk"0f{ sfd xf] / gd"gf 5gf}6 ug]{ ljleGg
sf/0fx¿ x'G5g\ . tL lgDg cg';f/ 5g\ —
!= nfut sd ug{ (Lower cost): hg;ª\Vofsf] k"0f{ cWoog
ug{ cg';Gwfgstf{nfO{ w]/} vr{ nfUb5 . gd"gf 5gf}6 u/L cg';Gwfg
ubf{ tYofª\s ;+sng / ljZn]if0f ug{ sd vr{ nfUb5 . To;}n]
cg';Gwfgstf{x¿n] gd"gf 5gf}6 u/L cg';Gwfg ub{5g\ .
@= a9L ;Totf k|bfg ug{ (Provide greater accuracy): hg;ª\Vofsf] cWoogdf eGbf
gd"gf 5gf}6 u/L cWoog ubf{ /fd|f] cGt/jftf{ lng ;lsG5 / /fd|f] ;'k/Lj]If0f
ug{ ;lsG5 . To;}u/L tYofª\sx¿sf] k|zf]wg / ljZn]if0f klg /fd|f] ug{ ;lsG5 .

Prepared by Deepak Basnet 18

To;}u/L tof+sx¿sf] k|zf]wg / ljZn]if0f klg /fd|f] ug{ ;lsG5 h;n]
ubf{ cg';Gwfgsf] glthfn] a9L ;Totf k|bfg ub{5 .
#= l56f] tYofª\s ;+sng ug{ (Collect data quickly): gd"gf 5gf}6 ul/;s]kl5
pQ/bftfx¿ sd x'G5g\ h;n] ubf{ tYofª\s ;+snsx¿n] /fd|f] lgb]{zg lbg /
;'kl/j]If0f ug{ ;Sb5g\ . o:tf sfo{n] tYofª\s ;+sng l56f] x'G5 .
$= hg;ª\Vofdf k'Ug ufx|f] x'gfn] (Inaccessible population): hg;ª\Vof lglZrt
x'Fb}g . lglZrt hg;ª\Vof ePsf] cj:Yfdf klg ;a} hgf;Dd k'Ug / tYofª\s ;+sng
ug{ c;Dej x'G5 . TO;}n] gd"gf ;+sng cfjZos x'G5 .
gd"gf 5gf}6sf k|sf/x¿ (Types of Sampling)

gd"gf 5gf}6 k4ltdf gd"gf 5gf}6 sfo{ cWoogsf] k|s[ltdf lge{/ x'G5 /
pko'Qm gd"gfsf] 5gf}6 ug'{ dxTjk"0f{ sfo{ dflgG5 . To;sf] nflu lglZrt
lgodx¿sf] kfngf ul/g'kb{5 . 5flgPsf gd"gf cWoogaf6 To:t} u'0fo'Qm PsfO
jf ;d"x jf ;du|sf] k|ltlglwTj x'g ;sf];\ eGg] p2]Zosf nflu lgodx¿ agfOPsf x'g\
. gd"gf 5fGgsf] nflu cjnDag ug'{kg]{ To:tf] lgod jf k4ltnfO{ gd"gf 5gf}6
k4lt (Sampling method) elgG5 . cg';Gwfgstf{n] pko'Qm ljlwsf] rog ljifoj:t'sf] k|
s[ltsf] cfwf/df ug'{kb{5 . t/ o:tf] k4ltsf] rog ubf{ cfkm"nfO{ cfjZos
PsfOsf] ;xL k|ltlglwTj ug]{ vfnsf] x'g'kb{5 . gd"gf 5gf}6 k4lt lgDg
b'O{ efudf juL{s/0f ul/Psf] 5 —
!= ;Defjgfo'Qm gd"gf 5gf}6 (Probability Sampling)

;Defjgfo'Qm gd"gf 5gf]6 k|lqmof To:tf] xf] h;df hg;ª\Vofsf k|TO]s PsfOsf]
gd"gfsf] ¿kdf 5gf}6 x'g] ;Defjgf a/fa/ x'G5 . o:tf] gd"gf 5gf}6 k4ltdf
cg';Gwfgstf{sf] OR5fcg';f/ gd"gf 5gf}6 gu/L ;dfg ;Defjgfo'Qm gd"gf
5gf}6 ljlwx¿sf] k|of]uåf/f cg';Gwfgsf] gd"Gf 5gf}6 ul/G5 h;df hg;ª\Vofleq
/x]sf k|To]s PsfOsf] gd"gfsf] ¿kdf 5gf}6 x'g] ;Defjgf /xG5 . Pp6f PsfOsf]
5gf]6n] csf]{ PsfOsf] 5gf}6df s'g} k|efj kfb}{g . To;}n] o:tf] gd"gf
5gf}6nfO{ Random sampling klg elgG5 . ;Defjgfo'Qm gd"gf 5gf}6
k4ltnfO{ lgDglnlvt cj:yfdf k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 .
 gd"gf 5gf}6 ul/g] hg;ª\Vofsf] cfsf/af/] cg';Gwfgstf{nfO{ hfgsf/L
x'g'kb{5 .
 hg;ª\Vofsf k|To]s PsfOx¿sf] gd"gfsf] ¿kdf 5gf}6 x'g] ;Defjgf a/fa/
x'g'kb{5 .
 ck]lIft gd"gfsf] cfsf/nfO{ :ki6 ¿kdf ls6fg ul/Psf] x'g'kb{5 .
;Defjgfo'Qm gd"gf 5gf}6 k4ltsf] pkof]u u/L 5gf}6 ul/Psf] gd"gf a9L k|
ltlglwd"ns x'G5 . h;n] ubf{ gd"gfsf] uxg cWoog u/L lgsflnPsf
lgisif{x¿nfO{ cWoogsf] hg;ª\Vofdf ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ ;lsG5 . oBlk gd"gf
5gf}6df x'g] q'l6sf] dfqfnfO{ eg] k"0f{ ¿kdf lgoGq0f ug{ ;lsFb}g . t/ o;
lsl;dsf] q'l6nfO{ tYofÍzf:qLo ljlwåf/f cg'dfg eg] ug{ ;lsG5 . o:tf ljljw

Prepared by Deepak Basnet 19

sf/0fx¿n] ubf{ o; gd"gf 5gf}6 k4ltnfO{ a9L j}1flgs dflgG5 . lzIffsf] If]qdf
k|of]u ul/g] k|d'v ;Defjgfo'Qm gd"gf 5gf}6 ljlwx¿nfO{ lgDgfg';f/ pNn]v
ul/Psf] 5 M
-s_ ;fdfGo ;Defjgfo'Qm gd"gf 5gf}6 (Simple random sampling)

;fdfGo ;Defjgfo'Qm gd"gf 5gf}6 ljlw cWoogsf] hg;ª\Vofaf6 gd"gf 5gf}6

ug]{ Pp6f k|rlnt ljlw xf] . o; gd"gf 5gf}6 ljlwdf hg;V+ofdf /x]sf k|To]s
PsfOsf] gd"gfsf] ¿kdf 5gf}6 x'g] ;Defjgf a/fa/ x'G5 . Pp6f PsfOsf] 5gf}6n]
csf]{ PsfOsf] 5gf}6df s'g} c;/ ub}{g . t;y{, ;fdfGo ;Defjgfo'Qm gd"gf
5gf}6 cg';Gwfgsf] nflu gd"gf 5gf}6 ug]{ To:tf] k|lqmof xf] h;df kl/eflift
ul/Psf] hg;V+fodf /x]sf ;a} JolQmx¿sf] gfd"gfsf] ¿kdf 5gf}6
x'g] ;Defjgf ;dfg / :jtGq x'G5 . o; ljlwaf6 gd"gf 5f}6
ubf{ cg';Gwfgstf{nfO{ cWoogsf] hg;ª\Vofsf] af/]df k"0f{ hfgsf/L
x'g'kb{5, cGoyf of] ljlw Jojxfl/s x'Fb}g . h:t}M :gfts tx rf}yf] aif{df
Joj:Yfkg ljifo lnP/ k9\g] ljBfyL{x¿sf] ;ª\Vof %)) 5 eg] oL ;a} ljBfyL{x¿;Fu
JolQmut ¿kdf e]63f6 u/L tYofª\s ;+sng ubf{ a9L ;do, >d / nfutsf] cfjZostf
kb{5 . To;}n] o; ;d"xaf6 gd"gf 5gf}6 ubf{ ;j{k|yd cg';Gwfgstf{n] ;a}
ljBfyL{x¿sf] gfdfjnL tof/ ug'{kb{5 . gfdfjnL tof/ ul/;s]kl5 klxrfg ug{ ;lsg]
lsl;dn] hg;ª\Vofsf k|To]s PsfOsf] gf cyjf ;ª\Vofsf] ;|s]t k|of]u u/L
sfuhsf ;–;fgf 6'qmfdf cnucnu ¿kdf l6kf]6 ug'{kb{5 . oL ;a} sfuhsf
6'qmfx¿nfO{ a/fa/ cfsf/df bf]afg'{k5{ . o;/L bf]af/Lsf sfuhsf
6'qmfx¿nfO{ Pp6f uf]nf] a§fdf /fvL pQm a§fnfO{ /fd|f];Fu xNnfpg'k5{ /
cfFvf aGb u/]sf] JolQmnfO{ rflxPsf] ;ª\Vofdf lr¶f lemSg nufpg'kb{5 . o;/L
lr¶f tfGbf h'g h'g ljBfyL{? 5gf}6 x'G5g\ pgLx¿ g} cWoogsf] gd"gfsf] ¿kdf
/xG5g\ . o; ljlwdfkm{t gd"gf 5gf}6 ug{ d'Vo u/L b'o{j6f tl/sf? cjnDag
ul/G5 M
 lr¶f ljlw (Lottery method): o; ljwdfkm{t gd"gf 5gf}6 ubf{ cWoogsf]
hg;ª\Vofdf /x]sf k|To]s PsfOnfO{ a/fa/ cfsf/sf cnu cnu sfuhsf
6'qmfdf l6kf]6 ul/G5 / a/fa/ x'g] u/L k6\ofP/ Pp6f srf}/f cfsf/sf] a§fdf
/flvG5 . o;/L /flvPsf 6'qmfx¿nfO{ /fd|f];Fu lkm6]/ cfFvf aGb u/]sf]
JolQmaf6 rflxPsf] ;ª\Vofdf gd"gf 5gf}6 ul/G5 .
 ;Defjgfo'Qm ;ª\Vofsf] tflnsf k|of]u u/] (By using table of random numbers):
k|foh;f] tYofª\szf:q / cg';Gwfgsf k':tsx¿sf] kl/lzi6 v08
cGtu{t ;DefJotfsf] cfwf/df tof/ ul/Psf] ;ª\Vof tflnsfdf lbOPsf] x'G5 .
oxL tflnsfsf] k|of]u u/]/ klg gd"gf 5gf}6 ug{ ;lsG5 . h:t}M %)) hgf
ljBfyL{x¿dWo] ;DefJo ;ª\Vof tflnsfsf] pkof]u u/L %) hgf
ljBfyL{ 5gf}6 ug'{ k/]sf] v08df ))! af6 qmdzM $(( ;Ddsf tLgj6f
clGtd c+s ePsf ;ª\Vofx¿ dWo]af6 rflxPsf] cfsf/df gd"gf 5gf}6
ug{ ;lsG5 . o;/L gd"gf 5gf}6 ubf{ tflnsfsf] klxnf] cyjf clGtd h'g;'s}
sf]nd (Column) af6 cf/De ug{ ;lsG5 .
Prepared by Deepak Basnet 20
-v_ :t/Ls[t gd"gf 5gf]6 (Stratified sampling)

cWoogsf] hg;ª\Vofdf /x]sf ;Dk"0f{ PsfOx¿ ;hftLo (Homogeneous) k|s[ltsf 5g\

eg] To:tf] cj:yfdf ;fdfGo ;Defjgfo'Qm gd"gf 5gf]6 ljlw pko'Qm x'G5 . t/
cWoogsf] hg;ª\Vofdf /x]sf PsfOx¿ ljhftLo (Heterogeneous) k|s[ltsf 5g\
eg] ;fdfGo ;Defjgfo'Qm gd"gf 5gf]6 ljlwåf/f 5gf]6 ul/Psf]
gd"gfn] ;Dk"0f{ hg;ª\VofnfO{ k|ltlglwTj gug{ ;S5 . t;y{, o:tf] cj:yfdf
cWoogsf] hg;ª\Vofleq /x]sf PsfOx¿ Pscsf{df ldNbfh'Nbf ljz]iftfsf] cfwf/df
km/s km/s ;d"x (Strata) df ljefhg u/L k|To]s ;d"xaf6 k|ltlglwd"ns gd"gf
5gf]6 ug{ ;s]sf] v08df pQm gd"gfn] cWoogsf] hg;ª\VofnfO{ k|ltlglwTj
ug{ ;S5 . ;fdfGotofM :t/Ls[t gd"gf 5gf]6 ubf{ b'O{ r/0fsf] k|lqmof cjnDag
ul/G5 .
-c_ ;j{k|yd cWoogsf] hg;ª\VofnfO{ lglZrt ljz]iftfsf] cfwf/df ;hftLo
(Homogeneous) ;d"xdf ljefhg ug'{kb{5 . h:t}M k'?if / dlxnf .
-cf_ ljleGg ;d"xdf ljefhg ul/Psf PsfOx¿ leqaf6 ;Defjgfo'Qm gd"gf 5gf}6
ljlwsf] dfWodåf/f ;dfg'kflts k|ltlglwTj x'g] u/L cfjZostf cg';f/ gd"gf
5gf]6 ug'{kb{5 .
dfly pNn]v ul/Psf s'/fx¿af6 s] k|i6 x'G5 eg] :t/Ls[t gd"gf 5gf}6 cWOogsf]
hg;ª\Vofaf6 gd"gf 5f}6 ug]{ To:tf] k|lqmof xf] h;df lglZrt ljz]iftfsf]
cfwf/df juL{s/0f ul/Psf pk–;d"x (Sub-groups) af6 k|To]ssf] ;xL k|ltlglwTj x'g]
u/L ;Defjgfo'Qm gd"gf 5gf]6 ljlwsf] dfWodaf6 ;dfg'kflts ¿kdf gd"gf 5gf]6
ul/G5 . o;/L, ljljw ljz]iftfsf] cfwf/df ;Dk"0f{ hg;ª\VofnfO{ ljleGg pk;d"xdf
ljefhg u/L ;dfg'kflts ¿kdf gd"gf 5gf]6 ubf{ pQm gd"gfn] oyfy{df
cWoogsf] hg;ª\VofnfO{ k|ltlglwTj ug{ ;S5 .
-u_ qmda4 gd"gf 5gf]6 (Systematic sampling)

qmda4 gd"gf 5gf]6 ljlw (Systematic smapling) df Pp6f PsfOnfO{ ;DefJo c+ssf]
cfwf/df 5gf]6 u/L jfFsL PsfOnfO{ lglZrt lgodsf] cfwf/df :jtM 5gf]6 ul/G5 .
o;df klxnf] PsfOnfO{ ;+of]u z'? (Random satart) elgG5 . h:t} ;du|sf N nfO{ 1
b]lv N ;Dd qmda4 ¿kdf /fvL To;af6 n -gd"gf cfsf/_ 5gf]6 ug'{5 eg] ;j{k|yd
N = nk, oxfF k Ps c+s xf] . ;+of]u c+s tflnsfsf] k|of]u u/L 1 b]lv k sf] aLraf6
Pp6f c+s (r) 5gf]6 ul/G5, / ;f] c+s k|fKt PsfO gd"gf xf] . To;kl5 k, k+r, k+2r, ………
k + (n-1)r PsfOnfO{ qmdzM 5gf]6 ul/G5 . olb N  nk, eg] o;df k|To]s k
PsfOnfO{ 5gf]6 ub}{ hfg'kb{5 / j[Qfsf/ ljlwsf] cfwf/df cfjZos gd"gf ;ª\Vof
5gf]6 ul/G5 . o:tf] gd"gf 5gf]6nfO{ j[Qfsf/ qmda4 gd"gf 5gf]6 ljlw (Circular
systematic sampling) elgG5 .

olb k"0f{ / gjLgtd\ g"gf vfsf pknAw 5 eg] qmda4 gd"gf 5gf]6 ljlwsf] k|
of]u ;/n / ;xh ¿kdf ug{ ;lsG5 . of] ljlwsf] k|of]u hËndf sf7sf] cfoftg, tnfpdf
df5f]sf] ;ª\Vof cflbsf] cg'dfg ug{sf] nflu pko'Qm x'G5 .
-3_ ;d"x gd"gf 5gf]6 (Cluster sampling)

Prepared by Deepak Basnet 21

;+of]u gd"gf ;du|nfO{ kl/ldlt ;ª\Vofdf k[ys / kl/lrt PsfOdf ljefhg ug{ ;lsG5
eGg] cg'dfg ul/G5 . ;du|df ;a}eGbf ;fgf] PsfOdf ljefhg ul/g] efunfO{ tTj
(Element) elgG5 . oL tTjx¿sf] ;d"xnfO{ em'08 (Cluster) elgG5 . ha gd"gf 5gf]6
PsfO g} em'08 x'G5 eg] To:tf] gd"gf 5gf]6 ljlwnfO{ Cluster sampling
elgG5 . ;fdfGotof l5d]sL tTjx¿nfO{ ldnfO{ em'08 aGg] x'gfn] k|To]s
em'08df /x]sf PsfOx¿ ;dfg ljz]iftfsf x'G5g\ eGg] dfGotf /xG5 . em'08df slt
;ª\Vof 5g\ eGg] s'/fdf s'g} aGb]h x'Fb}g . o;/L em'08 gd"gf 5gf]6df ;du|
nfO{ ljljw em'08df ljefhg u/L, cfjZos em'08x¿sf] a/fa/ ;dfg cyjf c;dfg ;
+efJosf] cfwf/df 5hgf]6 ul/G5 / 5gf]6 ul/Psf] em'08sf] ;du| cWoog
(Enumeration) ul/G5 .

olb gd"gf 5gf]6 ul/g'kg]{ ;du|sf] cfsf/ Hofb} 7"nf] 5 eg] o:tf] cj:Yfdf
em'08nfO{ g} gd"gf 5gf]6 ul/G5 . o:tf] 5gf]6df ;du|sf] u0fgf ug{ cfjZos
x'Fb}g . pbfx/0f]sf nflu olb sf7df8f}F ;x/sf dtbftfx¿sf] dgzfo a'em\g
gd"gf 5gf]6 ug'{k/]df cfjZostfcg';f/ 6f]n 6f]nsf lglZrt
em'08x¿nfO{ lnOG5 . tL em'08x¿dWo] klg cfjZostfcg';f/ gd"gf lnOG5 .
To;kl5 cfsl:ds ¿kdf ;DefJo gd"gf 5gf]6 ul/G5 . em'08sf] ¿kdf 5gf]6
ug{ b]z, If]q, c~rn, lhNnf, ufpF, a:tL / kl/jf/nfO{ lng ;lsG5 . t/ h'g
em'08nfO{ gd"gfsf] ¿kdf lng] xf] To;sf] k"/f cWOog ug'{kg]
{ ePsf]n] ;"rL agfpg cfjZos x'G5 .
@= ;Defjgf/lxt gd"gf 5gf]6 (Non Probability Sampling)

cg';Gwfgdf cWoogsf] hg;ª\Vofaf6 gd'gf 5gf]6 ug{ k|of]u ul/g] csf]

{ k4lt ;Defjgf/lxt gd"gf 5f]6 k4lt xf] . ;a} cj:yfdf ;dfg ;Defjgfo'Qm gd"gf
5gf]6 ljlwsf] dfWodaf6 cg';Gwfgsf] gd"gf 5gf]6 ug{ ;Dej x'Fb}g . sltko
cj:yfdf t hg;ª\Vofsf lglZrt PsfOx¿ dfq ;+rfng ug{ nfluPsf] cg';Gwfgsf nflu
a9L dxTjk"0f{ x'G5g\ . t;y{, cWoogsf] hg;ª\Vofsf] af/]df
cg';Gwfgstf{ cgle1 5 / hg;ª\Vofsf k|To]s PsfOx¿ cg';Gwfgsf] nflu
dxTjk"0f{ 5}gg\ eg] To:tf] cj:yfdf ;Defjgf/lxt gd"gf 5gf]6 k4ltsf] pkof]u
ul/G5 . o;/L cWoog ug{ nfluPsf] hg;ª\Vofsf k|To]s PsfOx¿sf] af/]df
cg';Gwfgstf{ hfgsf/ 5}g eg] To:tf] cj:yfdf o; k4ltnfO{ k|of]u ul/G5 . o:tf]
k4ltdf cg';Gwfgstf{n] cfkm\gf] OR5f, cfjZostf / ;xhtfsf cfwf/df cWoogsf]
gd"gf 5gf]6 ub{5 .
-s_ p2]Zod"ns gd"gf 5gf]6 (Purposive sampling)

p2]Zod"ns gd"gf 5gf]6 ;Defjgf/lxt gd"gf 5gf]6 ljlwsf] Pp6f ¿k ePsf] x'gfn]
o; ljlwdf hg;ª\Vofsf k|To]s PsfOx¿ gd"gfsf] ¿kdf 5gf]6 x'g] ;Defjgf
/xFb}g . t;y{ cg';Gwfgstf{n] h'g p2]Zon] cg';Gwfg sfo{ ;+rfng
ug{ nfu]sf] xf] ;f]xL p2]Zo k|fKt s'g] lsl;dn] cfkm\gf] JolQmut lg0f{osf]
cfwf/df gd"gf 5gf]6 u5{ eg] To:tf] gd"gf 5gf]6 ljlwnfO{ p2]Zod"ns gd"gf
5gf]6 elgG5 . cg';Gwfgstf{n] hg;ª\Vofsf] h'g PsfOaf6 cfkm\gf] p2]Zo k"/f

Prepared by Deepak Basnet 22

x'g] 7fGb5, tL PsfOx¿nfO{ g} gd"gfsf] ¿kdf 5gf]6 ub{5 . o;/L
cg';Gwfgstf{n] h'g h'g PsfOx¿ cg';Gwfgsf] nflu dxTjk"0f{ 7fGb5 tL
PsfOx¿dfq 5gf]6 x'g] x'gfn] hg;ª\Vofsf k|TO]s PsfOsf] gd"gfsf] ¿kdf 5gf]6
x'g] ;Defjgf ;dfg x'Fb}g . tfklg cg';Gwfgsf] nflu cfjZos kg]{ tYofª\s ;+sng
ug{ lglZrt PsfOx¿ dfq a9L dxTJk"0f{ 5g\ eg] TO; cj:Yfdf of] gd"gf 5gf]6
ljlw pkof]u ul/G5 .
cg';Gwfgstf{n] cfkm\gf] cWoogsf] nflu rflxg] ljZj;gLo / j:t'lgi7 ;"rgfx¿ k|
fKt ug{ s'g s'g PsfOx¿nfO{ gd"gfleq ;dfj]z ug]{ xf] ;f] s'/fsf] lg0f{o
cfkm}n] ug]{ x'gfn] o; ljlwnfO{ lg0f{ofTds gd"gf 5gf]6 ljlw (Judgement
sampling method) klg elgG5 . o; ljlwnfO{ ;xL tl/sfn] k|of]u
ug{ cg';Gwfgstf{ hg;ª\Vofsf ;a} PsfO / tL PsfOx¿sf] ljz]iftf;Fu /fd|/L kl/lrt
x'g'kb{5 . tadfq p;n] cfkm\gf] p2]Zo k"/f x'g] vfnsf] gd"gf 5gf]6
ug{ ;S5 . o;y{, hg;ª\Vofsf] cfsf/ ;fgf] ePsf] cj:yfdf dfq of] gd"gf 5gf]6
ljlwsf] k|of]u u/L gd"gf 5gf]6 ug{ ;lsG5 .
-v_ cf/If0f gd"gf ljlw (Quota sampling)

hg;ª\Vofsf ljleGg PsfOx¿nfO{ lglZrt ljz]iftfsf] cfwf/df cnu cnu ;d"xdf

ljefhg u/L k|To]s ;d"xaf6 cg';Gwfgstf{n] cfkm\gf] OR5f cg';f/ gd"gf 5gf]6
ub{5 eg] To:tf] gd"gf 5gf]6 k4ltnfO{ sf]6f gd"gf 5gf]6 ljlw elgG5 . of]
gd"gf 5gf]6 ljlw ;Defjgfo'Qm gd"gf 5gf]6sf] :t/Ls[t gd"gf 5gf]6 ljlw;Fu
ldNbf]h'Nbf] 5 lsgls oL b'j} gd"gf 5gf]6 ljlwdf cWoogsf] hg;ª\Vofsf k|To]s
PsfOnfO{ lglZrt ljz]iftfsf] cfwf/df cnu cnu ;d"x (Strata) df ljefhg ul/G5 / k|
To]s ;d"xaf6 cfjZos dfqfdf gd"gf 5gf]6 ul/G5 . oBlk oL b'j} gd"gf 5gf]6
ljlw ;dfg eg] xf]Ogg\ . :t/Ls[t gd"gf 5gf]6 ljlwdf lglZrt ljz]iftfsf] cfwf/df
ljefhg ul/Psf ljleGg ;d"xaf6 ;fdfGo ;Defjgfo'Qm gd"gf 5gf]6 ljlwsf] k|of]u
u/L gd"gf 5gf]6 ul/G5 t/ cf/If0f gd"gf 5gf]6 ljlwdf eg] ;dfg u'0fsf] cfwf/df
ljefhg ul/Psf ;d"xaf6 cg';Gwfgstf{n] cfkm\gf] :jOR5fn] cfjZostf cg';f/
gd"gf 5gf]6 ub{5 . kmn:j¿k lglZrt ljz]iftfsf] cfwf/df ljleGg ;d"xdf ljefhg
ul/Psf k|To]s PsfOsf] gd"gfsf] ¿kdf 5gf]6 x'g] ;Defjgf a/fa/ /xFb}g .
-u_ ;'ljwfhgs gd"gf 5gf]6 (Convenience sampling)

hg;ª\Vofsf] h'g PsfOnfO{ 5gf]6 ubf{ cfkm"nfO{ ;lhnf] x'G5 ;f]xL

PsfOnfO{ jf JolQm jf ;d"xnfO{ gd"gfsf] ¿kdf 5gf]6 ug]{ ljlwnfO{ ;'ljwfhgs
gd"gf 5gf]6 (Convenience sampling) elgG5 . gd"gfx¿ hxfFaf6 hlxn] klg 5flgg ;Sg]
x'gfn] o;nfO{ cfsl:ds gd"gf 5gf]6 (Acidental sampling) klg elgG5 . of] ljlwaf6
ul/g] gd"gfsf] 5gf]6 cg';Gwfgstf{sf] ;xhtfdf k"0f{ lge{/ /xG5 . ha ;do /
/dsf] cToGt 7"nf] ;Ldf x'G5 To;a]nf of] ljlwsf] k|of]u ul/G5 . h:t}M afl0fHo
j}+sx¿df sd{rf/Lx¿sf] ;'ljwf / ;x'lnot ;DaGwdf cg';Gwfg ubf{ cfkm\gf]
glhsdf /x]sf j}+ssf sd{rf/Lx¿;Fu dfq cGtjf{tf{ lng' jf cfkm"n] lrg]sf
dfG5]n] sfd ug]{ a}+snfO{ gd"gfsf] ¿kdf 5gf]6 ug'{ . of] ljlw k"0f{ ¿kdf

Prepared by Deepak Basnet 23

j}w x'Fb}g t/ JofVofTds cg';Gwfg / k|ZgfjnLsf] k"j{k/LIf0fsf] cj:Yfdf of]
gd"gf 5gf]6 cToGt pkof]uL dflgG5 . of] ljlwaf6 gd"gf ;+sng cOTGt ;lhnf],
;:tf] / l56f] x'G5 .
-3_ :gf]aan gd"gf 5gf]6 (Snowball sampling)

:gf]an gd"gf 5gf]6 ljlwaf6 gd"gf 5gf]6 ubf{ ;j{k|yd cg';Gwfgstf{n]

cWoogsf] hg;ª\Vofsf] s'g} Pp6f PsfOnfO{ gd"gfsf] ¿kdf 5gf]6 ub{5 /
pQm PsfOaf6 ;'rgf ;+sng ul/;s]kl5 ToxL PsfOn] lbPsf] hfgsf/Lsf] cfwf/df
hg;ª\Vofsf yk PsfOx¿nfO{ gd"gf leq ;dfj]z ub{5 . o;/L 5gf]6 ul/Psf gofF
PsfOx¿af6 cfjZos tYofª\s ;+sng ul/;s]kl5 oL PsfOx¿n] lbPsf] 7]ufgfsf]
cfwf/df g} cGo yk PsfOx¿ 5gf]6 u5{ . cg';Gwfgstf{sf] cfjZostf cg';f/sf]
g"gfsf] cfsf/ 5gf]6 geP;Dd oxL qmddf hf/L /flvG5 . o;/L o; gd"gf 5gf]6
ljlwdf ;~hfn (Networks) sf] cfwf/df gd"gf 5gf]6 ul/G5 . t/ slxn]sflxF
cg';Gwfgstf{n] cWoogsf] hg;ª\Vofsf] s'g} klg PsfO kQf gnufpg ;S5 . o:tf]
cj:yfdf p;n] ;DalGwt hg;ª\Vofsf] lxtdf sfd ug]{ ;xof]uL (Volunteer) sf] d2t
dfkm{t cg';Gwfgstf{n] s'gP PsfO klxrfg ug{ ;S5 . To;kl5 eg] pQm
PsfOn] lbPsf] hfgsf/Lsf] cfwf/df yk PsfOx¿ 5gf]6 ug{ ;S5 .
gd"gfsf] cfsf/ (Sample Size)

;fdfGOtofM cg';Gwfgdf s'g cfsf/sf] gd"Gf 5gf]6 ubf{ pQm gd"gfsf]

cWoogaf6 lgsflnPsf lgisif{x¿nfO{ 7"nf] hg;ª\Vofdf ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ ;lsG5
eGg] s'/fnfO{ cWoogsf] p2]Zo / hg;ª\Vofsf] :j¿kn] k|efj kfb{5 . tfklg
gd"gfsf] cfsf/ hlt 7"Pnf] x'G5, gd"gf 5gf]6df x'g] q'l6sf] dfqf Tolt g}
Go"g x'G5 . olb gd"gfsf] cfsf/ ;fgf] eof] eg] pQm gd"gfsf] cWoog u/L
lgsflnPsf lgisif{x¿nfO{ 7"nf] hg;ª\Vofdf k"0f{ dfqfdf ;fdfGOLs/0f
ug{ ;lsFb}g . t;y{, hlt j}1flgs 9Ën] gd"gf 5gf]6 ul/P tfklg olb o;sf]
cfsf/ ;fgf] 5 eg] cg';Gwfgaf6 lgsflnPsf lgisif{x¿sf] ;fdfGoLs/0fdf k|efj
kb{5 . h:t}M :gfts tx rf}yf] aif{df Joj:Yfkg ljifo lnP/ cWoog ug]
{ ljBfyL{x¿ $)) hgf 5g\ . oL ljBfyL{x¿ dWo]af6 ;dfg ;Defjgfo'Qm gd"gf
5gf]6 ljlwsf] k|of]u u/L $ hgf 5gf]6 ug]{ xf] eg] oL ljBfyL{x¿n] Joj:yfkg
ljifo cWoog ug]{ ;a} ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ k|ltlglwTj ug{ ;Sb}gg\ . t/ %)÷^) hgf
ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ ;dfg ;Defjgfo'Qm gd"gf 5gf]6 ljlwsf] dfWodaf6 5gf]6 ug]
{ xf] eg] kSs] klg o; gd"gfn] Joj:Yfkg ljifo cWoog ug]
{ ;Dk"0f{ ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ k|ltlglwTj ug{ ;S5 .
oyfy{df cWoogsf] gd"gfsf] cfsf/ ;~rfng ug{ nfluPsf] cg';Gwfgsf] k|sf/df
lge{/ x'G5 . ;j]{ cg';Gwfgsf] gd"gfsf] cfsf/ k|of]ufTds cg';Gwfgsf] eGbf
7"nf] x'g'kb{5 . j0f{gfTds cg';Gwfgdf ;Dk"0f{ hg;ª\Vofgsf] sDtLdf klg !)
k|ltzt ;ª\VofnfO{ gd"gfsf] ¿kdf lnFbf pQm gd"gfn] ;Dk"0f{ hg;ª\
VofnfO{ k|ltlglwTj ug{ ;S5 . t/ hg;ª\Vofsf] cfsf/ ;fgf] 5 eg] To; cj:yfdf
yf]/}df klg @) k|ltzt ;ª\VofnfO{ gd"gfsf] ¿kdf 5gf]6 ug'{kb{5 .

Prepared by Deepak Basnet 24

To;}u/L, ;x;DaGwfTds cg';Gwfg (Correlation research) df b'O{ jf ;f] eGbf a9L
r/x¿sf] aLrdf ;DaGw eP gePsf] s'/fnfO{ ;'lglZrt ug{ 5gf]6 ul/Psf k|To]s
gd"gf ;d"x (Sample group) df sDtLdf klg #) hgf ;dfj]z x'g'kb{5 . t/ sf/0f–t'ngf
(Casual-comparative) / k|of]ufTds (Experimental) cg';Gwfgdf eg] k|of]usf nflu 5gf]6
ul/Psf k|To]s gd"gf ;d"xdf yf]/}df klg !% hgfnfO{ ;dfj]z ug'{kb{5 . olb
cg';Gwfgstf{n] cfkm\gf] cWoogsf lgisif{x¿nfO{ tYofÍzf:qLo ¿kdf k/LIf0f
ug{ rfxG5 eg] k|of]usf nflu 5gf]6 ul/Psf] k|To]s gd"gfsf] cfsf/ sDtLdf klg
#) hgfsf] x'g'kb{5 . o;/L ljleGg cg';Gwfgdf sDtLdf klg dfly pNn]v ul/P
cg';f/sf] cfsf/df gd"Gf 5gf]6 ug'{kb{5 . oBlk Jojxfl/s ¿kdf ;Dej 5 eg]
cg';Gwfgstf{n] hlt 7"nf] gd"gf 5gf]6 ug{ ;S5 Tolt g} pQm gd"gfn]
cWoogsf] hg;ª\VofnfO{ k|ltlglwTj ug{ ;S5 .
cg';Gwfgstf{n] 7"nf] cfsf/sf] gd"gf 5gf}6 u/]sf] v08df pQm gd"gfaf6
lgsfn]sf lgisif{x¿ z'4 x'G5g\ / oL lgisif{x¿nfO{ cWoogsf] hg;ª\Vofdf k"0f{
¿kdf ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ ;lsG5 . o;sf] d'Vo sf/0f gd"gfsf] cfsf/ 7"nf] x'Fbf
gd"gf q'l6 yf]/} x'G5 / gd"gfsf] cfsf/ ;fgf] x'Fbf gd"gf q'l6 klg w]/} x'G5
h;nfO{ tn pNn]v ul/Psf] aqm/]vfåf/f :ki6 kfl/Psf] 5 .

Large

Error

Large

Small Size of
sample

oxfF pNn]v ul/Psf] jqm/]vfn] gd"gfsf] cfsf/ / gd"gf q'l6sf] aLrdf

gsf/fTds ;DaGw x'G5 eGg] s'/fnfO{ :ki6 kf/]sf] 5 . o;sf] cy{, gd"gfsf] cfsf/
a9\bf gd"gf 5gf]6df x'g] q'l6sf] dfqf 36\5 / gd"gfsf] cfsf/ 36\bf gd"f
q'l6sf] dfqf a9\5 . t;y{, cg';Gwfgstf{n] ;do, vr{ / dfgjLo ;|f]tnfO{ Vofn
ub}{ hlt;Sbf] 7"nf] cfsf/sf] gd"gf 5gf]6 ug'{kb{5 . oBlk gd"gfsf] cfsf/
7"nf] x'Fbf pQm gd"gfaf6 lgsflnPsf lgisif{x¿ z'4 x'G5g\ eGg] 5}g . olb
5gf]6 ul/Psf] gd"gf k|ltlglwd"ns 5 eg] ;fgf] cfsf/sf] gd"gfn] klg 7"nf] hg;ª\
VofnfO{ k|ltlglwTj ug{ ;S5 . ljz]iftM cWoogsf] nflu 5gf]6 ul/Psf] hg;ª\
Vofsf] :j¿k lahftLo (Heterogeneous) 5 eg] gd"gfsf] cfsf/ 7"nf] rflxG5 . t/ hg;ª\
Vofsf] :j¿k ;hftLo (Homogeneous) 5 eg] ;fgf] cfsf/sf] gd"gfn] klg hg;ª\
VofnfO{ k|ltlglwTj ug{ ;S5 . o;sf cnfjf kl/df0ffTds cg';Gwfgdf cWoogsf
lgisif{x¿nfO{ 7"nf] hg;ª\Vofdf ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ 7"nf] cfsf/sf] gd"gf rflxG5
t/ u'0ffTds cg';Gwfgdf gd"gfsf] cfsf/ uf}0f x'g] ePsf]n] ;fgf] cfsf/sf] gd"gf
5gf]6 u/L uxg ¿kdf cWoog ul/G5 . o;y{, cg';Gwfgstf{n] ;do, vr{, k|

Prepared by Deepak Basnet 25

zf;lgs ;xof]u, dfgjLo / cGo ;|f]tx¿nfO{ ljrf/ ub}{ cg';Gwfgsf] :j¿k cg';f/sf]
plrt cfsf/sf] gd"gf 5gf]6 ug'{kb{5 .

Prepared by Deepak Basnet 26

gd"gfut / u}/gd"gfut q'l6x¿ (Sampling and Non-Sampling Error)

ljleGg k\sf/sf cg';Gwfgx¿df tYofª\ssf] ;+sng ljleGg tl/sfaf6 ug]{ ul?G5 .

olb hg;ª\Vof ;gf] 5 eg] ;Dk"0f{ hg;ª\VofnfO{ k|of]u u/L tYofª\s Pjd\
hfgsf/Lx¿sf] ;+sng ul/G5 h;nfO{ gd"gfljlxg tYofª\s ;+sng ljlw (Non sampling
method) elgG5 e]g w]/} hg;ª\Vof ePsf ljifo Pjd\ 36gfx¿sf] cg';GWfg
ubf{ gd"gfx¿sf] 5gf}6 u/L ToxL gd"gfsf cfwf/df tYofª\sx¿ ;+sng ug]
{ ul/G5 h;nfO{ gd"gf ut tYofª\s ;+sng ljlw (Sampling method) elgG5 . gd"gf
5gf]6 ubf{ x'g ;Sg] sdL sdhf]/Lx¿nfO{ gd"gfut q'l6x¿ (Sampling errors) elgG5 .
To;}u/L gd"gf 5gf}6 ubf{ geO{ tYofª\s ;+sngs fnflu tof/ ul/Psf
cGo ;fwgx¿ h:t}M k|ZgfjnL, cGt/fjtf{ cflbdf x'g ;Sg]
uNtLx¿nfO{ gd"gfljlxg q'l6x¿ (Non-sampling errors) elgG5 . oL q'l6x¿sf af/]df tn
lbOPsf] 5 M
-s_ gd"gfut q'l6x¿ (Sampling errors): olb gd"gf ;+sng ubf{ q'l6 x'g
uO{ gd"gfn] ;du| hg;ª\VofnfO{ k|ltlglwTj gu/]sf sf/0f x'g] uNtLx¿ gd"gfut
q'l6x¿ (Samploign erors) x'g\ . o;nfO{ tYofª\szf:qLo efiffdf eGg] xf] eg] hg;ª\
Vofsf] dWos / gd"gfsf] dWossf aLrdf cfPsf] km/s g} gd"gfut q'l6 xf] .
h;/L gd"fsf] ;+sng ul/Psf] eP tfklg h:V+of / gd"gfsf glthfdf lglZrt ¿kdf
km/s cfpF5 . t/ ;fjwfgLk"j{s tYofª\sx¿ ;+sng ul/Psf] cj:yfdf km/s sd cfpF5
eg] c;fjwfgLk"j{s gd"gf 5gf]6 ul/Pdf km/s a9L cfpF5 . ;fdfGotofM gd"gfut
q'l6x¿ lgDgk|sf/sf x'G5g\ M
-c_ dfg (Parameter) sf] cg'dfg ubf{ kIfkftk"0f{ cg'dfg ul/of] eg] .
-cf_ olb s'g} PsfO{sf] ;dy{g jf ljkIfdf hfg] p2]Zon] jf cg';GwfgnfO{ ;xh
agfpg] p2]Zon] gd"gfsf] 5gf]6 ul/Pdf .
-O_ ljleGg ljlwx¿ h:t} cg'ko'QM k4lt, 9fFrf, gd"gfsf] cfsf/ cflbsf sf/0f x'g]
q'l6x¿ .
gd"gfut q'l6x¿nfO{ sd ug]{ pkfox¿ (Methods of Minimizing Sampling Errors)

hg;ª\Vof 7"nf] x'g] ePsfn] ;Dk"0f{ cg';Gwfgdf hg;ª\Vofsf ;a]

PsfOx¿nfO{ ;dfj]z u/L cg';Gwfg ug{ ;lsFb}g . To;}n] gd"gfsf cfwf/df
cg';Gwfg ug'{kb{5 . gd"gfsf cfwf/df cg';Gwfg ubf{ :jefjtM gd"gfut q'l6x¿
x'G5g\ . To:tf q'l6x¿nfO{ lgDg sfo{x¿ u/]/ sd ug{ ;lsG5 M
-s_ gd"gfsf] cfsf/ a9fpg]M gd"gfx¿ hlt w]/} x'G5g\ Tolt w]/} hg;ª\
Vofsf] k|ltlglwTJ x'G5 / q'l6x¿ sd x'G5g\ . To;}n] ;s];Dd gd"fsf] ;ª\Vof
a9fpg'kb{5 .
-v_ bf]xf]/ hfFr M olb km/s km/s ;|f]taf6 tYofª\sx¿ ;+sng u/L ltgLx¿sf]
glthfsf cfwf/df gd"gfsf ;'wf/ ug{ ;lsG5 h;af6 q'l6x¿ sd ug{ ;lsG5 .

Prepared by Deepak Basnet 27

-u_ kIfkft /lxt gd"gf 5gf]6 M gd"gf 5f]6 ubf{ s'g} klg gd"gf jf
PsfO{nfO{ kIfkft gu/L tYofª\szf:qLo ljlwx¿sf] k|of]u u/L gd"gf 5gf]6
ul/Pdf q'l6x¿ sd ug{ ;lsG5 .
-3_ pko'Qm gd"gfsf] 9fFrf M cg';Gwfgsf] k|s[lt / ljifosf] uxgtf PJd\
cfjZos tYofª\sx¿nfO{ x]/]/ pko'Qm gd"gf 5gf]6sf] 9fFrf k|of]u u/]df q'l6
sd x'G5 .
-ª_ :ki6 k|ZgfjnL M k|Zgx¿ låljwfk"0f{ / a'em\g sl7g x'g] vfnsf] ePdf
pQ/bftfn] ;xL pQ/ lbg ;Sb}g . To;}n] k|ZgfjnLdf k|of]u ePsf zAb / efj :ki6
x'g' kb{5 .
-r_ gd"gf 5gf]6sf] of]hgf M gd"gf 5gf]6 ug'{ eGbf klxn] of]hgf tof/
ug'{kb{5 . pQm of]hgfdf :ki6 ¿kdf gd"gfsf] ;ª\Vof, pko'Qm lsl;daf6 hg;ª\
VofnfO{ ;d]6\g' / pko'Qm ljlw Pjd\ k4ltx¿sf cfwf/df Jojl:yt of]hgf tof/
ug'{ kb{5 .
-v_ u}/gd"gfut q'l6x¿ (Non-sampling errors)

gd"gf 5gf]6 ubf{ x'g] uNtLx¿nfO{ gd"gfut q'l6x¿ elgG5 eg] gd"gf 5gf]6
ubf{ geO{ cg';Gwfgsf cGo sfo{x¿ ubf{ jf k|of]u ul/Psf ljlwsf sf/0f h:t}M
k|ZgfjnL 5gf]6, pQ?bftfsf] unt a'emfO{, pQ/bftfsf] unt k|ltlqmof, unt
cg';Gwfgsf] ljlwsf] 5gf]6 / unt ljZn]if0f ljlwsf] k|of]u cflbsf sf/0faf6 x'g
hfg] uNtLx¿nfO{ u}/gd"gfut q'l6x¿ (Non-sampling errors) elgG5 . o:tf
uNtLx¿ hxfF;'s} klg x'g ;Sb5g\ . ;fdfGotofM lgDg k|sf/sf uNtLx¿
u}/gd"gfut q'l6sf ¿kdf cg';Gwfgdf b]lvg] ub{5g\ M
-s_ sdhf]/ gd"gfsf] 9fFrf M gd"gfsf] 9fFrf tof/ kfbf{ pko'Qm pQ/bftf
5'6\ofpg g;Sg', sdhf]/ gS;f cflbswf sf/0faf6 glthfdf km/s cfpg ;S5 .
-v_ clws / Go"g ;ª\u|x M olb gd"gfx¿ 5gf]6 ubf{ cfjZos eGbf a9L
If]q ;d]l6of] jf hg;ª\Vofsf cfjZos PsfOx¿nfO{ gd"gfdf ;dfj]z ul/Pg eg]
To;af6 pko'Qm glthf k|fKt ug{ ;lsFb}g .
-u_ k|Zgsf] unt JofVof M k|Zg tof/ ubf{ pQ/bftfsf] :t/ x]/]/ tof/
ug'{kb{5 . olb k|Zgdf k|of]u ePsf zAbfjnLx¿ pQ/bftfn] a'em\g g;Sg] jf
låljwfk"0f{ zAbx¿sf] k|of]usf sf/0f jf k|Zgsf] unt JofVofsf sf/0f pQ/bftfsf]
k|ltlqmof unt x'G5 h;af6 cg';Gwfgsf] glthf klg unt x'G5 .
-3_ k|zf]wg ;DaGwL q'l6x¿ M tYofª\sx¿nfO{ ;+s]t lbFbf (Coding), ;Dkfbg
ubf{ (Editing) / ljleGg ljlwx¿sf] k|of]u /L ljZn]if0f / JofVof ubf{ Pjd\ ;
+s]tx¿nfO{ pNyf ubf{ q'l6x¿ x'g ;Sb5g\ . To:tf q'l6x¿x¿sf sf/0f
cg';Gwfgsf] glthf unt x'g hfG5 .
-ª_ pQ/btf;DaGwL q'l6x¿ M olb pQ/bftfn] kIfkftk"0f{ k|ltlqmof lbof], k|
ltlqmof g} lbg dfg]g, pQ/ lbg ;s]g jf pQ/ lbg rfx]g jf lbPsf] pQ/sf]

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cg';Gwfgstf{n] 7Ls;Fu clen]v /fVg ;s]g eg] klg cg';Gwfgsf] glthf 7Ls
x'Fb}g .
-r_ cg';Gwfgsf] q'l6 M cg';Gwfgstf{ cfkm}n] unt jf sdhf]/ kl/efiff, unt
ljlwsf] 5gf]6, sdhf]/ k|ZgfjnLsf] tof/L, k|ZgfjnLsf] sdhf]/ k|of]u, cflbsf sf/0f
cg';Gwfgdf q'l6x¿ x'g ;Sb5g\ .
-5_ dfkg ;DaGwL uNtL M dfkg ug]{ ;fwgx¿df ePsf sdL sdhf]/Lx¿sf
sf/0faf6 x'g cfpg] uNtLx¿ h:t}M pQ/bftfsf] r]tfgfsf] sdL, sdhf]/ k|ZgfjnLsf]
sf/0f a'emfO{df sdL, tflnd k|fKt gu/]sf / cbIf u0fsx¿ cflbsf sf/0faf6 ;d]t
cg';Gwfgsf] glthf unt x'g ;S5 .
u}/gd"gfut q'l6x¿nfO{ sd ug]{ ljlwx¿ (Methods of minimizing Non-Samplign Errors)

dfgjLo q'l6x¿ cjZoDefjL 5g\ t/ cg';GwfgnfO{ a9L ljZj;gLo agfpgsf nflu o:tf
q'l6x¿df sdL Nofpg' kb{5 . u}/gd"gfut uNtLx¿df sdL ug{ cToGt} ufx|f]
x'G5 . t} klg lgDg sfo{x¿ u/L o:tf q'l6x¿nfO{ sd ug{ ;lsG5 M
-s_ hfFr (Check): cg';Gwfgsf nflu hg;V+ofsf] 5gf]6 ubf{ PsfOx¿ bf]xf]l/Psf]
jf c;DalGwt PsfO{ ;dfj]z ePsf] jf cfjZos PsfO{ 5'6]sf] 5 5}g hfFr ug'{kb{5
. o:tf] hfFr ;fjwfgLk"j{s cfkm} klg ug{ ;lsG5 eg] lj1sf] ;xof]u lnP/ klg ug{
;lsG5 .
-v_ kyk|bz{s ;j]{If0f (Pilot survey): k|ZgfjnL tof/ ubf{ k|ltlqmof lbg]
JolQmsf] :t/nfO{ ljrf/ u/L tof/ ug'{kb{5 . k|ZgfjnLdf b'O{ cy{ nfUg], c:ki6
zAb Pjd\ zAbfjnLx¿ /fVg' x'Fb}g . k|ZgfjnLnfO{ kyk|bz{s ;j]{If0f (Pilot survey)
u/]/ sdhf]/ k|Z+gsf sf/0faf6 l;h{gf x'g] ;Sg] q'l6x¿nfO{ sd ug{ ;lsG5 .
-u_ lglZrt k|lqmof (Fixed procedures): pQ/bftf / cGtjf{tf lng] dfG5]
b'j}nfO{ cg';Gwfgdf ;dfj]z u/fpFbf lglZrt k|lqmofx¿ :yflkt ug'{ kb{5 .
-3_ ;Ifd sd{rf/L (Competent manpower): ug{ g;Sg] sfdx¿ cGtjf{tf{ lng]
JolQmnfO{ lbg x'Fb}g . olb To:tf] sfo{ lbOof] eg] To;n] sfd rf]g{ ;xof]u
k'¥ofpFb5 / glthf unt x'G5 .
-ª_ ;"rgf lbg] (Providing information): pQ/bftfn] Wofg s]lGb|t ug{sf
nflu ;DalGwt /x]sf cg'ejx¿, cgf}krfl/s s'/fx¿ ug'{kb{5 t/ cj/f]w l;h{gf ug]{
tTjx¿k|lt eg] rgfvf] /xg'kb{5 .
-r_ tflnd k|bfg ug]{ (Provide trainig): u0fsx¿ jf tYofª\s ;+sng ug]
{ JolQmx¿nfO{ k|ZgfjnL s;/L e/fpg], cGtjf{tf{ s;/L lng], JolQm
Pjd\ ;d'bfo;Fu s;/L Jojxf/ ug]{ / cGTo s;/L ug]{ eGg] ;DaGwdf tflnd jf
hfgsf/L lbg'kb{5 .
-5_ lj1x¿sf] k|of]u (Use of experts): tYofª\sx¿nfO{ ;+s]tLs/0f (Coding)
ubf{ tYofª\sx¿ 5'6\g], unt k|ljlzi6 x'g], pko'Qm ;fwgsf] k|of]u gx'g], ;

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+s]tnfO{ k'gM tYofª\s jf ;"rgfdf n}hfFbf (Decoding) uNtLx¿ x'g ;Sb5g\ . o:tf
q'l6x¿nfO{ sd ug{ lj1x¿sf] ;xof]u lng'kb{5 .
& Exercise

4 Very-Short Answer Questions

1. What is variable? List its types.

2. Define intervening variable
3. What do you mean by measurement?
4. What is scaling?
5. What is validity?
6. Write the types of validity?
7. What do you mean by reliability?
8. What is sampling?
9. Why sampling is used in research/
10. What are the sources of errors in measurement?
11. Write the objectives of sampling.
12. What are the factors affecting the size of sampling?
13. What do you mean by probability sampling?
14. What is non-probability sampling?
15. What is sampling error?
16. What is non-sampling error?

4 Short-Answer Questions

1. Define measurement? How do you measure the attitude of people?

2. What is scaling? Discuss the different types of scaling.
3. What is reliability? What are the methods of measuring reliability? Explain.
4. What is validity? Explain its types.
5. Explain the sampling process.
6. Discuss various types of probability sampling.
7. Explain different types of non-probability sampling.

4 Analytical Questions

1. What is scaling? Discuss on various types of scaling.

2. What is census vs. sampling? Why sample is used? Discuss on the factors affecting size of sample.
;;

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