Fundamentals

Fluid Mechanics (CIVE40008)

Prof. Maarten van Reeuwijk
[email protected]
What is a fluid?

Gases
Fluids
Liquids
Solids
• Fluids flow and change shape (solids do not).
• All fluids respond to an applied force or shear stress – they experience a
continuing and permanent distortion
• liquids & gases respond differently:

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Definition of a fluid

A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under

the application of a shear stress.

Shear stress - pronounced “tau”

Symbol to
denote free
surface

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Continuum hypothesis

In considering the action of forces on fluids one can either account for
• the behaviour of every molecule in a given flow, or,
• the average effects of the molecules in a given volume

Only the latter approach is feasible and fluids are regarded as a continuum.

A continuum prevails if the number of molecules in a given volume is

sufficiently great that the average effects (pressure, density etc.) are constant
or change smoothly with time.

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Justification for continuum approach

Approach relies on
• number of molecules in a given volume being large
• the ‘scale’ of interest not being too small

‘Scale’ – e.g. the physical dimension of the body immersed in the fluid

Continuum approach valid Continuum approach invalid

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e.g. flow of air past a sphere of 1cm diameter

…..at sea level …..at altitude of ~300km

• no. molecules in 1 cm3 of air: ~1019
• One chance in ~108 of finding a
molecule in the sphere (!!!)

Continuum approach valid Continuum approach not valid

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 Typical values:
Density air = 1.2 kgm-3;
oil = 900 kgm-3
• The density  is the mass per unit volume water = 1000 kgm-3
seawater = 1030 kgm-3
mass
density= (units kgm-3)
volume

• Related fluid properties

𝜌
Specific gravity: 𝑆 = [-]
𝜌
Specific weight: 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔 [N/m3]

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Compressibility

• All fluids are compressible; Shockwave development

at supersonic velocities
• The density of some is more easily changed
than others
• Larger pressures needed to compress
liquids than gases (e.g. bicycle pump).
• Air is a relatively compressible fluid, but it
may be treated as incompressible at
velocities ≪ speed of sound.
• Water, for most applications can be treated
as incompressible and in turn assumed to
have constant density;

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Velocity
• Each fluid element in a flow (containing trillions of
molecules) has a unique velocity.
• The fluid velocity can be different in each point in space
(x, y, z) and also depend on the time t.
2D steady flow in a room:
• This is the velocity field 𝑢 = (𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤) 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦)

v 𝑢

u Flow around building; 3D

unsteady flow: 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
x
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Stresses in fluids

• A stress is a force per unit area

• Can be normal to the surface (e.g. pressure inside balloon)
• Or can be a tangential force (e.g. wind over water)

• Fluid motion can cause stresses (e.g. wind past a building)

• Stresses can cause fluid motion (e.g. wind over water)

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Normal and shear stresses
Stresses that act on a fluid particle can be split into normal
and shear stresses

• Normal stresses give rise to forces acting normal to the Normal stresses
surface of the fluid particle preserve shape
• tend to compress / expand the fluid particle without
changing its shape 

• Shear stresses or tangential stresses give rise to forces

that shear the particle & deform its shape.

• Changes shape without changing volume
Shear stresses
deform shape

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Stresses in stationary and moving fluids

Stationary fluids (nonmoving):

• the stress distribution is described completely
by the pressure distribution (normal stresses)
• Stationary fluids only feel normal stresses

Moving fluids
• shearing stresses become important;
• moving fluids feel normal and shear stresses

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Viscosity

• Viscosity is a measure of how much

resistance a fluid has to shear, e.g.
• treacle is a viscous fluid (relatively high viscosity);
• Water is less viscous than treacle.

• Quantified by the dynamic viscosity  (unit

Pa s = N s / m2; pronounced “mu”)

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Dynamic and kinematic viscosity

• the kinematic viscosity  (units m2/s; pronounced “nu”) is often used when
density variations can be neglected. It is related to the dynamic viscosity as:
𝜇
𝜈=
𝜌
• Dynamic viscosity used when calculating forces
• Kinematic viscosity used when dealing with motion

Air Water
density  kg/m3 1 103
dynamic viscosity  Pa s 10-5 10-3
kinematic viscosity*  m2/s 10-5 10-6

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 Fluid region 𝐷

Volume and surface integrals ℎ

Fluid Mechanics (CIVE40008)
Dr Maarten van Reeuwijk
[email protected]

element of volume: 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑆𝑑𝑧

element of mass: 𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌𝑑𝑉 = 𝜌𝑆𝑑𝑧

 𝑓(𝑥)
Integration

• Integration in 1-D involves finding the area

under a curve.
• Integration is defined as a limit process

𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = lim 𝑓 𝑥 Δ𝑥 𝑥
→
Δ𝐴 = 𝑓Δ𝑥

• From a continuum perspective (i.e. the limit Δ𝑥 → 0), it involves

determining small elements of area 𝒅𝑨 = 𝒇𝒅𝒙 and then summing
over the integration interval:

𝐴 = ∫ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

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Volume integrals
• Fluids are modelled as a continuum. Fluid region 𝐷

• Integral properties of the fluid (e.g. volume, mass,

momentum, energy) will have to be calculated by
volume integration.

• Fluid occupies a region 𝐷.

• Fluid volume is calculated by summing over all

infinitesimal fluid elements 𝒅𝑽 in 𝑫:
element of volume 𝑑𝑉
𝑉= 𝑑𝑉

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Volume integrals
Fluid region 𝐷
• Assume fluid density 𝜌 = 𝜌 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 .
• Fluid mass is determined by summing over all
infinitesimal mass contributions:

𝑚= 𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌𝑑𝑉

• If 𝜌 constant: 𝑚 = 𝜌 ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜌𝑉.

• Same principle can be applied to any quantity, e.g.

element of mass 𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌𝑑𝑉
kinetic energy:
element of KE 𝑑𝐸 = 𝜌𝑈 𝑑𝑉
1
𝐸 = 𝑑𝐸 = 𝜌𝑈 𝑑𝑉
2

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Integrating over slabs
Fluid region 𝐷
• When quantities vary in one direction only we
can integrate over slabs.
ℎ
• Assume 𝜌 = 𝜌 𝑧 , denote planar surface area
by 𝑆, height of fluid region is ℎ, vertical
coordinate 𝑧.

𝑚= 𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌𝑆𝑑𝑧 𝑧

• In the example, 𝑆 does not vary with 𝑧 so 𝑚 = 𝑆

𝑆 ∫ 𝜌𝑑𝑧 . element of volume: 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑆𝑑𝑧

element of mass: 𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌𝑑𝑉 = 𝜌𝑆𝑑𝑧

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Surface integrals Surface 𝐴 (assumed flat surface)

• It also happens regularly we need quantities

integrated over surfaces, e.g. to determine the
pressure force or the volume flux. 𝑑𝐴
• Consider the total surface area

𝑆= 𝑑𝐴
Element of area: 𝑑𝐴
Element of force: 𝑑𝐹 = 𝑝𝑑𝐴
• Pressure force (normal to surface A)
Element of volume flux: 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑢𝑑𝐴

𝐹= 𝑑𝐹 = 𝑝𝑑𝐴 Perpendicular
Volume flux to surface

𝑄= 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑢𝑑𝐴

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