Transpose matrix:

The new matrix obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of the original matrix is called as
the transpose of the matrix. If A = [aij] be an m × n matrix, then the matrix obtained by
interchanging the rows and columns of A would be the transpose of A. It is denoted by A′ or (AT).
In other words, if A   aij  , then A   a ji  .
mn n m

For example,
a h d  a k g
If A  k b l . Then A   h
  b f 
  
 g f c   d l c 

Properties:
1) Transpose of Transpose of a Matrix
The transpose of the transpose of a matrix is the matrix itself: (AT)T = A. Verify that (AT)T = A.
2) Transpose of a Sum
The transpose of the sum of two matrices is equivalent to the sum of their transposes: (A + B)T =
AT + BT.
3) Transpose of a Product
The transpose of the product of two matrices is equivalent to the product of their transposes in
reversed order: (AB)T = BT AT. The same is true for the product of multiple matrices: (ABC)T =
CTBTAT.

Question: Suppose ( ) ( ). Show that (AB)T = BT AT

Solution: Here ( )( )

( ) ( )

Therefore, ( )

( )( ) ( )

So, (Showed)
1
Exercise: If ( ) ( ) , and ( )

i. Show that (A - B)T = AT - BT

ii. Prove that (AB)T = BT AT
iii. Show that (ABC)T = CTBTAT
iv. Find the value of

Solution: (iv) Now, ( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

=( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

=( )

( )

Symmetric Matrix:
A square matrix ‘A’ is said to be symmetric if A=AT, that is, matrix A is said to be symmetric if
the transpose of matrix A is equal to matrix A itself.
Skew-Symmetric Matrix:
A square matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric if (A= - AT) for all i and j. In other
words, we can say that matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric if transpose of matrix A is equal to
negative of matrix A. Note that all the main diagonal elements in the skew-symmetric matrix are
zero.
2
Let’s take an example of a matrix ( )

Then ( ) and ( ) = A. Therefore,

Theorem-1: For any square matrix A with real number entries, is a symmetric matrix and
– is a skew-symmetric matrix.

Proof: Let ,
Then =
= + [ ]
= +A [ ]
=
Therefore, B = is a symmetric matrix.
Now let
Then C
Therefore, C is a skew-symmetric matrix.

Theorem- 2: Any Square matrix can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a skew-
symmetric matrix.

Proof: Let A be a square matrix then, we can write

2 A A  AT  A  AT
A 
2 2
A   A  AT    A  AT   S  K
1 1
2 2
From the Theorem 1, we know that  A  AT  is a symmetric matrix and  A  AT  is a skew-

symmetric matrix. Since for any matrix A, (kA)T = k AT, it follows that
1
2
 A  AT  is a symmetric
matrix and
1
2
 A  AT  is a skew-symmetric matrix.

Question-1: Show that the following matrix can be written as the sum of a symmetric and a

skew-symmetric matrix A = ( ).

Solution: Given, A = ( ) then, ( )

3
Now, the symmetric matrix of A is,

S=A+ =( ) ( ) ( )

Again the skew-symmetric matrix of A is,

( ) ( ) ( )

Now, S+K=( ) ( ) ( )

Thus ( )=A, i.e.

So, A can be written as the sum of symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices.

Question-2: Show that the following matrix can be written as the sum of a symmetric and a
skew-symmetric matrix.

P=( ) and Q ( )

Orthogonal Matrix:
A square matrix with real numbers or values is termed as an orthogonal matrix if its transpose is
equal to the inverse matrix of it. In other words, the product of a square orthogonal matrix and its
transpose will always give an identity matrix.
Suppose A is the square matrix with real values, of order n × n. Also, let is the transpose matrix
of A. Then according to the definition:
If, condition is satisfied, then

Where ‘ ’ is the identity matrix of the order n × n. is the inverse of matrix A and ‘n’ denotes
the number of rows and columns. Then we will call A as the orthogonal matrix.

Question-3: Show that the following matrix is the example of an orthogonal matrix

( )

Solution: Given, ( ) then, ( )

4
Now, ( )( )

( )

( ) ( )

Since, , so P is an Orthogonal matrix.

Question-4: Show that the following matrix is the example of an orthogonal matrix.

( )

Determinant:
Determinant in linear algebra is a useful value to provide the value of a square matrix. We denote the
determinant of any matrix A by det(A), or |A|.
Determinant Formula:
1. Let us take a matrix of order 1 ×1 as: A= [ ]
Then its determinant will be: det(A)=|A| =2
2. Let us take a matrix of 2×2 order as:
* +=* +
Then its determinant value will be:
Determinant of A, | |
3. If the matrix is of 3×3 order :

( )

Then its determinant will be: Det(B)=| |=

Question-5: Determine the determinant of the matrices:

( ) ( )

| |

| |

5
Inverse Matrix:
If A is a square matrix of order m, and if there exists another square matrix B of the same order m,
such that AB = BA = I, then B is called the inverse matrix of A and it is denoted by A–1.
For example, let ( ) ( ) be two matrices.

So, ( )( )

( ) ( )

Similarly ( )
Thus B is the inverse of A. In other words B = A-1 and A is the inverse of B. ie. A = B-1

Question: Find the inverse of the following matrix and show that A. .

( )

Solution: Given, ( )

So, | |

Cofactors:

Now, ( ) ( )

6
 So, | |
( )

2nd part: ( )( )

( )

( ) ( )

Question: If ( ), then find and show that

Involutory matrix:
A Matrix A is said to be Involutory if where, I is an Identity matrix.

Question: Show that the following matrix is an Involutory matrix.

( )

Solution: Given, ( )

Now ( ) ( )

( )

( )

Since, , so A in an Involutory matrix.

7
Idempotent Matrix: A matrix A is said to be Idempotent if .

Question: Show that the following matrix is an Idempotent matrix.

( )

Solution: Given, ( )

Now ( )( )

( )

( )

Since, , so B in an Idempotent matrix.

Solving system of linear equations using matrix method:

Suppose, a system of linear equations are,

We can write this as , where

( ), ( ) and ( )

From (1) we can write, …………….(2).

Question-1: Solve the following system of linear equations using matrix method.

Given system of equations can be written as ……(2), where

8
 ( ), ( ) and ( )

From (2) we can write ………..(3)

Now, | |
Cofactors:

So, ( ) ( )

( )
| |

From (3) we get, ( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Solution of the system

Question-2: Solve the following system of linear equations using matrix method.
x  2y  z  3 x  2 y  3z  7
i  2x  3 y  z  4  ii  2x  y  z  1
3x  y  z  4 x  y  z  6

9
Cramer’s rule:

Suppose, a system of linear equations are,

We can write this as , where

( ), ( ) and ( )

Now ( ) ( ) ( )

| | | | | |
According to Cramer’s rule, | | | | | |

Question-1: Solve the following system of linear equations using Cramer’s rule.

x  2y  z  3 x  2 y  3z  7
i  2x  3y  z  3  ii  2x  y  z  1
3x  y  z  6 x  y  z  6
Solution: (i)
We can write this as , where

( ), ( ) and ( )

Now ( ) ( ) ( )

| | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | |

| | | | | |
According to Cramer’s rule, | | | | | |

10
Rank of a Matrix
The maximum number of linearly independent rows in a matrix A is called the row rank of A,
and the maximum number of linearly independent columns in A is called the column rank of A.
If A is an m by n matrix, that is, if A has m rows and n columns, then it is obvious that
}

However, is that for any matrix A, the row rank of A = the column rank of A
Because of this fact, there is no reason to distinguish between row rank and column rank; the
common value is simply called the rank of the matrix. Therefore, if A is m x n, it follows from
the inequalities in (1) that

 2 1 3 
 
1 0 1
Example-1: Find the rank of the matrix 
 0 2 1
 
1 1 4 
Solution:
First, because the matrix is , its rank can be no greater than 3. Therefore, at least one of the
four rows will become a row of zeros. Perform the following row operations:
 2 1 3  1 0 1  1 0 1 
    r2 2 r1  r2  
 1 0 1   r1  r2  2 1 3  r4  r1  r4  0 1 1 
 
 0 2 1  0 2 1  0 2 1
     
1 1 4  1 1 4  0 1 3 
1 0 1  1 0 1  1 0 1  1 0 1 
  r3  2 r2  r3   r2  r2    
 0 1 1   r4  r2  r4

0 1 1  r4 2 r3  r4  0 1 1 r3  r3  0 1 1
  
 0 2 1  0 0 1  0 0 1 0 0 1 
       
0 1 3  0 0 2  0 0 0  0 0 0 

Since there are 3 nonzero rows remaining in this echelon form of B, rank(B)=3

Example-2: Determine the rank of the following matrices

 1 1 1 1
   2 2 4 
1 1 1 1  
C   P   1 3 4 
 1 1 1 1  1 2 3 
   
 1 1 1 1 

11
Question: Express M as a linear combination of the matrices A, B and C where
4 7 1 1 1 2 1 1
M  , A   , B   , C   
7 9  1 1 3 4  4 5
Solution: Given,

4 7 1 1 1 2 1 1
M  , A , B   , C   
7 9  1 1 3 4  4 5

Here, M will be a linear combination of if there exist some scalars such that

………………….(1)

Or, * + * + * + * +

Or, * + [ ] * + * +

Or, [ ] * +

Solving the above system of equations, we get,

From (i), we get, or, . (Expressed)

12
 4 6 6
Question: Find the eigenvalue of the given matrix A   1 3 2 
 1 4 3 
 

Solution: The characteristic equation of A is  I  A  0

1 0 0  4 6 6 
   
  0 1 0   1 3 2   0
 0 0 1   1 4 3 
   
  4 6 6
 1  3 2  0
1 4  3
    4    2  9  8   6    3  2   6  4    3  0
    4    2  1  6  6  6  6  0
    4    2  1  0
    4   0,  2
 1  0
   4,    1  1
   4, 1,1

Therefore, the eigenvalues of A are   1,1, 4

1 0 4  3 2 4
   
Exercise: Find the eigenvalue of the given matrix B   0 5 4  , C   2 0 2 
 4 4 3  4 2 3
   

Question: Find the characteristic equation of the following matrices and verify Cayley-Hamilton
 1 2 3
theorem for it. A   2 1 1 
 3 1 1
 

Solution: The characteristic equation of A is  I  A  0

13
  1 0 0   1 2 3
   
   0 1 0    2 1 1   0
 0 0 1  3 1 1
   
 1 2 3
 2  1 1  0
3 1  1
    1   2  1  1  2  2  2  3  3  2  3  3   0
    1   2  2   4  2  9  15  0
  3  2   2  2  13  17  0
  3   2  15  15  0

Now in order to verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem we have to show that A3  A2 15 A 15I  0

 1 2 3  1 2 3  1 2 3  14 3 8 
Here, A   2 1 1  A2   2 1 1 
    
 2 1 1    3 6 6  and
 3 1 1  3 1 1  3 1 1   8 6 11
      

 1 2 3 14 3 8   44 33 53 
    
A  A  A   2 1 1  3 6 6    33 6 21
3 2

 3 1 1  8 6 11  53 21 41
    

A3  A2  15 A  15I
 44 33 53  14 3 8   1 2 3 1 0 0
       
  33 6 21   3 6 6   15  2 1 1   15  0 1 0
 53 21 41  8 6 11  3 1 1 0 0 1 
      
 44  14  15  15 33  3  30  0 53  8  45  0   0 0 0
   
  33  3  30  0 6  6  15  15 21  6  15  0    0 0 0
 53  8  45  0 21  6  15  0 41  11  15  15   0 0 0 
  

Hence the Cayley-Hamilton theorem is verified.

Exercise: Find the characteristic equation of the following matrices and verify Cayley-Hamilton
theorem for it.

1 2 2  2 1 1
 ,  
B  3 1 0 C   1 4 3
1 1 1  1 1 0 
   

14