COMPUTER NETWORK AND

COMMUNICATION
BASIC CONCEPTS OF THE INTERNET
CHAPTER 01

1-1 The history and evolution of Internet development

1-2 What is the Internet
1-3 Network type
1-4 Network topology
1-5 Peer-to-peer and master-slave networks
1-6 Cloud Computing
1-7 A new generation of SDN networks

THE HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF INTERNET DEVELOPMENT

1969: ARPANET, a network of 4 nodes, is

established.

1970: ARPA introduces Network Control

Protocol (NCP) software.

1973: Development of Transmission

Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet
Protocol (IP) begins.
 1977: A TCP/IP interconnected network is
tested.

1978: UNIX is distributed to academic

research institutions.

1981: CSNET is established.

1983: TCP/IP becomes the official

protocol for ARPANET.

1983: MILNET is established.

1986: NSFNET is established.

1990: ARPANET is replaced by NSFNET.

1995: NSFNET reverts to a research

network.

1995: Internet Service Providers (ISPs)

emerge, allowing home users to
access the internet.

What is the Internet?

● A global network of interconnected computers.
● Connects hosts in computer networks around the world.Provides information
through some hosts. Allows hosts to read information.
● Success of ARPANET enabled remote connections and communication.
● Shares network resources and continuously improves communication
capabilities.
● Essential advantage for establishing a computer network.

Agreements and Standards

Formal Standards (De Jure Standards):

● Officially approved by relevant organizations.

● Often developed from de facto standards.

Industry Standards:
 ● Actual standards used in practice.
● Come from patented technology developed by a manufacturer.
● Example: Ethernet.

Ethernet Standard
Ethernet is a standard for wired local area networks (LANs). It was developed by
Quanlu Corporation and later adopted as an official standard by the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) in the United States. The standard is
known as IEEE 802.3.

Standards for data communications are developed by professional organizations,

forums, and governments. These standards ensure compatibility and interoperability
between different devices and systems.

Key organizations involved in standards development:

● International Organization
for Standardization (ISO):
Develops international
standards for various
industries, including
information technology.
Founded in 1947, it has a
significant influence on
global standardization.
○ Website:
www.iso.org

● International
Telecommunications
Union -
Telecommunications
Standards Sector (ITU-T)
is a specialized agency of
the United Nations
responsible for developing
international standards for
telecommunications,
telephone, and information
systems. Originally known
as CCITT, it was renamed
ITU-T in 1993.
○ Website: www.itu.int

● American National
Standards Institute
(ANSI): Coordinates the
development of voluntary
standards in the United
States. is a specialized
agency of the United
Nations responsible for
 developing international
standards for
telecommunications,
telephone, and information
systems. Originally known
as CCITT, it was renamed
ITU-T in 1993.
○ Website:
www.ansi.org

● Institute of Electrical and

Electronics Engineers
(IEEE): Develops standards
for electrical and electronic
engineering, including
networking technologies.is
the world's largest
association of professional
engineers, focusing on
standards for management,
electronics, and wireless
communication. It develops
standards for local area and
backbone networks.
○ Website:
www.ieee.org

● Electronic Industries
Association (EIA): A trade
association representing the
electronics industry. Is a
non-profit organization that
develops standards for
electronic interfaces,
signals, device functions,
and serial communication. It
 focuses on issues affecting
electronics manufacturers.
○ Website:
www.eia.org

● Internet Engineering Task

Force (IETF): Develops
standards for the internet
and its protocols. is a
committee that develops
standards for internet
architecture, efficiency,
engineering, and
development. It is
composed of working
groups. “Working Group”
○ Website:
www.ietf.org

● Internet Engineering
Promotion Group (IEPG) is
a group that oversees the
technical progress and
development of the IETF. It
is managed by the Internet
Engineering Steering Group
(not official logo)
(IESG).
○ Website:
www.iesg.org

● Internet Architecture
Board (IAB) is the guiding
unit for the IESG and IETF.
It provides strategic
direction for the internet.
 ○ Website:
www.iab.org

● Internet Assigned
Numbers Authority (IANA)
is an international
organization responsible for
coordinating the allocation
of IP addresses.
○ Website:
www.iana.org

● Internet Society (ISOC) is

an open professional society
that develops and publishes
standards for internet
usage. It oversees three
organizations: IAB, IETF,
and IESG.
○ Website:
www.isoc.org

● Asia Pacific Network

Information Center
(APNIC) is a regional
internet registry responsible
for allocating IP addresses
and managing reverse
domain name registrations
in the Asia-Pacific region.
○ Website:
http://www.apnic.net

Network Type
Network: A system where at least two computers (or hosts) are connected in a specific
topological structure within a certain area, allowing users to share resources provided
by the internet.

Early computers were used independently. Later, people used network cables to
connect two computers, creating the simplest type of short-distance network.

Network Types
Networks are interconnected using various technologies, such as wireless
communications and public switching networks (circuit switching or packet switching).
This interconnectedness creates a dense information highway, which is the Internet.

● Local Area Network (LAN):

A network that connects devices within a limited geographic area, such as a
building or a company campus.

○ Coverage: Includes more than two computers and users.

○ Range: Covers a distance of approximately 2 kilometers

Architecture:

➔ PCs or workstations
➔ Transmission media (coaxial cables, twisted pairs, Network cards, hubs,
switches, and routers)
➔ Network operating system (NOS) for communication, coordination, and
management between hosts on the network. Examples include Windows
XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7/8/10, Windows NT, and UNIX.
➔ File Server: Provides data access to the hard disk, allowing users to
share and access files centrally.
➔ Print Server: Manages printing tasks from computers or workstations,
providing centralized printing capabilities.
● Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
A network that connects devices within a city or metropolitan area. A large
network formed by connecting multiple regional networks together.

○ Coverage: Covers a larger area than a LAN.

○ Purpose: Primarily used to connect multiple LANs or networks between
branches within a city.
○ Range: Generally refers to a network within approximately 2 to 10
kilometers.

"Transparent LAN" local area network, the transmission distance of this kind of
LAN is getting farther and farther, and the development technology is constantly
improving, making the role of MAN increasingly blurred.
● Wide Area Network (WAN):
A network that connects devices over a large geographic area, such as a country
or between countries.

○ Definition: A large network that covers a broader area than a MAN.

○ Purpose: Primarily used to connect communication networks located in
different cities within the same country or even different countries.
○ Benefit: Allows users to communicate with each other across long
distances.
○ Range: Generally refers to a network with a range of approximately 10
kilometers or more.
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
● Traditional voice transmission: In the traditional PSTN, all voice transmission
is realized through circuit switching.
● High equipment costs: Due to circuit switching, the equipment costs for PSTN
are relatively high.
● Technological advancements: With the advancement of digital switching
technology, telephone switches have evolved from mechanical to electronic and
then to digital.
● Everyday use: The PSTN is the telephone network used by ordinary
households.
● Circuit switching: PSTN uses circuit switching technology to connect users.
This means a dedicated circuit is established for the duration of a call.
● Bandwidth: The voice communication provided by PSTN has a bandwidth of 64
Kbps for each circuit.
● ISDN integration: PSTN was later used in Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN) to transmit 64Kbps voice data in a dedicated bandwidth.

Leased Lines
Leased lines are dedicated communication circuits leased from a service provider.
They offer guaranteed bandwidth and quality of service, making them suitable for
applications that require reliable and consistent connectivity.

Leased lines are often used for businesses that require a dedicated connection for
critical applications, such as voice and data communications. NOT USED IN MODERN
ERA

Types of leased lines:

● Analog lines: Can provide data rates up to 19.2 Kbps.

● Digital dedicated lines: Offer higher data rates, including:
○ 64 Kbps
○ 128 Kbps
○ 256 Kbps
○ T1 (1.544 Mbps)
○ E1 (2.048 Mbps)
○ And other higher speeds.

Packet Switched Network (PSN)

 ● Packet switching: PSN uses packet switching technology to transmit data in the
form of packets over a digital network.
● Types: PSN can be divided into:
○ Traditional packet switching: Examples include X.25.
○ Fast switching network: Examples include Frame Relay, ATM
(Asynchronous Transfer Mode), and MPLS (Multi-Protocol Label
Switching).

xDSL (Digital Subscriber Line)

xDSL is a family of technologies that use existing copper telephone lines to provide
broadband internet access. There are several types of xDSL, including:

● ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line): Offers higher downstream

speeds than upstream speeds, suitable for applications like web browsing and
downloading.
● HDSL (High-speed DSL): Provides symmetrical speeds, suitable for
applications that require equal upload and download speeds.
● VDSL (Very High-speed DSL): Offers the highest speeds among xDSL
technologies, but has a shorter range than ADSL or HDSL.

ADSL Internet connections typically use twisted pairs as the transmission medium. An
example is Chunghwa Telecom ADSL, which uses DMT (Discrete Multi-Tone)
modulation technology to transmit voice and data separately through an ADSL modem.
The low-frequency part transmits voice, while the high-frequency part transmits
higher-speed data. The highest downlink and uplink transmission rates currently
provided are 8 Mbps and 640 Kbps, respectively.

Fiber to the Building (FTTB) Network

Key points:

● Optical fiber: FTTB utilizes optical fiber as the transmission medium, also known
as the optical generation network.
● Flexible bandwidth: The two-way transmission rate can be adjusted to meet
customer bandwidth requirements.
● High-speed transmission: Chunghwa Telecom's HiNet Optical Generation
(2018) offers a maximum downlink transmission rate of 1 Gbps and an uplink
transmission rate of 600 Mbps.
 ● Technology: FTTB utilizes various optical network equipment and Ethernet or
VDSL technology to provide high-speed broadband data transmission services to
customers.

Cable Modem
● Internet connection device: Cable modems are used to connect to the internet
through cable TV networks.
● Comparison to ADSL: Both ADSL and cable modems have their own
advantages and disadvantages. Cable modems generally have a larger
theoretical bandwidth, but this bandwidth is shared among multiple users.
● Bandwidth management: When the number of users on a cable network
increases, the operator may need to increase the transmission bandwidth to
maintain adequate speeds for all users.

ATM
● To be Introduced
WIRELESS NETWORK

Wireless Network
● Transmission medium: Uses radio waves for data transmission instead of
physical cables.
● Flexibility: Offers more flexibility compared to wired networks due to the lack of
physical constraints.
Wireless Wide Area Networks (WWAN)
WWANs can be divided into two main categories:

● Cellular phone systems: These use terrestrial radio

towers to provide wireless coverage.
● Satellite networks: These use satellites in orbit to
provide wireless coverage.

Generations of Mobile Communication Systems

● 1G (First Generation): Analog mobile phones

● 2G (Second Generation): Digital mobile phone
systems, such as the Pan-European Digital Mobile
Phone System (GSM)
● 2.5G (Transitional): General Packet Radio Service
(GPRS)
● 3G (Third Generation): UMTS (Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System) and CDMA2000
● 4G (Fourth Generation): LTE (Long Term Evolution)

Each generation of mobile communication systems has

offered significant improvements in terms of speed, capacity,
and data transmission capabilities.
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
WLAN, also known as Wireless Ethernet Network, uses two
major types of wireless media:

● Light wave conduction: This includes infrared (IR)

and laser light.
○ cannot penetrate obstacles
● Radio waves: This includes narrow-band microwave,
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS),
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS),
HomeRF, HyperLan, and Bluetooth technology.
○ while radio waves can

IEEE 802.11: The current WLAN specification is derived

from IEEE's 802.11 standard, which was first launched in
1997. Code-name for WLAN: IEEE 802.11

Spread spectrum technology: 802.11 uses FHSS

(Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) and DSSS (Direct
Sequence Spread Spectrum) technologies.

802.11a and 802.11b: The second and third WLAN

standards. 802.11b is also known as Wi-Fi (Wireless
Fidelity).

802.11g: A later standard that offers higher transmission

rates than 802.11b.

802.11a vs. 802.11b/g: 802.11a has a larger bandwidth but

shorter transmission distance. 802.11b and 802.11g operate
in the 2.4 GHz frequency band, with 802.11g offering
significantly faster transmission rates.

802.11n: A significant advancement over previous

standards, offering significantly higher transmission speeds
(up to 600 Mbps) and improved range.

802.11ac: The successor to 802.11n, providing even higher

speeds and performance.

802.11ac: The successor to 802.11n, offering significant

improvements in:

○ Air interface: Wider RF bandwidth (up to 160

 MHz)
○ MIMO: More spatial streams and multiple
downlink users
○ Modulation: Higher-density modulation

These enhancements contribute to 802.11ac's significantly

faster transmission speeds and overall performance.

802.11ad: Operates in the 60 GHz frequency band, offering

extremely high speeds but with a shorter range compared to
other Wi-Fi standards.

INTERNET
Interconnection Network
What is an interconnection network?

● A network formed when a user's computer connects to LAN communication

equipment and extends to the WAN.
● This network can be part of a larger computer network group, either directly or
indirectly.
● Allows users to access the Internet and utilize its resources.

What is an intranet?

● A system that uses Internet standards and communication protocols.

● Primarily for internal communication within a company or organization.
● Aims to improve communication, enable information sharing, and provide
centralized data management.
● A system used by companies to share information with external parties, such as
other companies and customers.
 ● Requires external users (customers) to register and install a firewall to ensure
secure information exchange.

Example:

● Video conferencing: Intranets can minimize the need for in-person meetings.

Feature Extranet Intranet

Scope External (other companies, Internal (within the organization)

customers)

Security Requires external users to Typically has more stringent internal

register and install firewall security measures

Purpose Sharing information with Improving internal communication,

external parties information sharing, and data management
EXERCISE
1. Types of Network:

Local Area Network (LAN)

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Wide Area Network (WAN)

2. Transmission distance of LAN:

2 kilometers

3. Full name of FTTB:

Fiber to the Building

4. Max transmission rate of 802.11ad:

7 Gbps

5. Full name of PSTN:

Public Switched Telephone Network

6. Code-name for WLAN:

IEEE 802.11

7. Is satellite communication a WAN type network?

Yes

8. Full name of IoT:

Internet of Things

9. System used by companies to share information with other companies and

customers:

Extranet
NETWORK TOPOLOGY

What is network topology?

● The layout or arrangement of computers and other devices connected within a

network.
● Describes how devices are linked together and use transmission mechanisms to
exchange data.
● Different types of network topologies represent different structures of network
communication.

How does bus topology work?

● Connects all computers and connecting devices on a single line.

● Computers on the line can transmit data directly to each other.

Advantages: Disadvantages:

Low cost. If an issue occurs at either end of the line,

repairs and troubleshooting can be
time-consuming.

How does star topology work?

● All devices are connected to a central device, such as a hub or switch.

● Each computer has a point-to-point connection with the hub or switch.

Advantages: Disadvantages:

If one device fails, it doesn't affect the If the central device (hub or switch) fails, the
entire network. entire network will go down.

How does ring topology work?

● All computers are connected in a circular or ring network.

● Data is transmitted in one direction around the ring.
 Advantages: Disadvantages:

A certain level of transmission efficiency. If one device encounters a problem, it can

affect the entire network.

What is hybrid topology?

● A combination of two or more different network topologies.

● Combines the strengths of multiple topologies in a single network design.

Common examples:

● Star-bus: Areas use a star topology internally, but the connection between areas
is made using a bus topology.
● Star-ring: Areas use a star topology internally, but the connection between areas
is made using a ring topology.

Peer-to-Peer and Master-Slave Networks

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Networks:

● Each host has equal status within the network.

● Any host can function as a server, workstation, or both.
● Allows for decentralized resource sharing and communication.
● Peers do not require communication through a dedicated server.
● Examples: Skype, IPTV.

Master-Slave Networks:

● One or more devices have control over other devices.

● The master device controls the network resources and communication.
● Slave devices follow the instructions of the master device.
● Common in industrial control systems and robotics.

Characteristics of Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Networks

● Direct Communication: Any pair of hosts can communicate directly with one
another.
 ● No Dedicated Server Needed: There is no requirement for a dedicated server to
facilitate communication.
● Management Complexity: Expanding the network can lead to management
challenges, making it difficult to oversee and maintain as it grows.

Suitable for larger networks.

● Requires a dedicated computer called a "server."

● Server is responsible for responding to client's requests.
● Requires continuous power, making servers more expensive.
● Supports applications like web pages, FTP, email, and Telnet.

Characteristics of Master-Slave (Client/Server) Networks

● Server Availability: The server can provide services to the client at any time.
● Fixed IP Address: The server has a fixed IP address.
● Dynamic IP Addresses: Clients may have dynamic IP addresses.
● Indirect Communication: Clients do not communicate directly with each other.
Hybrid Network Architecture (Peer-to-Peer and
Master-Slave)
● Combines the characteristics of both peer-to-peer and master-slave networks.
● Can be used in scenarios where both centralized control and decentralized
resource sharing are needed.
● Example: A network where some devices function as dedicated servers
(master-slave) while others share resources directly (peer-to-peer).

EXERCISE
1. Do the Clients communicate directly with each other in the master-slave
network?
a. No
2. Is peer to peer network suitable for larger networks?
a. No, Master-Slave
3. Does the peer to peer network need the Dedicated Server?
a. No, Master-Slave
4. What are the three types of network topology?
a. Bus topology, Ring topology, Star topology

Cloud Computer
Cloud far away, using network

SDＮ (Software-Defined Networking)

SDN is a new networking paradigm that aims to address the limitations of traditional
network architectures. It separates the control plane (where network policies are
defined) from the data plane (where data is transmitted). This separation enables more
flexible, efficient, and programmable network management.

Limitations of Traditional Networks

1. Inefficient Packet Processing: Switches and routers must continuously split

and reassemble packets for different protocols, leading to poor transmission
efficiency and bandwidth utilization.
2. Complex Management: The huge and complex Internet infrastructure is difficult
to develop, manage, and maintain. Network management controls and
performance tuning are often challenging and error-prone.
3. Rigid Control Logic: The control logic is tightly coupled with the network
equipment, limiting flexibility and hindering innovation.

SDN Components

1. Controller: A centralized intelligence that manages network policies and sends

instructions to network devices.
2. Switches: Data forwarding devices that follow instructions from the controller.
3. OpenFlow Protocol: A standard protocol for communication between controllers
and switches.

Benefits of SDN

1. Increased Network Agility and Programmability: SDN allows for dynamic and
flexible network configuration, enabling rapid deployment of new services and
applications.
2. Improved Network Visibility and Control: SDN provides a centralized view of
the network, enabling better monitoring, troubleshooting, and optimization.
3. Enhanced Network Security and Automation: SDN can automate routine
tasks, reduce human error, and implement security policies more effectively.
By addressing the limitations of traditional networks and leveraging the benefits of SDN,
organizations can achieve significant improvements in network performance, scalability,
and security.

The network architecture of SDN is the Clean Slate solution proposed by Nick
McKeown of Stanford University in the United States.

Using the OpenFlow protocol, as shown in Figure 1-16, the control plane of the router is
separated from the data plane and implemented in software. Its characteristics are as
follows:

SDN can be controlled in a programmable manner. Once the control is shifted from
individual network devices to the SDN controller, the underlying network infrastructure
becomes abstracted. As a result, the network infrastructure becomes highly dynamic
and easier to manage

The SDN network architecture is designed to solve some problems of traditional

networks. Its characteristic is that it changes the control model of traditional network
architecture and divides the network into a control layer (i.e., control plane) and a data
layer (i.e., data plane). The management authority of the network is handed over to the
controller software at the control layer, using a centralized control method.

OpenFlow technology is a communication protocol adopted by SDN networks. It is used

to establish transmission channels between the control layer and the data layer. It is like
the human nervous system and is responsible for communication between the brain and
limbs. Therefore, the OpenFlow protocol is also the most mainstream implementation of
SDN architecture. Technology..

SDN Network Architecture

Application: The application layer sits at the top of the SDN. Determine the
direction and destination of user data flow, and record it to provide it to the next
program for application.

Controller: The controller layer (or control plane) in Software-Defined

Networking (SDN) is the central "brain" of the SDN architecture. The protocol
used is OpenFlow.

Hardware: the hardware layer (also known as the infrastructure layer or data
plane) is the foundational layer responsible for the actual forwarding and routing
of network traffic.

The SDN architecture created by OpenFlow technology can not only solve some
problems of today's network architecture, but also provide APIs on the controller
software to allow third-party users to develop related applications based on
corporate policies and needs, such as network security management, load
balancing, bandwidth management QoS, etc. In other words, SDN is a
programmable open network architecture.

CHAPTER 02

Data communication basics

2-1 Composition of data communication system

2-2 Analog data and digital data

2-3 Analog signal

2-4 Digital signals

2-5 Digital transmission and analog transmission

2-6 Transmission mode

2-7 Multi-tasking technology

2-8 Baseband transmission and broadband transmission

2-9 Digital channel

2-10 Error detection

Composition of data communication system

► The purpose of the data communication system is to send data from the sending end
to the receiving end through data exchange equipment. The basic components of a data
communication system include: data terminal equipment, data switching equipment,
data Circuit-terminating equipment, transmission signals, and transmission media.

Components of Data Communication Systems

1. Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)

○ Purpose: Devices that transmit and receive data.
○ Examples: Personal computers, workstations, servers, printers.
2. Data Switching Equipment (DSE)
○ Purpose: Devices that manage the accurate and quick transmission of
data from sender to receiver.
○ Examples: Switches, routers.
3. Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment (DCE)
 ○ Purpose: Intermediate equipment that connects DTE and DSE, handling
signal conversion and modulation.
○ Examples: Modems, network cards.

Transmission Signals

1. Types of Signals:
○ Analog - Continuous signal variation, often used in older
telecommunication systems.
○ Digital - Discrete signal, common in modern digital communication.
2. Transmission Medium Types:
○ Sound Waves
○ Electric Waves
○ Light Waves
3. Signal Conversion:
○ Most network systems are electronic or optoelectronic, requiring data to
be converted to electronic signals (radio waves or light waves) for
transmission.

Transmission Medium

1. Cable: Traditional wired connections, including twisted-pair and coaxial cables.

2. Optical Fiber: High-speed medium using light waves for data transmission, ideal
for long-distance and high-bandwidth needs.
3. Radio Waves: Wireless medium, allowing data transfer without physical
connections, used in Wi-Fi, mobile networks, etc.

ANALOG SIGNAL AND DIGITAL SIGNAL

► The so-called analog data is "continuous" information that is represented by an
infinite number of values within a certain range.

► Typical analog data is the degree marked by a traditional mercury thermometer.

When the pointer of the mercury column rises and falls in the column, it may not
accurately fall on the scale. In other words, there are infinite possibilities for the values
that fall between the scales.
► Digital data is displayed in numbers. The degree displayed by a digital thermometer
should be an integer value of 25 degrees.

► In addition, the time indicated by an analog watch is also a typical example of analog
data; in contrast, a watch that displays numbers is a typical example of digital data.

EXERCISE
1. The full name of DTE, DSE, DCE?
a. Data Terminal Equipment
b. Data Switching Equipment
c. Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment
2. Is the network switch a DTE?
a. No, It is Data Switching Equipment
3. Is the PC a DSE?
a. No, It is Data Terminal Equipment
4. Is the Modem a DCE?
a. Yes
5. Is the watch that displays numbers an example of digital data?
a. Yes

ANALOG SIGNAL
Periodic analog signals will be timed and repeated with a predetermined waveform.
The amplitude of the signal change represents the strength of the signal, as shown in
Figure 2-4. The larger the amplitude, the stronger the signal; on the contrary, the
weaker the signal.
The sound frequency that human ears can hear is approximately between 20Hz and
20K Hz. The higher the frequency, the sharper the sound; the lower the frequency, the
deeper the sound. Just as the frequency of the sound produced by female is higher than
that of male.
Analog signals with different phases

Phase refers to the displacement of the signal on the time axis. It is mainly used to
present the time when the signal reaches a certain fixed point, or refers to the phase
angle at a certain point in time.
Composite signal

A composite signal can be viewed as composed of many sine waves. Using Fourier
analysis, it is easy to prove that any composite signal contains sine waves of different
amplitudes, frequencies, and phases.

The changing signal amplitude is compared with the change in time. This kind of graph
is called a time domain graph, but a frequency domain graph can truly show the
relationship between amplitude and frequency.

Figure 2-9(a) represents the time domain of the signal. As for its frequency domain, it
can be represented by Figure 2-9(b). It also shows that the five sine waves in the time
domain can be used in the frequency domain, represented by pulses.

COMPOSITE SIGNAL
Time domain & Frequency Domain

A typical composite signal is shown in Figure 2-10, which indicates the time domain and
corresponding frequency domain of three waveforms.
To find bandwidth, deduct highest frequency to lowest frequency

EXERCISE
What is the name of the graph if the changing signal amplitude is compared with the
change in time?

Time Domain Graph

What is the name of the graph if the changing signal amplitude is compared with the
change in frequency?

Frequency Domain Graph

What is the bandwidth of the composite signals if the highest frequency is 3KHz and the
lowest frequency is 1KHz?
2KHz

DIGITAL SIGNAL
Computers are based on the binary system, which uses a combination of 0 and 1 to represent
the content of data, and computer network data transmission is mainly based on digital signals.
A digital signal is composed of a series of high potential (representing 1) and low potential
(representing 0) pulse waves.

Common Terms in Digital Signals

● Bit: The abbreviation for binary digit. Represents a single 0 or 1 in a digital signal.
● Byte: A group of 8 bits.
● Bit Rate: The data transmission rate measured in bits per second (bps or b/s).
Represents the number of bits transmitted per second

Digital Transmission and Analog Transmission

Digital Transmission:

● Uses digital signals to send information from the sending end to the receiving end
through the network or switching equipment.
● Also known as baseband transmission.

Analog Transmission:

● Modulates high-frequency analog signals with digital or analog signals.

Signal Conversion:
 ● Digital to Digital: This involves converting a digital signal into a different digital
format, such as compressing an image file.
● Analog to Digital: This process converts an analog signal (like sound waves)
into a digital signal (a series of 1s and 0s). This is commonly used for storing and
transmitting audio and video.
● Digital to Analog: This is the reverse of the above process, converting a digital
signal back into an analog one. This is used for playback of digital audio and
video.
● Analog to Analog: This involves converting an analog signal into another analog
signal, often to improve the quality of the signal.

Line Encoding

● Basic form: Digital signals are represented by binary bit codes (0s and 1s).
● Interference Issues: During transmission, various interferences can occur,
causing signal waveform distortion and potentially leading to receiving errors.
● Solution: Line Coding: To address these issues, line coding techniques are
used. These techniques modify the digital signal's waveform to improve its
transmission characteristics and make it more resistant to interference.
● Purpose: To avoid receiving errors in the receiving end.

Benefits:

● Reduces DC components and bandwidth.

● Achieves synchronization between sending and receiving.
● Enables error detection.

Signal Level: The encoded signal level is not necessarily the same as the data level.
DC Component = Voltage of all 1 bits /Bits

● Unipolar and Polar Encoding: Line encoding types can be categorized into
unipolar and polar encoding.

Unipolar Transmission:

● Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ): Unipolar transmission uses an NRZ mechanism,

where the signal does not return to zero voltage in the middle of a bit.
● Data Representation:
○ Data "1" is represented by a positive voltage.
○ Data "0" is represented by zero voltage.
Bipolar Coding: This encoding technique uses three signal potentials: positive, zero,
and negative potential.

EXERCISE
1. Which signal comprises a series of high potential (representing 1) and low
potential (representing 0) pulse waves?

Digital Signal

2. The data transmission rate is usually expressed in terms of ___.

bps (bits per second) or Bit rate

3. A byte is composed of ___ bits.

8 bits

4. What is the purpose of ___ line coding?

To address various interferences, convert binary data into a form that can be
efficiently transmitted over a communication channel

5. What are the line encoding types?

Unipolar Encoding

Polar Encoding
Bipolar Encoding

6. What are the three signal potentials of Bipolar coding?

Positive, Zero, and Negative potential

Convert Digital Signals into Digital Signals

Key Point:

● Digital Transmission: In digital transmission, the transmitted data is already in

digital form (0s and 1s).
● Digital Encoding: Digital encoding is used at both the sending and receiving
ends to convert the data into digital signals suitable for transmission over the
medium.

2-5-2 Convert digital signals into digital signals - NRZ

• It is a polar encoding, and the signal level uses rectangular pulse waves to change the
potential. In this transmission method, 1 and O represent positive potential and
negative-potential respectively, and there is no signal synchronization function.

1 represents a positive potential, but it will be converted to 0 potential in the middle of a

bit range until the end of the bit; 0 represents a negative potential, and it will also be
converted to O potential in the middle of a bit range until the end of the bit. Since the
potential is converted in the middle of the bit range, this means better signal
synchronization capability.

Convert digital signal into digital signal-Manchester code

• Regardless of whether it is 1 or 0, it will switch in the middle of the bit range, indicating
better synchronization capabilities. I represents negative to positive potential and 0
represents positive to negative potential.
Convert digital signals into digital signals - MLT-3 encoding

• The coding rule is that 1 will be converted in the order of + (positive potential), 0 (zero
potential), - (negative potential), and 0 will not convert the potential. Figure 2-23 shows
four signal state changes.
EXERCISE
Regardless of whether the signal is 1 or 0, it will switch in the middle of the bit range,
indicating better synchronization capabilities. Is it true?

True

How many potential levels are there in MLT-3 Coding?

RZ coding has a better synchronization capability. Is it true?

Yes

NRZ coding will also return to zero potential. Is it true?

No

2-5-3 Convert digital signals into analog signals@@@@

• When host A wants to communicate with remote host B through

PSTN, it is assumed that digital processing technology has been extensively used in the
voice input by host.A. However, the audio signal in the PSTN system is still transmitted
as an analog signal. Due to the low-frequency digital The signal is very
disadvantageous when transmitted over long distances, so the digital signal needs to be
converted into a high-frequency analog signal before being sent out.

• Therefore, the digital signal of host A must modulate a high-frequency analog signal
(called a carrier); host B then restores the received analog signal to a digital signal. This
conversion is called demodulation. ), conversely, the call from host B to host A also
proceeds in the same way

Convert analog signals into digital signals

Sometimes if you want to transmit continuous data, such as sound or video, over a
computer network, you must first convert it into a digital signal. The most widely used
conversion technology is called Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), which was developed
by Bell Laboratories in the United States in 1939.

The principle of PCM technology is divided into 3 steps, including:

PCM involves three steps:

1. Sampling: The analog signal is sampled at regular intervals to create discrete

samples.
2. Quantization: Each sample is assigned a digital value (quantized) to represent
its amplitude.
3. Encoding: The quantized values are encoded into a binary code for
transmission.

Sampling

• The basic principle of sampling can be illustrated with a time switch.

• In the figure, xt) represents the original signal before sampling; and the switch "SW"
automatically switches on and off every T seconds as a sampling device. That is, the
original signal xt) is only sampled at IT, 2T, 3T, etc. time intervals. Because the switch
"SW" is in the on state, there will be an output. The rest of the time, the "SW" is in the
off state and there is no output.

• After this process, the sampled output signal y(t) can be obtained.

quantization and encoding

Quantify

• The pulse signal generated after the sampling step has many possible values, and
cannot be directly encoded into a binary code. Therefore, the pulse signal needs to be
quantized into a stepped level signal.

coding

• Once the quantized signal becomes a stepped discrete signal, each level can directly
correspond to a binary code This is the so-called "encoding".

Assume that there is an analog signal with a duration of p seconds, and it is to be

converted into a digital signal. The sampling frequency is fs Hz and the encoding length
is nbits.

Then the amount of data obtained after digitization is:

Data volume(bytes) = pxf xn / 8

EXERCISE
What are the 3 steps of the PCM technology?

1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Encoding

A 8-minute analog speech, if the sampling frequency of telephone speech is

8KHz, and the encoding length is 8bits.

Fs * duration = 8000 samples/second * 480 seconds = 3,840,000 samples

Number of samples * bits per sample = 3,840,000 samples * 8 bits/sample = 30,720,000

bits

Total bits / 8 bits/byte = 3,840,000 bytes

MODULATIONS TO COVERT

Convert analog signal to analog signal - AM

The amplitude of the carrier wave changing with the audio signal is called amplitude
modulation.

Convert analog signal to analog signal - FM

The frequency of the carrier wave changing with the audio signal is called frequency
modulation.
Convert analog signal to analog signal - PM

Phase modulation (PM) means that the carrier phase changes with the sound signal.
This modulation method is often regarded as another method of frequency modulation.

EXERCISE
1. What is the full name of AM?

Amplitude Modulation

2. What is the full name of FM?

Frequency Modulation

3. What is the full name of PM?

Phase Modulation

4. Is Frequency Modulation (FM) a technique used to convert analog signals into

digital signals?

No, Analog to Analog

Transmission Mode
The transmission modes of communication systems can basically be divided into three
categories:

1. Simplex:
○ Communication is one-way only.
○ Examples: Radio broadcasting, TV broadcasting, remote control.

Data can only be transmitted from one end to the other, just like a one-way street.

Cannot be transmitted in the opposite direction.

2. Half-duplex:
○ Communication is two-way, but only one direction at a time.
○ Examples: Walkie-talkies, CB radios.

It means that although the two ends can exchange data, they cannot transmit to each
other at the same time.

Example: Walkie-talkies.

3. Full-duplex:
○ Communication is two-way simultaneously.
 ○ Examples: Telephone conversations, most internet communication.

It means that both the sender and the receiver can send data to each other at the same
time.

Example: Telephone conversations.

EXERCISE
1. What are the three transmission modes of communication systems?

Simplex

Half-Duplex

Full-Duplex

2. Is "Walkie Talkie" using a simplex transmission mode?

No, It’s using duplex.

3. Is the cellphone using a Full-duplex transmission mode?

Yes.

EXERCISE
Multiplexing is dividing the available bandwidth on a link among many users. We can
think of it as dividing the bandwidth of a single link (that is, a single link) into many
channels for users.
MUX (Multiplexer) is a device that combines multiple input signals into a single output
signal.
DEMUX (Demultiplexer) is a device that separates a single input signal into multiple
output signals.

Multitasking technology can be roughly divided into:

● Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

● Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
● Wave Division Multiplexing (WDM)
○ DWDM
○ CWDM

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

FDM divides the spectrum into multiple logical channels, and each user has a dedicated
channel.
Synchronous and asynchronous TDM

Synchronous TDM

Synchronous TDM divides time into many short time periods, and each user periodically
obtains the complete bandwidth during this short time period.
Asynchronous TDM
EXERCISE
What is the full name for TDM?

Time-Division Multiplexing

What is the full name for FDM?

Frequency-Division Multiplexing

What is the full name for WDM?

Wave-Division Multiplexing

Which scheme is more flexible? Synchronous TDM or Asynchronous TDM?

Asynchronous TDM

WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing):

● Purpose: Combines multiple optical carrier signals with different wavelengths

into a single optical fiber.
● Process:
 1. Uses a multiplexer at the transmitting end to merge signals.
2. Uses a demultiplexer at the receiving end to separate wavelengths.
3. This allows multiple types of information to be transmitted simultaneously.
● Key Benefit: Efficient use of optical fibers by transmitting multiple data streams
over different wavelengths.

DWDM (Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing):

● Purpose: High-density WDM technology to transmit data from multiple sources

on a single optical fiber.
● Key Feature: Uses many tightly spaced wavelengths, which significantly
enhances bandwidth efficiency.
● Application: Ideal for long-distance, high-capacity data transmission.

CWDM (Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing):

● Purpose: Coarse wavelength division multiplexing used for data transmission.

● Key Feature: Uses fewer wavelengths with wider spacing compared to DWDM.
● Application: Suitable for regional networks, particularly in Ethernet
environments with lower data transmission needs.

Baseband Transmission & Broadband Transmission

● Baseband Transmission:
○ Directly sends digital signals without modulation.
○ Used in telephone lines and optical fiber cables.
○ Example: The signal encoding mentioned in Section 2-5-2.
● Broadband Transmission:
○ Requires modulation to transmit signals.
○ Converts data into modulated signals before transmission.

Key Difference:

● Baseband is unmodulated and transmits digital signals directly.

● Broadband involves modulation for signal transmission.
Digital Transmission

ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network):

● Proposed by CCITT (now ITU) in 1972.

● Purpose: To use a single network for various services like voice, video, and
data transmission, and solve synchronization problems.
● Goal: To integrate multiple services into one network, improving efficiency and
connectivity.

Error Detection

● Why it's needed:

○ Digitized signals can get corrupted during transmission due to
interference.
● Solution:
○ Add redundant data to the original data.
○ At the receiving end, use this additional data to detect errors and verify
the integrity of the transmission.

Key Point: Extra data helps identify errors during data transmission to ensure accurate
communication

Common error detection methods include:

1. Parity check code, including vertical redundancy check and longitudinal

redundancy check;
2. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC)

● VRC (Vertical Redundancy Check), also known as parity check.

● Usage:
○ Commonly used in asynchronous transmission.
○ Also used in character-oriented synchronous transmission.
○ Applied in local area networks (LANs) and data communications.
● Purpose: Adds a parity bit to detect errors in transmitted data.
 .

Even Parity VRC for the Word "Hello"

Step 1: Get ASCII Binary Representation From the ASCII table, the characters in
"Hello" are encoded as:

Characte ASCII # of
r (Binary) 1's

H 01001000 2

e 01100101 4

l 01101100 4

l 01101100 4
 o 01101111 6

Step 2: Apply Even Parity Check

● Even Parity means the total number of 1's (including the parity bit) should be
even.
● If the count of 1's is already even, the parity bit is 0.
● If the count of 1's is odd, the parity bit is 1.

Character ASCII (7-bit) # of 1's Parity Bit (Even) Transmitted (8-bit)

H 01001000 2 0 001001000

e 01100101 4 0 01100101

l 01101100 4 0 01101100

l 01101100 4 0 01101100

o 01101111 6 0 01101111

Step 3: Final Encoded Message with Even Parity

Now, let's compile the complete message to be sent with the added parity bits:

● H: 0 + 01001000 → 001001000
● e: 0 + 01100101 → 01100101
● l: 0 + 01101100 → 01101100
● l: 0 + 01101100 → 01101100
● o: 0 + 01101111 → 01101111
Final Encoded Message:

Copy code

001001000 01100101 01101100 01101100 01101111

Explanation Recap

● We used even parity, meaning each 8-bit chunk should have an even number of
1's.
● In this case, all characters already had an even number of 1's, so the parity bit for
each character was 0.

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

In order to solve the problems of single bit errors, single 2 bit errors, odd number errors,
and serial errors (single multiple bit errors), you can use Cyclic Redundancy Check
(CRC).
How many changes in a second for a 5Hz signal (1) 0.5 (2) 10 (3) 5 (4) None of the
above.

The period is equal to 10µs, which means the frequency is? (1)0.1MHz (2)1MHz
(3)10MHz (4)None of the above.

Which of the following is a unit of network or data transmission rate? (1)byte (2) Hz
(3)bps (4) All of the above are acceptable.

If the bit transmission rate is 2000bps, what is the bit interval? (1)0.25ms (2)0.5ms
(3)0.25s (4)0.5s.
2

If the bit transmission rate is 5000bps, how many bits can be transmitted in 0.05
seconds? (1)10K (2)0.1K (3)0.25K (4)5K.
3
A composite signal can be decomposed into 4 sine waves, namely 1KHz, 1.2KHz,
1.5KHz, and 3KHz. What is the bandwidth of this composite signal? (1)1K (2)2K (3)3K
(4)4K.

How many potential levels does NRZ-I encoding have? (1)1 (2)2 (3)3 (4)4.

A signal is sampled 8000 times per second, and each sample has 16 bits. What is the
bit transmission rate? (1)64Kbps (2)96Kbps (3)112Kbps (4)128AKbps.

For a 5-minute analog speech, if the sampling frequency of telephone speech is 8KHz
and the encoding length is 16 bits, what is the amount of data after digitization?
(1)3.6MB (2)4.8MB (3)6MB (4)7.2MB.

What kind of transmission is the broadcast of radio and television programs? (1)
Full-duplex transmission (2) Half-duplex transmission (3) Simplex transmission (4) None
of the above.

The origin of the development of the Internet is (1) the needs of national defense; (2)
the needs of academia; (3) the needs of the business community; (4) none of the
above.

1
When two computers are directly connected using network cards without going through
Hub/Switch, what must be done with the network cable (1) Any network cable can be
used (2) Jumpers are required (3) This method Doesn't work (4) None of the above.

If users want to access the Internet at home, they must use whose connection service
(1) IP (2) ISP (3) Computer and operating system (4) WWW.

The equipment currently required for Internet access at home must include: (1) Internet;
(2) Telephone number and modem; (3) Computer and operating system; (4) All of the
above.

What is TCP/IP? (1) Address; (2) Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol;
(3) Internet Engineering Task Force; (4) None of the above.

Regarding the description of local network, which of the following statements is incorrect
(1) A network can be composed of only 2 computers (2) A short-distance
communication network (3) Software and hardware resource sharing (4) Unable to send
email.

The highest frequency band used by 802.11ad is (1) 2.4 GHz (2) 5 GHz (3) 7 GHz (4)
60GHz.