Unit 2.

Operating System and Computer Network

Every computing device whether it is a desktop computer or laptop or tablet or even smartphone
runs the various software and applications because of operating system. Operating system (OS) is
an important software of every computing device. An OS is an integrated set of programs that
directs and manages the components and resources of a computer system, including main
memory, the CPU and the peripheral devices. The OS is somewhat like a house keeper in that it
organizes and maintains the functioning of various devices. The task of an operating system is to
manage the hardware carefully to achieve the best possible performance. This is accomplished by
the operating system's controlling and coordinating resources such as CPU, other processing
units, memory, storage, and input/output devices. It also ensures that the computer's resources
such as its CPU, hard disk, and memory, are appropriately utilized. The hardware provides
computing power and the operating system provides interface between a computer‘s hardware
and the applications that run on it. This unit provides the basic knowledge of operating system
that is required for software development.

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 Chapter 6. Operating System

An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware, software
resources, and provides common services for computer programs. It allows applications to
interact with the hardware, execute application programs and act as an intermediary between a
user of a computer and the computer hardware. It manages the basic tasks such as memory
management, process management, file management, input-output management, and control the
peripheral devices.
Let us understand it with analogy. When you go to a doctor for a check-up, he examines you and
write diagnosis in medical term that you cannot understand. But he makes you understand the
problem in your language and prescribe medicines. These medicines are as per your interaction
with the doctor. It will not suit to other patient with the similar symptoms.

Fig. 6.1: Analogy of operating system

In this chapter you will understand the role of operating system in computer, structure of
operating system, overview of the functions of operating systems. You will also learn to use the
operating systems to perform the basic tasks.
6.1 Operating System: An Introduction
OS is a mediator between computing device and user just like doctor acted as the mediator
between your illness and you. The computing device can be a computer, tablet, smartphone, or
any appliance. It is necessary to have at least one operating system installed in the computer to
run the software and carry out various tasks. It can manage all hardware and software resources.
Windows, Linux, and Android are examples of operating systems that enable the user to use
programs like MS Office, Notepad, and games on the computer or mobile phone.
6.1.1 Role of Operating System
When you start a computer, Power-On Self-Test (POST) routine check for proper working of
hardware. The BIOS (Basic Input/output System) chip contains basic instructions for starting the
computer system. BIOS will then run initial bootstrap program, stored in read-only memory
(ROM). The bootstrap program loads the operating system kernel into memory. Kernel is the first
program loaded on start-up after the bootloader and remains in memory until the OS is shut
down.
6.1.2 Layers of computer system
A computer system can be divided into four layers – hardware, operating system, application
programs and users. The applications interact with both the user and the operating system. The
operating system interacts with the applications. It controls and manages hardware resources
from both applications and hardware layers.

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Figure 6.2 shows the relationship between OS, user, hardware and application. The hardware is
innermost layer, the operating system interacts with hardware, applications are installed on OS
and the user work on the application. The user can interact with hardware only through OS.

Fig. 6.2 Layers in computer system

6.1.3 Structure of operating system
The kernel and shell are two important programs of an operating system. Kernel interact with
hardware as well as with shell. The user interacts with the kernel through shell. Any command
given by the user first goes to the shell. The shell interprets it and sends it to kernel. The kernel
processes the request and displays the result on the screen. Figure 6.3 shows that the kernel is
close to the hardware while shell can interact with kernel and user.

Fig. 6.3 Structure of operating system

6.1.4 Kernel – Kernel is the core of operating system that interacts with hardware and manages
system resources. It acts as a bridge between the software and hardware of the computer. It offers
secure access to the computer hardware and manage the system's resources for various
programs. It also decides when and how long a certain application uses specific hardware.
6.1.5 Shell – Shell provides an interface for users to an operating system to access the services of
a kernel. It is the interface between kernel and user. Shells are of two categories – command-line
interface (CLI) and graphical user interface (GUI). The primary purpose of the shell is to invoke or
launch another program.
 Graphical user interface (GUI) – It offers graphical icons, and visual indicators to fully
represent the information and actions available to a user.
 Command line interface (CLI) – The command-line interpreter run in a terminal or in a
terminal emulator window as a remote shell client. The command usually returns output
to the user in the form of text lines on the CLI. CLIs are generally used by programmers.
6.2 Functions of Operating System
Operating system provides various services to the user as well as to the application programs. It
acts as a resource manager. There are four primary resources of the computer – processor or
CPU, primary memory RAM, device and file system. Operating system primarily performs
management of these resources. It allocates the resources when required, helps to execute the
process and de-allocate the resources after completion. Observe the Figure 1.4 of Windows task
manager. It shows the allocation of resources such a CPU, Memory and Disk to several processes
running in the computer.

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Fig. 6.4 Allocation of resources in Windows
Several functions performed by operating system are given below.
6.2.1. Processor Management
Processor is an important component of computer system and it should be optimally utilised to
execute the various processes. It is responsible for execution of process. The processor
management determines the amount of processing time allocated to each job. It also keeps tracks
of the process status, which is run by the program known as the traffic controller.

Fig. 6.5 Process scheduling in processor management

The Figure 6.5 depicts the life cycle of a process. When a new process enters the queue, it stays
there until it is ready to be dispatched. Once it is dispatched, it is in running phase. If the other
process has a higher priority than the existing one, then the process can be interrupted by
another process in the queue. In case the existing process requires something like an Input from
the user, it can be blocked temporarily until the event has occurred. Once the process is
completed, it will be terminated.
The processor management allocates the processor to the process, and de-allocates the processor
after the process is completed. When more than one process runs on the system the OS decides
which process gets the processor, when and for how much time. This is called as processor or
CPU Scheduling.
6.2.2. Memory Management
Memory management refers to the management of main memory. Main memory is directly
accessed by the CPU and is allocated to execute the program. After completing the execution of
the process, the main memory should be released to be available for another process. As the
numbers of processes are executed by the processor, it is required to manage the memory. In
multiprocessing, it distributes the memory to various processes and decides which process will
get memory when and how much. The memory management allocates the memory to the process
for running as shown in Figure 6.6.

Fig. 6.6 Memory management

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It keeps track of primary memory. It allocates memory to execute each process when required. It
de-allocates or release the memory after completing the execution of process.
6.2.3. Device Management
Device management keeps tracks of all devices. It helps to communicate with peripheral devices
via their respective drivers as shown in Figure 6.7. It decides the policy and determine which
process gets a device, for how long and where. For example, to print a document, device
management decides whether the printer has to be allocated or not and for how long. It also de-
allocates devices when not in use. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O
controller. It decides which process gets the device when and for how much time. It allocates the
device to different processes in efficient way and de-allocates devices after completing the process.

Fig. 6.7 Device management

6.2.4. File Management
A file is a collection of information stored in the memory of computer system. File management
refers to the management of file system in secondary memory. File management performs the
tasks such as create, edit, update, delete, manipulate files and directories, mapping files into
secondary storage and backing up files on non-volatile media. It keeps track of file system i.e.
information, location, uses, status of files. It helps to store the file in folders and locate these files
in computer system. It makes the process easy to share the files among the various user. It helps
to manage the files according to their types and uses. The Figure 6.8 shows the general hierarchy
of file system. The root directory is present at the highest level in the hierarchical structure. It
includes all the subdirectories in which the files are stored. Subdirectory is a directory inside
another directory in the file

storage system.
Fig. 6.8 File/Folder Management
6.2.5. I/O Management
The input/output process in computer is controlled by the Operating System. Figure 6.9 shows,
the user instructs the system to play a music file using music application. The OS first read the
audio file from the disk, which is the storage device to retrieve the input and then send the player
to play to produce the output on output device, the speakers. Thus, the I/O management function
is performed by the operating system.

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Fig. 6.9 I/O management
6.2.6. Secondary Storage Management
The primary storage of device is easily accessible and secondary storage can be connected and
accessed using storage devices. The operating system store files and programs in a directory,
which can be accessed quickly by the main memory.
Storage management helps to optimize the storage devices and improve the performance of the
data storage resources and also protecting data integrity on media. It is one of the important
functions of operating system to store and access the files from storage device. The creation of
files, directories, the reading and writing of data from files and directories, as well as the copying
of the contents of files and directories from one location to another are all included in storage
management.

Fig. 6.10 Secondary storage management

6.2.7. Security
Security of data and system is an important concern while working on the computer. Computer
viruses can be harmful and result in loss of data or system crashes. The OS has a number of
built-in tools to protect against security threats, including the use of virus scanning utilities and
setting up a firewall to block suspicious network activity. OS also allows to set up a password so
that only authenticated user can use that computer. This will prevent the system from threats. It
extends to defending external I/O devices, including modems and network adapters, from invalid
access attempts and to recording all such connections for detection of break-ins.
6.2.8. Command Interpretation and User interface
A user input provides the commands to computer in English language, but computer machine
understand only machine language or binary language of 0‘s and 1‘s. The operating system
manages the interpretation of the commands to process the task.
Operating systems provides the user interface to interact the user with computer system. The
user interface can be command-line interface (CLI) or graphical user interface (GUI). The CLI uses
commands on the command prompt and GUI uses the graphical icons that can be operated using
mouse. The actions such as clicking, selecting menu items can be performed in GUI.

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Fig. 6.11 Command-line interface (CLI)
Fig. 6.12 Graphical user interface (GUI)
6.2.9. Networking
Operating systems play a major role in networking. A network operating system such as Windows
Server, Unix and Linux Server can be installed in the server computer and it can serve the
connected client computers and peripherals. In such a system, a large number of independent
and physically separated computers can connect through a single communication channel and
this is supported by the operating system.

Fig. 6.13 Networking

6.2.10. Communications
There are many circumstances in which one process needs to exchange information with another
process. Such communication may occur between processes that are executing on the same
computer or between processes that are executing on different computer systems tied together by
a computer network. Communications may be implemented via shared memory or through
message passing, in which packets of information are moved between processes by the operating
system.

Fig. 6.14 Communication

Figure 6.14 shows that; two processes can communicate with each other. The sending process
sends across a message via the message passing module which goes as a packet that contains
Process ID and Message and is received by the Receiving Process.
6.2.11. Job Scheduling
An operating system keeps track of resources and time used by various jobs and users. It is easy
to schedule a single task but when multiple tasks are taken into consideration, an operating

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system determines the order in which tasks are allocated resources, and further completed. The
priority of the jobs depends on various criteria including a user-defined value and order of arrival.
Figure 6.15 shows how the jobs in the queue are being executed.

Fig. 6.15 Job Scheduling

6.2.12. Error Detection
Errors may occur in the CPU and memory such as a memory error or a power failure in I/O
devices, a connection failure on a network, or lack of paper in the printer. Errors may occur in
user program also. The operating system continuously monitors the system to locate or recognize
problems and protects the system from them. Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the
programmer‘s abilities to use the system efficiently. Systems with multiple users can gain
efficiency by sharing the computer resources among the users.
6.3 Types of OS
Operating system can be classified into various types on the basis of several criteria, viz. Number
of users working simultaneously, number of simultaneously active programs, number of
processors in the computer system. Modern OS such as Windows and Linux come for single user
called as Desktop OS and for multiuser called as Network or Server OS. OS can be open source or
proprietary. Windows is proprietary OS developed by Microsoft corporation, while Linux is an
open source OS developed by open source foundation. The mobile devices such as iPad, Tablet
and smartphones have mobile OS such as Android and iOS. While considering various other
criteria, there are several types of operating systems.
Operating system are also classified as 32-bit and 64-bit. There are two types of processors exists
in computer – 32-bit and 64-bit processors. 32-bit OS can address maximum of 232 memory
addresses and 64-bit OS can address 264 memory addresses. All the modern operating systems
are 64 bits.
6.3.1. Single-User operating system
It is intended to be used by a single user in a single computer at a time. Figure 6.16 shows the
process flow in single user operating system. It can only run one program or application at a time.
Since it is being used by a single user at a time, the processor is not fully utilised.

Fig. 1.16 Process flow in single user OS

A single user operating system can be single tasking or multitasking.
a. Single-User Single-Tasking operating system
In this system, only one user can perform a single task at a time. It occupies less space in
memory. MS-DOS is an example of single user OS. Its screen is shown in Figure 6.17.

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Fig. 6.17 MS DOS Single user OS
b. Single-User Multi-Tasking operating system
It is developed for single user but capable to perform multiple tasks at a time. While working on
document, one can simultaneously play music, open file manager and print the document. It is
possible to perform multiple tasks simultaneously. To achieve this the processor time is divided
amongst different tasks. It is not possible to work on multiple tasks in a single tasking OS. It
offers high productivity in less time. Also, less memory is used for performing multiple tasks.
Windows, Linux and Mac OS are the examples of single user multitasking OS. Figure 6.18 shows

the multiple tasks are being performed by the user in Ubuntu Linux.
Fig. 6.18 Multitasking OS – Ubuntu Linux
6.3.2. Multiuser Operating System

It allows multiple users to access a computer system simultaneously. It is used in networking

where data and applications are accessed by multiple users at the same time. Time-sharing
systems can be classified as multi-user systems as they enable a multiple user access to a
computer through time sharing. The server OS, such as Windows server, Linux server and Unix
are examples of multiuser OS. They are also multitasking OS. Figure 6.19 shows the such
multiuser OS.

Fig. 6.19 Multiuser OS

The user having multiple accounts on a Windows operating system does not make it a multi-user
system, as only the network administrator is the real user. In Unix operating system, it is possible
for two users to log in at a time and this capability makes it a multi-user operating system.
6.3.3. Batch operating systems
Batch operating system is used to fully utilise the power of processor. An operator collects the
jobs and groups them together into a batch as shown in Figure 6.20. It automatically keeps
executing one job to the next job in the batch which is taken care by batch monitor. The batch
monitor accepts batch initiation commands from the operator. Then processes each job in the
batch, then move on next batch and execute each job in batch till termination of last batch. To
speed up the processing, the similar jobs are batched together and run on the computer as a
group. Batch operating systems is appropriate for lengthy and time-consuming tasks. It is used
for tasks such as managing payroll systems, data entry and bank statements.

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Fig. 6.20 Batch operating systems
6.3.4. Multiprogramming Operating System
The batch processing system tries to reduce the CPU idle time through executing jobs in batches.
But still the CPU is idle during IO operation. Multiprogramming operating system eliminate CPU
idle time by providing multiple computational tasks. The CPU performs other jobs until the IO
operation is being carried out for the current job. The supervisor manages all the activities
simultaneously. The most popular multiprogramming operating systems are UNIX, VMS, and
Windows-NT. Figure 6.21 shows that while program A has completed its processing and writing
output data, program B is currently executing and program C is waiting to get the processor for
executing the job. Thus, the multiprogramming operating system manages all the activities
simultaneously.

Fig. 6.21: Multiprogramming operating system

6.3.5. Time-Sharing Operating System
Time sharing is a logical extension of multiprogramming and multitasking operating system. It is
complex than multi-programming OS. It allows the user to perform multiple task at a time. But,
the switching between the tasks is very fast due to which the user feels that all tasks are running
at the same time. The CPU is multiplexed rapidly among several programs. A program swapped in
and out of memory to the disk. Time sharing system reduces the CPU ideal time. The operating
system performs time sharing through CPU scheduling and multiprogramming. Figure 6.22
shows the working of time-sharing system. The process 4 is in the active state. Process 5 is in a
ready state while; processes 1, 2, 3, and 6 are in a waiting state.

Fig. 6.22: Time sharing operating system

6.3.6. Multiprocessing or Parallel Operating System
There are several complex applications, where processing of multiple processes is required to be
performed by multiple processors. A multiprocessing operating system uses more than one
processor. For example, to perform weather forecasting, huge set of parameters are required to
process through the computer system. A single CPU will require lot of time to perform such task.
Therefore, multiprocessing or parallel OS is required in such applications. Windows, Linux and
UNIX support for multiprocessing. Figure 6.23 shows multiprocessing with three CPU. OS
manages three different processes running on different processors. Other processes D, and E are

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kept in queue by OS. This is because there is no processor available for their execution. This is
how OS manages multiple processes in the computer system.

Fig. 6.23 Multiprocessing OS

6.3.7. Distributed Operating System
In this several computer systems are connected through a single communication channel as
shown in Figure 6.24. Each computer has individual processors and memory.

Fig. 6.24: Distributed operating system

These processors communicate through high-speed buses or telephone lines. These individual
systems that connect through a single channel are considered as a single unit. The distributed
operating system manages group of independent computers and makes them appear to be a
single computer. Amoeba and LOCUS are some examples of distributed operating systems.
6.3.8. Network Operating System (NOS)
A network operating system is similar to distributed operating system. It is installed on server
computer, and provides the capability to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and
other networking functions. It allows shared access of files, printers, security, applications, and
other networking functions over a small network of computers like LAN. In 1983, Novell NetWare
was released as the first network operating system. Figure 6.25 shows how the client systems are
connected to the server in network OS.

Fig. 6.25: Network operating system

The other examples of network operating system are Microsoft Windows Server 2019, UNIX,
Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.
6.3.9. Real time operating system
It is a multitasking operating system aims to execute real-time applications quickly. The time
interval required to process and respond to inputs is very small, like in reservation system. The
system should perform the given task in a fixed time otherwise; it results in a system failure.
These are used when there are time requirements are very strict like missile launching, air traffic
control systems, robots. Windows CE, OS-9, Symbian and LynxOS are some of the commonly

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known real-time operating systems. There are two types of Real-Time operating system – Hard
Real Time System (HRTS) and Soft Real Time System (SRTS).
 Hard Real-Time Systems – In these applications time constraints is very short and strict
and even the shortest possible delay is not acceptable. It guarantees to complete the
critical tasks on time. These systems are built for saving life like automatic parachutes or
airbags which are required to be readily available in case of any accident.
 Soft Real-Time Systems – In this, the time constraint is not very strict. An important
task is prioritized over less important tasks, and this priority remains active until the
completion of the task. A time limit is set for a specific job, enabling short time delays for
future tasks, which is acceptable. Online Transaction systems, Livestock price quotation
systems, Computer games are few examples of using soft real time operating system.
6.3.10. Embedded Operating System
It is designed to be compact, efficient for using in embedded small machines like PDAs with less
autonomy. The hardware running an embedded operating system is usually very limited in
resources. It is designed to perform a specific task without much user intervention. It is usually
„bundled‟ together into a single executable image. It does not generally load and execute individual
applications at the user‘s request. ATMs and Satellite Navigation systems are examples of
embedded operating systems. Windows CE, FreeBSD and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded
operating systems.

Fig. 6.26 Embedded operating systems

6.3.11. Mobile Operating System
These are special type of operating system designed to control mobile devices such as tablets and
smartphone. Its design supports wireless communication and mobile applications. It allows to
install the apps, same as software in computer. It has built-in support for mobile multimedia
formats. Blackberry OS, Google‘s Android and Apple‘s iOS are some of the most commonly used
mobile operating systems.
6.4 Examples of Operating System
Operating systems are normally preloaded on the computer that you purchase. But it is possible
to upgrade or install operating system on computer. There are three most common types of
operating system — Microsoft Windows, Mac OX and Linux. Apple iOS and Google Android are
used for mobile devices, such as phones, and tablet computer.
6.4.1 Microsoft Windows is a graphical user interface (GUI) operating system. In this GUI system
all the programs or commands of operating system are available in the form of icons, buttons and
menus. Whenever we want to execute any command or program, the corresponding icon needs to
be clicked. There are various versions of Microsoft Windows. Windows 11 version released in
October, 2021 is the latest version. However, Windows 10, released in 2015 is the most commonly
used today. The earlier versions are Windows 8 released in 2010 and Windows 7 released in 2009.
Microsoft Windows is one of the most popular single user operating system. Figure 6.27 shows
typical desktop of Microsoft Windows 10 operating system.

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Fig. 6.27 Windows 10 Desktop
6.4.2 Linux is a family of open source operating systems. GNU/Linux is the
base of many open-source Oss. GNU/Linux is a set of programs/utilities and a
kernel that many open-source OSs share. It means that this OS can be
modified and distributed by anyone. Windows and Mac OS are proprietary,
means they can be modified only its company. It is necessary to purchase a
user license of proprietary software to use it on computer system. Linux is a
freeware, you need not to pay any cost and you can use it for free on your
computer.
GNU/Linux is the base for many open source operating systems called "distributions" or "distros"
in Linux. They are based on the same kernel and set of utilities with different "flavors" of Linux.
For example, we have Debian, Mint, Ubuntu, Fedora, Suse, Red hat Enterprise Linux as the
different distribution names of the Linux.
Linux is also available in the form of GUI. Every program in the Linux OS is displayed in the form
of icon, button or graphics. By clicking on the icon or button we can execute that appropriate
program. Figure 6.28 shows the Ubuntu Linux desktop.
It is one of the popular distributions of Linux OS. The latest version of the Ubuntu Linux is 22.04
released in April, 2022. Ubuntu releases are given code names using an adjective and an animal
with the same first letter. For example, Ubuntu 18.04 LTS (Bionic Beaver), Ubuntu 18.10 (Cosmic
Cuttlefish), Ubuntu 20.04 LTS (Focal Fossa), Ubuntu 21.04 (Hirsute Hippo), Ubuntu 21.10
(Impish Indri).

Fig. 6.28 Ubuntu Linux desktop

6.4.3 MacOS (earlier called OS X) is an operating system created by Apple. It‘s software and
hardware are not compatible with Windows computers. It comes pre-installed on Macintosh
computers. The first version of it was released in 1984 and it was the first OS for personal
computers to come with a built-in GUI. The GUI of Mac OS is different from that of Microsoft
Windows, as shown in Figure 6.29.

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Fig. 6.29 Mac OS screen
All the commands and screen programs available in Mac OS are displayed in the form of icons or
buttons. By clicking appropriate buttons, the program can be executed. There are various
versions of Mac OS. Most recent version of Mac OS is OS X, which is pronounced as OS 10. The
latest version released on 25 October 2021 is macOS 12: and is named as Monterey. The earlier
versions of macOS 11: Big Sur released on 12 November 2020, macOS 10.15: Catalina (Jazz) - 7
October 2019, macOS 10.14: Mojave (Liberty) - 24 September 2018, macOS 10.13: High Sierra
(Lobo) - 25 September 2017, macOS 10.12: Sierra (Fuji) - 20 September 2016, OS X 10.11: El
Capitan (Gala) - 30 September 2015.
6.4.4 OS for Mobile Devices
The OS designed for desktop and laptop computers are not suitable for mobile devices such as
smart phones and tablet computers. Any mobile operating system facilitates users to
run other apps/software on the mobile, tablets, etc. Basically, these are special type of
operating system which are designed for smart phones, tablets, smart watches, etc.
These are the mixture of computer operating system with some other essentially
required features for mobile device. These are comparatively very light and user
friendly. The OS Apple iOS and Google android are designed for mobile devices are
most commonly.
6.4.4.1 Apple iOS – This OS is commonly used in Apple mobile phones and iPads. In this, the
programs or commands are displayed in the form of icons or graphical buttons. The screens of an
iPhone and iPad are shown in Figure 6.30 (a) and (b).

Fig. 6.30 (a) iPhone screen Fig. 6.30 (b) iPad screen

These are not fully featured OSs and therefore they are unable to run all the software that can be
run on desktop or laptop computers. But still these OS are powerful and we can do a lot of things
on mobile devices, such as browsing the web, watching movies, listening to music, playing games
and many other things that we normally do on desktop. The latest version of iOS is iOS 15.4.1

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released on 31 Mar 2022. The earlier versions are iOS 14 released in 2020, iOS 13 released in 2019,
iOS 12 released in 2018, iOS 11 released in 2017 and iOS 10 released in 2016. Apple
automatically updates OS on iPhones and iPads whenever the new version is released. Apple iOS
is said to be the most secure OS on the mobile devices, as only a few viruses can affect Apple iOS.
6.4.4.2 Android OS – Google Android is another OS used for mobile devices, smartphones and
tablet computers. It is specifically designed for mobile devices. It also has a graphical user
interface (GUI) where the most of the programs are available in the form of icons or graphical
buttons. Whenever we click on any buttons, the corresponding program gets executed. The screen
of Android OS on mobile phones and tablets is shown in Figure 6.31 (a) and (b).

Fig. 6.31 (a) Android screen on Fig. 6.31 (b) Android screen on tablets
mobile

Android OS is one of the popular operating system in the world as many companies, such as
Samsung, Google and even Indian mobile companies make use of this OS for their mobile devices.
Android is designed to be flexible and adaptable to a wide variety of devices, from smartphones to
digital cameras, watches, TVs, and cars. By using these devices, we can perform many functions,
such as telephone call, browsing a website, identifying location by using maps, bank transactions
and many other daily routine tasks. We can maintain a calendar, notes and presentations by
using such mobile devices. The Android started its version from Android 1.0 released in
September 23, 2008, and the latest version of Google Android is Android 13, released in 2022.
The previous versions were Android 12 known as Android Snow Cone was released in 18
February, 2021, Android 11 known as Android Red Velvet Cake was released in 3 September
2020.
6.5 Working with Windows 10
When you start the computer, the operating system gets loaded in the computer. After getting the
initial screen of operating system, you can do several tasks such as opening software, working
with file manager, creating a file, coding, compiling and executing the program. All these
operations are performed by the operating system. So, it is important to learn the basics of
operating system. Here the basic operations of Windows 10 are explained. You can explore it
further for your work.
6.5.1 The desktop
After logging into the Windows, the desktop window will appear as shown in Figure 6.32. The
desktop is the main workspace of computer to view and manage files, open applications, access
the Internet and so on. It is the workspace from where, you can view and manage files, open
applications, access the Internet and so on.

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Fig. 6.32 Windows 10 desktop
The various components of the desktop are as follows.
1. Desktop Shortcuts – Shortcuts to files, folders, and the Recycle Bin.
2. The Taskbar – It provides access to the Start Menu, shortcuts to programs, as well as
volume and date/time control.
3. The Start Button – It allows to access computer programs and configuration options such
as Windows Settings.
4. Windows Search – It allows to search for programs, folders, and files.
5. Task View – It provides access to a task switcher tool as well as a virtual desktop.
6. File Explorer – It is Windows Explorer in previous versions, allows to access files and
folders on the computer.
7. Taskbar Programs – It provides quick access to open or pinned programs.
8. Volume Adjustment – It allows to adjust the computer‘s volume.
9. Date/Time – It allows to access the Date/Time options.
6.5.2 Opening application
Windows comes with many built-in applications such as Paint, Notepad. It is possible to install
other software such as MS Office, Photoshop, Python and MySQL as per the requirement. To open
any application, it is necessary that it is installed on your computer. If it is installed then it is
easy to open it, just by double clicking its icon present on the desktop or else select the
application by clicking on the Start button, then select the application. The following activity will
illustrate to open the application.
Practical Activity 6.1 – To open an application
Step 1. To open Python for programming, click on the Start button, then select and click on the
application IDLE (Python 3.10 64-bit) as shown in Figure 6.33.

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Fig. 6.33 Selecting Python IDLE to open
Step 2. The application will appear in a new window as shown in Figure 6.34.

Fig. 6.34 Python IDLE

Step 3. Similarly, to open MySQL, click on the Start button, then select and click on the
application MySQL 8.0 Command Line Client, as shown in Figure 6.35. The MySQL application
will open in a new window as shown in Figure 6.35.

Fig. 6.35 Selecting MySQL to open

Fig. 6.36 MySQL prompt after opening

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6.5.3 Finding files on computer
Windows provides some default folders to store the files for ease. These default folders are
Downloads to store the downloaded files from the internet, Documents to store the documents,
Pictures to store the picture files, Videos to store the video files. These folders are accessible on
the left side of the File Explorer window, as shown in Figure 6.36.

Fig. 6.36 Default folders

6.5.4 Searching for files
The searching feature allows looking for any file on computer. In Windows 10, the Search Box is
located next to the Start button. Type initial name of a file or folder to search. The search results
will appear above the search box as shown in Figure 6.37.

Fig. 6.37 Searching files from search box

It is also possible to search for files and folders from File Explorer. Practical Activity 1.2 illustrates
this.

Practical Activity 6.2 – Searching for files from File Explorer

Step 1. Click the File Explorer icon, located on the Windows Taskbar as shown in Figure 6.38.

Fig. 6.38 : Windows Explorer

Step 2. The File Explorer will appear. Click This PC as shown in Figure 6.39 to search for files

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 2. Operating System and Computer Network Page 18
located on PC.

Fig. 6.39 This PC

Step 3. In Search This PC, type the name of the file or folder to find as shown in Figure 6.40.

Fig. 6.40 : Search This PC

Step 4. A list of files and folders matching search terms will appear as shown in Figure 6.41.
Double-click the file or folder to open.

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Fig. 6.41: Double-click the file or folder

Accessing Windows Settings

The Windows Settings allows to view and change the settings as per the requirement. It is possible
to install and uninstall applications, do power setting and view hard drive space. The following
activity will illustrate to access the windows settings.

Practical Activity 6.3 – Access Windows Settings

Step 1. Click the Start button.
Step 2. Click the Settings icon.
Step 3. The Windows Setting window will open as shown in Figure 6.42. Observe the layout for
various settings.

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Fig. 6.42 Windows Settings
a. Click on the System icon to view its current settings. Try to change the system setting and
observe the change.
b. Click on the Devices icon to view its settings. Add and manage external devices such as
printers.
c. Click on the Network & Internet icon to view its settings. Manage network and internet
settings.
d. Click on the Personalization icon to view its settings. Personalize the desktop by changing the
desktop appearance, apply themes, change the lock screen and observe the change.
e. Click on the Accounts icon and view information about your user account on the computer.
f. Click on the Time & language icon and view the present time zone and language. Change time
zone and language and observe the change.
g. Click on the Ease of Access icon to view and manage computer accessibility options.
h. Click on the Privacy icon to view computer privacy options.
i. Click on the Update & security icon to View windows update status and backup/recovery
options.

6.6 Installation of software

The installation of any software depends on the operating system installed in your computer
system. You need to arrange the setup (Executable) file of the required software. You can
purchase it from market in CD/DVD form or even can download from the internet. You can also
take the setup in USB drive from your friends or any vendor as now a days many computer
system and laptop does not have CD/DVD drive.
Before installation process, make sure that your computer system meets the hardware and
software requirements to install. In these setup files, you will find one README file, which
contains the instructions to install a program. You can also find it online at website also. After
finishing the installation process, it is recommended to reboot the computer to effectively working
of new and existing software.
Now open Windows Explorer or My Computer and browse the setup file location in CD/DVD, USB
or Download Folder or whatever location. Now the setup file for PDF Reader application is in one
USB drive under My Software folder. Observe the Figure 6.43 having setup file
FoxitReader1001_Setup.exe which is downloaded from internet to install PDF Reader application.

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Fig. 6.43: Selecting application software for installation
As you find the setup or executable file as shown in Figure 6.44, double-click on the
FoxitReader1001_Setup.exe file icon to start the setup process and follow the instruction as in
setup process. Click on Continue button and follow the next instruction.

Fig. 6.44 Initial stage of software installation process

The installation instructions are almost similar in all software but may be differ in few only. In
last click on finish button and reboot the system.
6.7 Uninstallation of software
It may be one application program or software is no longer in use or not required after certain job
get completed. This software occupies additional space which needs to delete or uninstall from the
computer system. Now you can follow the steps to uninstall programs in Microsoft Windows.
You need to open Control Panel for uninstallation process of any application software. Press
Window Key and type Control Panel in search bar and hit enter key.
Observe Control Panel main windows like shown in Figure 6.45.

Fig. 6.45 Control Panel windows for uninstallation of software

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Click on the Programs icon to uninstall any software. It will open another window as shown in
Figure 6.46 to select the required software to uninstall. Just click on the software name to
uninstall and click on Uninstall/Change button as shown in Figure 6.46. Foxit Reader application
has been selected to uninstall. Follow the next instructions to complete the uninstallation
process.

Fig. 6.46 Selecting software for uninstallation

6.8 Run windows programs as Administrator
In Windows operating system, when you run certain special program, it may ask you
Administrator privileges. A User Account Control (UAC) dialog box requires permission to proceed
further as shown in Figure 6.47.

Fig. 6.47 User account control dialog box.

Many times, you may encounter a permissions error while running commands in Command
Prompt window that asks Administrator privileges. This dialog as shown in Figure 6.47 appears
because UAC blocks the Command Prompt from running Administrator commands. You need to
run the Command Prompt as Administrator user rights.

Fig. 6.48 UAC blocked command from execution

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UAC acts as a safeguard in windows system that requires your explicit permission to run any
software that can modify the Windows system to protect itself.
If you want to run any program with Administrator privileges in Windows operating system, right-
click the icon in Start menu and select Run as administrator as shown in Figure 6.49.

Fig. 6.49 Selecting application as Run as administrator

After running the command prompt as Administrator, you will be able to run commands that are
used to edit or modify your system files. For example, now in the Administrator command prompt,
try to execute sfc command (System File Checker) as shown in Figure 6.48.
Now you will be able to execute the sfc command that you were trying to execute previously and
getting the error message.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

A. Multiple choice questions
1. Which of the following is the core component of operating system (a) applications (b) kernel
(c) shell (d) user interface
2. Which of the following is not a network operating system (a) Windows 10 (b) Windows
Server (c) Unix (d) Linux Server
3. Which of the following is open source operating system (a) Windows (b) Mac (c) Unix (d)
Linux
4. Operating system are classified on the basis of (a) number of users working
simultaneously (b) number of simultaneously active programs (c) number of processors in
computer (d) All of the above
5. Which of the following is not a multitasking operating system (a) Windows (b) Mac (c) MS
DOS (d) Linux
6. In which type of operating system, the CPU time is distributed among all the running
processes (a) Multiprogramming OS (b) Time sharing OS (c) Distributed OS (d) Network OS
7. Which of the following operating system uses number of CPU to process the complex tasks
(a) Multiprogramming OS (b) Multiprocessing OS (c) Distributed OS (d) Network OS
8. Which operating system reads and reacts in terms of actual time? (a) Time sharing system
(b) Quick response system (c) Real time system (d) Batch system
9. Which of the following operating system cannot be used in mobile devices (a) Windows (b)
Android (c) iOS (d) Linux
10. Which of the following operating system is not used in desktop computers (a) Windows (b)
Linux (c) Android (d) Mac
B. Fill in the blanks
1. The user can interact with computer through _______
2. The ______ and ______ are two important programs of an operating system.
3. Time sharing is extension of ____________ and _____________ operating system.
4. Multiprocessing operating system uses multiple ________
5. The _______ is the main workspace to view and manage files.
6. The keyboard shortcut Ctrl+X Ctrl+V is used for ________

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 2. Operating System and Computer Network Page 24
 7. The file deleted once can be recovered from the _________ back to its original location.
8. Folder may contain ______ and __________
9. For installation of any software, you need to arrange the _____ file of that software.
10. User Account Control acts as a ________ from running any software that can modify the
Windows system to protect itself.

C. State whether True or False

1. Kernel interact with hardware and shell interact with kernel and user.
2. Shell is an interface between kernel and user.
3. Peripheral devices communicate computer with their respective drivers.
4. Memory management function of operating system manages secondary storage memory.
5. In multiprocessing, memory management allocates equal memory to each process.
6. Time sharing operating system serves the purpose of both multiprogramming and
multitasking operating system.
7. Batch operating systems is appropriate for executing the complex tasks.
8. Multiuser operating system can have the accounts of multiple users.
9. Networking operating system allows to share files, printers, and applications.
10. In distributed operating system, memory is distributed among several CPU.
D. Short answer questions
1. List the functions of operating system.
2. What is process scheduling?
3. What are the tasks performed by file management?
4. What are the tasks performed by secondary storage management?
5. What is job scheduling?
6. Differentiate between CLI and CUI.
7. What is the difference between Distributed OS and Network OS?
8. What is the difference between hard real time OS and soft real time OS?
9. What are the common tasks performed in Windows 10?
10. What are various operating systems for mobile devices?

Answer Keys
MCQ
1. b 2. a 3. d 4. d 5. c 6. b 7. b 8. c 9. d 10. c

Fill in the blanks

1. operating system 2. kernel, shell 3. multiprogramming, multitasking
4. processors 5. desktop 6. Cut and Paste
7. Recycle Bin 8. files, sub folders 9. Executable 10. afeguard

True False
1. T 2. T 3. T 4. F 5. F 6. T 7. F 8. T 9. T 10. F

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 Chapter 7. Computer Networks
7.1 Introduction to Computer Networks
We are living in a connected world. Information is being produced, exchanged, and traced across
the globe in real time. In the digital world, everyone and everything is interconnected through one
way or the other. A group of two or more similar things or people interconnected with each other
is called network. In family network, family member shares their resources and information. A
telephone network is an infrastructure for sending voice signals from one telephone to another. A
social network is a group of people connected through social media such as Facebook, Tweeter
and WhatsApp. Figure 7.1 shows an example of social network.

Fig. 7.1: Interconnection forming a social network

A computer network is an interconnection among two or more computers or computing devices.
Such interconnection allows computers to share data and resources among each other. Each
device in a network that can receive, create, store or send data to different network routes is
called a node. Apart from computers, networks include networking devices like switch, router,
and modem. Networking devices are used to connect multiple computers in different settings. A
basic network has been shown in Figure 7.2, connecting few computers.

Fig. 7.2: Computer network

The network size may vary from small to large depending on the number of computers it connects.
A computer network can include different types of hosts, also called nodes, like server, desktop,
and laptop.
For communication, data in a network is divided into smaller chunks called packets. These
packets are carried over a network. Devices in a network can be connected either through wired
media like cables or wireless media like air.
Interconnectivity of computing devices in a network allows to exchange information
simultaneously with many parties through email, websites, audio and video calls. Network allows
sharing of resources. For example, a printer can be made available to multiple computers through
a network; a networked storage can be accessed by multiple computers. People often connect their
devices through hotspot, thus forming a small personal network.
7.2 Types of Networks
There are various types of computer networks connected through wired or wireless media.
Computer networks are broadly categorised as LAN, WAN and MAN based on the geographical
area covered and data transfer rate. There are many other types of network such as Wireless Local

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 2. Operating System and Computer Network Page 26
Area Network (WLAN), Personal Area Network (PAN), Campus Area Network (CAN), SAN (storage
area network), VPN (virtual private network).
7.2.1 Local Area Network (LAN)
It is a network that connects computing devices such as computers, laptop, printers and scanners
in a limited geographical area such as home, school, laboratory, office buildings, allowing them to
share data and resources. The connectivity is done by wires such as Ethernet cables, fibre optics,
or wireless Wi-Fi. A typical Local Area Network (LAN) is shown in Figure 7.3.

Fig. 7.3: Local Area Network

LAN is comparatively secure as only authentic users in the network can access other computers
or shared resources. Users can print documents using a connected printer, upload/download
documents and software to and from the local server. Such LANs provide the short range
communication with the high speed data transfer rates. These types of networks can be extended
up to 1 km. Data transfer in LAN is quite high, and usually varies from 10 Mbps (Megabits per
second), called Ethernet to 1000 Mbps, called Gigabit Ethernet. Ethernet is a set of rules that
decides how computers and other devices connect with each other through cables in LAN.
LAN that connect computers without wires, using radio frequencies or light is called as wireless
LAN or WLAN. It usually connects wireless devices that are very close to each other. WLAN
communicates with a wired LAN to access its resources.
7.2.2 Personal Area Network (PAN)
It is a network formed by connecting a personal computing device as shown in Figure 7.4. All
these devices lie within an approximate range of 10 metres. A personal area network may be wired
or wireless. For example, a mobile phone connected to the laptop through USB forms a wired PAN
while two smartphones communicating with each other through Bluetooth or wi-fi hotspot
technology form a wireless PAN or WPAN.

Fig. 7.4 Personal Area Network

7.2.3 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is an extended form of LAN which covers a larger geographical
area like a city or town. Data transfer rate in MAN also ranges in Mbps, but it is considerably less
as compared to LAN. MAN combines multiple LAN through a networking device called Bridge. A
MAN usually is managed by network provider or local and state governments. Cable TV network
or cable based broadband internet services are examples of MAN. This kind of network can be
extended up to 30-40 km. Sometimes, many LANs are connected together to form MAN, as shown
in Figure 7.5.

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Fig. 7.5: Metropolitan Area Network

7.2.4 Wide Area Network (WAN)

Wide Area Network connects computers and other LANs and MANs, which are spread across large
geographic area across the country or world, using communications channel wired or wireless
media. A WAN can be one large network or can consist of two or more LANs connected together.
The Internet is the world largest WAN that connects billions of computers, smartphones and
millions of LANs from different continents.
For example, a company with locations in two different cities would normally set up a LAN in each
building and then connect them together in a WAN as shown in Figure 7.6. WAN can be public or
private. Bridge, Router and Gateway are the devices used in WAN. The wireless WAN (WWAN)
uses wireless technology.
Fig. 7.6: Wide Area Network
Practical Activity 7.1 – Identify the types of network and draw the labelled diagram as shown in
the following table.

Fig. 7.7(a) Type of network:

Fig. 7.7 (b) Type of network:

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 Fig. 7.7 (c) Type of network:

Fig. 7.7 (d) Type of network:

Fig. 7.7 (e) Type of network:

Fig. 7.7 (f) Type of network:

7.3 Network Devices

The network devices such as Modem, Hub, Switch, Repeater, Router, Gateway are required to
configure networks data through different transmission media. Let us explore them in detail.
7.3.1 Modem
Modem stands for „MOdulator DEModulator‟. It refers to a device used for conversion between
analog signals and digital bits. Digital computers store and process data in binary digits of 0s and
1s. However, to transmit data from a sender to a receiver, or while browsing the internet, digital
data are converted to an analog signal and the medium carries the signal to the receiver. There
are modems connected to both the source and destination nodes. The modem at the sender‘s end
acts as a modulator that converts the digital data into analog signals. The modem at the receiver‘s
end acts as a demodulator that converts the analog signals into digital data for the destination
node to understand. Figure 7.8 shows connectivity using a modem.

Fig. 7.8: Use of modem

7.3.2 Ethernet Card
Ethernet card, also known as Network Interface Card (NIC) is a network adapter used to set up a
wired network. It acts as an interface between computer and the network. It allows to
communicate with other networking device. The Ethernet cable connects the computer to the
network through NIC. Ethernet cards can support data transfer between 10 Mbps and 1 Gbps
(1000 Mbps). Each NIC card has its own unique physical address known as MAC address, which
helps to uniquely identify the computer on the network. It has a 48-bit address and is represented
as 12-digit hex-decimal number. The main components of NIC are PCI interface, PCI slot, RJ-45
slot, Ethernet processor and RAM/ROM socket. The typical NIC is shown in the Figure 7.9.

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Fig. 7.9: A Network Interface Card
7.3.3 RJ45 connector
RJ 45 or Registered Jack-45 is an eight-pin connector as shown in Figure 7.10 that is used
exclusively with Ethernet cables for networking. It is a standard networking interface that can be
seen at the end of all network cables. Basically, it is a small plastic plug that fits into RJ-45 jacks
of the Ethernet cards present in computer.

Fig. 7.10: RJ 45 connector

7.3.4 Repeater
Data are carried in the form of signals over the cable. These signals can travel a specified distance
(usually about 100 m). Signals lose their strength beyond this limit and become weak. In such
conditions, original signals need to be regenerated.
A repeater is an analog device that works with signals on the cables to which it is connected. The
weak signal appearing on the cable is regenerated and put back on the cable by a repeater.

Fig. 7.11 Repeaters

Repeaters do not amplify the signal. When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by
bit and regenerate it at the original strength. Repeater has two ports as shown in Figure 7.11, so
it cannot be used to connect more than two devices.
7.3.5 Hub
An Ethernet hub as shown in Figure 7.12 is a network device used to connect different devices
through wires. It has many ports, so also called as multi-port repeater. It accepts a signal in one
port and rebroadcast out to all of its other ports. It is used to communicate with various network
hosts for data transfer. Data arriving on any of the lines are sent out on all the others. The
limitation of Hub is that if data from two devices come at the same time, they will collide.

Fig. 7.12: A network hub with 8 ports

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7.3.6 Switch

A switch is a commonly used networking device to connect multiple devices in LAN. It is like a
hub that is used to connect multiple computers or communicating devices as shown in Figure
7.13.

Fig. 7.13 Cables connected to a network switch

When data arrives, the switch extracts the destination address from the data packet and looks it
up in a table to see where to send the packet. Thus, it sends signals to only selected devices
instead of sending to all to avoid the wastage of bandwidth. It checks the MAC addresses of the
connected devices to determine the correct port. The switch can store MAC address of a device.
A switch can forward multiple packets at the same time. It does not forward the signals which are
noisy or corrupted. It drops such signals and asks the sender to resend it. Each switch port has
full-speed operations. So, for 100 Mbps switch, each device operates at 100 Mbps. Ethernet
switches are common in offices to connect multiple devices thus creating LANs or to access the
Internet.
7.3.7 Router
A router as shown in Figure 7.14 is a network device that route data around the network. The
shortest path to transmit data from source to destination is called as route and this process is
called as routing. It is used to connect two or more completely different network available in the
different regions. It can receive the data, analyse it and transmit it to other networks. A router
connects a local area network to the internet. Compared to a hub or a switch, a router has
advanced capabilities as it can analyse the data being carried over a network, decide or alter how
it is packaged, and send it to another network of different type. For example, data has been
divided into packets of a certain size. Suppose these packets are to be carried over a different type
of network which cannot handle bigger packets. In such a case, the data is to be repackaged as
smaller packets and then sent over the network by a router.

Fig. 7.14: Router

A router can be wired or wireless. A wireless router can provide Wi-Fi access to smartphones and
other mobile devices. Usually, such routers also contain some ports to provide wired Internet
access. These days, home Wi-Fi routers perform the dual task of a router and a modem or switch.
These routers connect to incoming broadband lines, from ISP (Internet Service Provider), and
convert them to digital data for computing devices to process.
7.3.8 Gateway
Gateway is an intelligent device used for connecting networks with different types of architectures
using different protocols together as shown in Figure 2.15. It is a key access point that acts as a
―gate‖ between an organisation's network and the outside world of the Internet.

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Fig. 7.15: A network gateway
Gateway serves as the entry and exit point of a network, as all data coming in or going out of a
network must first pass through the gateway in order to use routing paths. Besides routing data
packets, gateways also maintain information about the host network's internal connection paths
and the identified paths of other remote networks. If a node from one network wants to
communicate with a node of a foreign network, it will pass the data packet to the gateway, which
then routes it to the destination using the best possible route.
Practical Activity 7.2 – Visit a computer network centre of any college laboratory or
organisation. Identify and name the various networking devices installed in the network as
shown in the following table. (Figure 7.16 (a) to Figure 7.16 (g).

Fig. 7.16 Network devices

7.4 Networking Topologies
We have already discussed that a number of computing devices are connected together to form a
Local Area Network (LAN), and interconnections among millions of LANs forms the Internet. A
network node is a device that can send, receive, store, or forward data. A network link connects
nodes and may be either cabled or wireless links. The arrangement of computers and other
peripherals in a network is called its topology. Network topology is the way a network is arranged.
A topology type provides the basis for building a successful network. There are a number of
topologies but the most common are Bus, Ring, Star, Mesh and Tree.
7.4.1 Bus Topology
In bus topology, each communicating device connects through transmission medium, known as
bus. In this topology, a single continuous coaxial cable called as backbone is shared among the
nodes, which makes it cheaper and easier to maintain. Both ends of this cable are terminated
through the terminators. The BNC plug and BNC T connector are used to connect the computer to
backbone cable as shown in Figure 7.17. Data sent from a node are passed on to the bus and
hence are transmitted to the length of the bus in both directions. That means, data can be
received by any of the nodes connected to the bus.

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Fig. 7.17: Bus topology
Each packet that is placed on the bus contains the address of the destination node and is
transmitted in both directions along the bus. The message is delivered to only that destination
node to which it is addressed. A computer waits until the bus is free before it can transmit a
message.
Bus topology works best with limited number of nodes. Currently this topology is no longer used.
The concept that this topology uses to transmit the data is also used in the other topologies.
7.4.2 Ring Topology
In a ring topology, each node is connected to two other devices, one each on either side, as shown
in Figure 7.18. The nodes connected with each other thus forms a ring. The link in a ring topology
is unidirectional. Thus, data can be transmitted in one direction only either clockwise or counter
clockwise.

Fig. 7.18: Ring topology

When data signals pass from one computer to the next, each computer regenerates the signals.
Since the signals are regenerated on each passing computer, the quality of the signals remains
constant throughout the ring. Adjacent pairs are connected directly, non-adjacent pairs are
connected indirectly through multiple nodes. A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and
can break down the entire network.
7.4.4 Star Topology
In star topology, each communicating device is connected to a central node, which is a networking
device like a hub or a switch, as shown in Figure 7.19. Each device in the network uses separate
twisted pair cable to connect to the switch.

Fig. 7.19: Star topology

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Star topology is considered very effective, efficient and fast as each device is directly connected
with the central device. Although disturbance in one device will not affect the rest of the network,
any failure in a central networking device may lead to the failure of complete network.
The central node can be either a broadcasting device means data will be transmitted to all the
nodes in the network, or a unicast device means the node can identify the destination and
forward data to that node only.
7.4.5 Mesh Topology
In mesh topology, each communicating device is connected with every other device in the network
using multiple paths as shown in Figure 7.20. Such a network can handle large amount of traffic
since multiple nodes can transmit data simultaneously. Also, such networks are more reliable in
the sense that even if a node gets down, it does not cause any break in the transmission of data
between other nodes. This topology is also more secure as compared to other topologies because
each cable between two nodes carries different data. However, wiring is complex and cabling cost
is high in creating such networks and there are many redundant or unutilised connections.

Fig. 7.20: Mesh topology

7.4.5 Tree or Hybrid Topology
It is a hierarchical topology, in which there are multiple branches and each branch can have one
or more basic topologies like star, ring and bus. Such topologies are usually realised in WANs
where multiple LANs are connected. Those LANs may be in the form of a ring, bus or star. In
Figure 7.21, a hybrid topology is shown connecting 4-star topologies in a bus.

Fig. 7.21: Hybrid topology

In this type of network, data transmitted from source first reaches the centralised device and from
there the data passes through every branch where each branch can have links for more nodes.
Practical Activity 7.3 – Identify and name types of network topology shown in Figure 7.22 (a) to
(f).

Fig. 7.22 (a) Fig. 7.22 (b) Fig. 7.22 (c) Fig. 7.22 (d) Fig. 7.22 (e) Fig. 7.22 (f)
7.5 Computer Network Architecture

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Networks are usually configured to share resources using network architecture. It defines how
computers are organized in the network and the tasks assigned to computers. The design of
computers, devices, and media in a network is called as network architecture. It is categorized as
peer-to-peer (P2P) and client/server.
7.5.1 Peer-to-peer network
It is the simplest form of a network. In peer-to-peer (P2P) architecture, two or more computers are
connected as “peers,” without going through a separate server computer as shown in Figure 7.23.
Each machine has equal power, privileges and resources. However, each computer can be
configured to share only some of its resources and prevent access to other resources. There is no
centralized management or security. Every computer can communicate directly with every other
computer. Any user who wants access to resources on another computer should have an account
on that specific computer. This model is used in very small networks at home or small office.

Fig. 7.23 Peer to Peer (P2P) network model

A peer-to-peer network usually uses a hub so that messages can be broadcast to all the
computers on the network.
7.5.2 Client-server network
In a client/server network, there are clients (workstations) as well as one or more server. A central
server or group of servers manage resources and deliver services to large number of user
machines in the network called clients. The servers are usually powerful computers with more
memory, storage space, and fast network connections. The clients are regular PCs. The server
software runs on server hardware, and client software is used on client computers that connect to
servers. The client request services from the server. A server controls access to hardware,
software, and other resources on the network. It also provides a centralized storage area for
programs and data. The clients in the network communicate with other clients through the server.
In Figure 7.24, there are clients Computer A, Computer B, Laptop A and so on.

Fig. 7.24: Client/Server network model

Each user needs a user ID and password to access the network. Clients on a client/server
network do not share their resources directly with each other. They use the server as an

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 2. Operating System and Computer Network Page 35
intermediary. Clients and servers communicate through switches or routers. A dedicated server
performs a specific task. There can be multiple servers to perform multiple tasks. For example, a
file server stores and manages files, a print server manages printers and documents to be printed.
A database server stores and provides access to a database. A network server manages network
services.
7.5.2 Comparing Client/Server and Peer-to-Peer Networking
The choice of client/server or peer-to-peer depends on the need of network. Peer-to-peer
networking has advantages of simplicity and low cost. It is generally used on small networks.
Client/Server networking provides advantages in the areas of performance, scalability, security
and reliability, but it is expensive to set up.
7.6 Identifying Nodes Networked Communication
Each node in a network should be uniquely identified so that a network device can identify the
sender and receiver and decide a routing path to transmit data. Let us explore further and know
how each node is distinguished in a network.
7.6.1 MAC Address
A MAC (Media Access Control) address, sometimes referred to as hardware or physical address is
a unique, 12-character alphanumeric attribute that is used to identify individual electronic
devices on a network. MAC address is shown in Figure 7.25.

Fig. 7.25 MAC Address

The MAC address is engraved on NIC at the time of manufacturing and thus it is a permanent
address and cannot be changed under any circumstances. The machine, on which the NIC is
attached, can be physically identified on the network using its MAC address. Each MAC address
is a 12-digit hexadecimal numbers (48 bits in length), of which the first six digits (24 bits) contain
the manufacturer‘s ID called Organisational Unique Identifier (OUI) and the later six digits (24
bits) represents the serial number assigned to the card by the manufacturer. A sample MAC
address looks like:
7.6.2 IP Address
IP address stands for Internet Protocol Address. It is a unique address which uniquely identifies a
device in the network using TCP/IP Protocol to establish communication. IP address can change if
a node is removed from one network and connected to another network IP address comprises four
hexadecimal numbers of 8 bits field separated by symbol dot ―.‖ Each number varies from one to
three digits and these four number ranges from 0 to 255 bits. An example of IP address is,
198.134.45.6.
IP address is comprised of two parts as shown in Figure 7.26.

Fig. 7.26 Format of IP address

Host – It uniquely identifies a device in the network assigned to each host. It takes 8 bits of the
address. The host part will remain the same but the network part of the IP address will change.
Network – It uniquely identifies the network and its class. It also takes 8 bits of the address.
Subnetting - Subnetting is a process of dividing a host part of network into smaller parts for
better administration and usage. Without subnetting, all computers work in a single large
network. Figure 7.27 depicts the format of IP address before and after subnetting.

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 2. Operating System and Computer Network Page 36
Fig. 7.27 IP address before and after subnetting
7.7 Classification of IP Address
IP address can be classified as Static and Dynamic.
1. Static – It is the permanent internet address that provides a simple and reliable way for
communication. The example of a Static IP Address is DNS Server (Domain Name Service). Static
IP address is less secure than Dynamic IP address due to its assignment.
2. Dynamic – Internet Service Provider (ISP) provides an IP address from the range of available IP
addresses to the device. ISP provides different IP addresses at different times, but from the same
available range of IP addresses. IP address changes at every time we connect to the internet. Such
IP address is termed as Dynamic IP address. An example of a Dynamic IP Address is DHCP server
(Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol).
7.7.1 Classes of IP Addresses
TCP/IP has categorised five classes of IP address as Class A, B, C, D, and E. There is a range of
authorized IP addresses for every class. The class is decided by the first octet's value. Host
addresses can be formed using IP addresses from the first three classes (A, B, and C). Class D is
used for multicast, and class E is reserved and utilised for experimental purposes.
Class A – The IP Address in this class ranges from 0 – 126 with a subnet mask of 255.0.0.0. It
supports approximately 16 million hosts on each of 127 networks. Mostly used by Internet Service
Providers (ISP).
Class B – The IP Address in Class B ranges from 128 – 191 with a subnet mask of 255.255.0.0. It
supports approximately 65,000 hosts over each of 16,000 networks. Used by medium and large-
sized networks in enterprises and organizations.
Class C – IP Address ranges from 192 – 223 with a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0. It has 254
hosts on each of the 2 million networks. This class address is most common and used in small
business and home networks.
Class D – IP Address ranges from 224 -239 with no subnet mask. It is reserved for multicast
groups.
Class E – IP Address ranges from 240 -255 with no subnet mask. It is reserved for future use, or
research and development purposes.
Note: Range 127.xxx.xxx.xxx are reserved for the loopback/localhost, for example, 127.0.0.1 is
the loopback address. Range 255.255.255.255 broadcasts address to all hosts on the local

network.
Fig. 7.28 Classes of IP Addresses

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7.7.2 IP Addresses Based Network
IP addresses are of two categories – private and public.
A public IP address is global and can be accessed directly over the internet. Any server such as
email server directly accessible from internet uses public IP address. It is globally unique and can
only be assigned to a unique device.
A private IP address is the unique address of the device within the private network such as LAN or
PAN. The devices in the LAN can communicate with each other using private ip address. A private
IP remains hidden when a device connected to the internet through public IP. There are millions
of private networks. The private IP addresses are assigned to devices in the ranges of Class A, B,
C. The ranges of these classes are as below.
Class A: 10.0.0.0 — 10.255.255.255
Class B: 172.16.0.0 — 172.31.255.255
Class C: 192.168.0.0 — 192.168.255.255

7.8 Types and Commands in IP Address

There are two types of IP Address Version currently exists – IPV4 and IPV6.
IPV4 – The initial IP address called version 4 (IPv4 in short), is a 32-bit numeric address, written
as four numbers separated by periods, where each number is the decimal (base-10)
representation for an 8-bit binary (base-2) number and each can take any value from 0 - 255. An
example of IPv4 address is: 192:168:0:178.
IPV6 – With more and more devices getting connected to the Internet, it was realised that the 32-
bit IP address will not be sufficient as it offers just fewer than 4.3 billion unique addresses. Thus,
a 128 bits IP address, called IP version 6 (IPv6 in short) was proposed. An IPv6 address is
represented by eight groups of hexadecimal (base-16) numbers separated by colons. Example of
IPv6 address is: 2001:CDBA:0000:0000:0000:0000:3257:9652
The following commands are used to know the IP address of any device/network.
ifconfig -a: Used to view every configuration and setting.
hostname -i: It displays the IP address of your machine.
ip addr show: It shows IPv4 or IPv6 address on a device

Practical Activity 7.4 – To find the MAC address and IP address of computing device in
Windows OS
Material Required
Computing devices connected to network with OS Windows 10
Procedure
Step 1. Open the command prompt from Windows. In the search box, type cmd, and Press the
Enter key. A command window displays.
Step 2. Type getmac command on command prompt. The device MAC address will be displayed.
The Physical Address as shown in Figure 7.29 is your device MAC address.

Fig. 7.29 Finding MAC address using getmac command

Step 3. To fetch the IP address of the device, enter the command ipconfig on the command
prompt as shown below. IPv4 Address shown in Figure 7.30 is the IP address of your device.

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 2. Operating System and Computer Network Page 38
Fig. 7.30 Finding IP address using ipconfing command
Step 4. To see detailed description about Host Name, DNS, Ethernet adapter, Physical Address,
IP, DHCP Server, give command as ipconfig /all.
Step 5. It is possible to see all these details in GUI mode using Control Panel. Explore the way to
view these details using Control Panel.

Practical Activity 7.5 – To find the MAC address and IP address in Linux
Material Required
Computing devices connected to network in Linux OS
Procedure
Step 1. Open a terminal or console window.
Step 2. Enter the command ―ifconfig”. It will display details of all network connections of your
machine.
Step 3. Use the grep command to filter the he MAC address of your machine. It will display the
MAC address as shown in Figure 7.31.

Fig. 7.31 Finding MAC address using ifconfing command

It is possible to find the MAC address and IP address from GUI through internal network
configuration.
To check for the internal IP address, default gateway, MAC address and DNS server settings on
Ubuntu Linux, first open Settings and click on Network menu and hit the gear wheel of the
desired network interface. The details will be displayed as shown in Figure 7.32. The Hardware
Address is the MAC address.

Fig. 7.32 Finding MAC address in Ubuntu Linux GUI

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 2. Operating System and Computer Network Page 39
SUMMARY
 A computer network is an interconnection among two or more computers or computing
devices.
 A computer network allows computers to share data and resources among each other.
 Networking devices are used to connect multiple computers in different settings.
 In a communication network, each device that is a part of a network and that can receive,
create, store or send data to different network routes is called a node.
 Based on the geographical area covered and data transfer rate, computer networks are
broadly categorised into LAN (Local Area Network), MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) and
WAN (Wide Area Network).
 LAN is a network that connects a variety of nodes placed at a limited distance ranging
from a single room, a floor, an office or a campus having one or more buildings in the
same premises.
 Ethernet is a set of rules that decides how computers and other devices connect with each
other through cables in a LAN.
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is an extended form of LAN which covers a larger
geographical area like a city or a town.
 Cable TV network or cable based broadband internet services are examples of MAN.
 Wide Area Network (WAN) connects computers and other LANs and MANs, which are
spread across different geographical locations of a country or in different countries or
continents.
 The Internet is the largest WAN that connects billions of computers, smartphones and
millions of LANs from different continents.
 Modem stands for ‗MOdulator DEModulator‘, is a device used for conversion between
electric signals and digital bits.
 Ethernet card, also known as Network Interface Card (NIC card in short) is a network
adaptor used to set up a wired network.
 Each NIC has a MAC address, which helps in uniquely identifying the computer on the
network.
 A repeater is an analog device that regenerates the signals on the cables to which it is
connected.
 A switch is a networking device used to connect multiple computers or communicating
devices.
 A router is a network device that can receive the data, analyse it and transmit it to other
networks.
 Gateway serves as the entry and exit point of a network, as all data coming in or going out
of a network must first pass through the gateway in order to use routing paths.
 The arrangement of computers and other peripherals in a network is called its topology.
 Common network topologies are Mesh, Ring, Bus, Star and Tree.
 In mesh topology each communicating device is connected with every other device in the
network.
 In ring topology, each node is connected to two other devices, one each on either side.
 In bus topology, a single backbone wire called bus is shared among the nodes, which
makes it cheaper and easy to maintain.
 In star topology, each communicating device is connected to a central networking device
like a hub or a switch.
 In tree or hybrid topology, there are multiple branches and each branch can have one or
more basic topologies like star, ring and bus.
 The MAC address, also known as the physical or hardware address, is a unique
permanent value associated with a network adapter called a NIC.
 It is used to physically identify a machine on the network.
 IP address, also known as Internet Protocol address, is a unique address that can be used
to uniquely identify each node in a network.

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 2. Operating System and Computer Network Page 40
  Unlike MAC address, IP address can change if a node is removed from one network and
connected to another network.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

A. Multiple choice questions
1. What physical topology would you use to create your peer-to-peer network where all the
workstations are connected to a single switch? (a) Bus (b) Tree (c) Star (d) Cube
2. A computer network is an interconnection among (a) two computers (b) three computers (c)
four computers (d) two or more computers
3. Which of the following is not a networking devices (a) switch (b) router (c) modem (d) cable
4. In computer network, data is communicated through _______ (a) hub (b) switch (c) packets
(d) router
5. Which of the following network can be constructed without cable (a) LAN (b) WAN (c) PAN
(d) CAN
6. Which of the following is not the main components of Network Interface Card (a) PCI
interface (b) PCI slot (c) RJ-45 slot (d) Ethernet socket.
7. In which of the following network topology the link is unidirectional (a) Bus topology (b)
Ring topology (c) Star topology (d) Mesh topology
8. Which of the following network topology is most effective, efficient and fast (a) Bus topology
(b) Ring topology (c) Star topology (d) Mesh topology
9. Which of the following network topology is has multiple paths (a) Bus topology (b) Ring
topology (c) Star topology (d) Mesh topology
10. Which of the following command is used to find the MAC address in Linux (a) getmac (b)
ifconfig (c) ipconfig (d) ping (b)
B. Fill in the blanks
1. Each device in a network is called as ______.
2. Data transfer in LAN varies from 10 Mbps called _________ to 1000 Mbps, called
___________
3. The devices in PAN lie within an approximate range of ___________
4. MAN combines multiple LAN through a networking device __________
5. Modem stands for _____________ and ___________.
6. The modem at the sender‘s end acts as a modulator that converts the ____________
into_________.
7. Ethernet card has unique physical address known as __________
8. In client/server network, clients and servers communicate through _________ or ________
9. File server stores and manages _______ while Print server manages ______.
10. Database server stores and provides access to _______.
C. State whether True or False
1. In LAN, only authentic users in the network can access the shared resources.
2. A personal area network is wireless.
3. The WWAN uses wireless technology.
4. The modem at the receiver‘s end converts digital data into analog signals.
5. Ethernet card is used in wireless network.
6. Repeater can be used to connect more than two devices.
7. Hub is also called as multiport repeater.
8. A switch can forward multiple packets at the same time.
9. Gateway is used to connect two or more different network in different regions.
10. Router is used for connecting networks with different types of architectures.
11. In peer-to-peer network, the user cannot access the resources on another computer
without having an account on that specific computer.
12. In client/server network, there can be multiple servers.
13. MAC address is located on ethernet card which cannot be change.
14. IP address cannot be changed even if a node is removed from one network and connected
to another network.
15. A private IP remains hidden when a device connected to the internet through public IP.
D. Short answer questions

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 2. Operating System and Computer Network Page 41
 1. What are the basics of computer networking?
2. What are the three main components of a network?
3. What are the types of computer networks?
4. Why do we need networking devices?
5. What are the main devices of a computer network?
6. Give the 3 examples of a computer network?
7. What is the most common type of computer network?
8. What is the primary difference between peer-to-peer and client-server architectures?
9. Give the examples of network devices?
10. What is MAC address and IP address of device?
Answer Keys
MCQ
1. c 2. d 3.d 4. c 5.c 6.d 7.b 8.c 9. d 10.b

Fill in the blanks

1. node 2. Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet 3. 10 metres 4. Bridge
5. Modulator, DEModulator 6. digital data, analog signals 7. MAC address
8. switches, routers 9. files, printers 10. database.
True False
1. T 2.F 3.T 4.F 5.F 6.F 7.T 8.T 9.F 10.F
11.T 12.T 13.T 14.F 15.T

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 2. Operating System and Computer Network Page 42
 Chapter 8. Network Protocols
Abhinaw when goes to the school, he finds that there was a new comer in his class. Abhinaw
started talking with in Marathi language. The new comer was not aware of Marathi language as he
was from West Bengal. Abhinaw asked him his name and the new comer could not understand
what he is asking for. So, the communication between Abhinaw and newcomer was not taking
place because of the languages. Communication between the two people takes place only when
both of them can understand a common language. When Abhinaw started speaking in English the
newcomer was able to understand him and he replied accordingly. In the similar way the
communication between the two computers over a network will takes place only when they follow
a certain set of predefined communication rules. These communication rules are called as
protocols.

Fig. 8.1 Illustration

In this session we are going to discuss the wireless technologies and different network protocols
such as HTTP, FTP, IP, PPP, SMTP and POP.
8.1 Wireless Technologies
In order to transfer the message from one place to another place we require certain medium. The
message can be transferred through cables or wires. It is also possible that we can communicate
between two computers without using any wire or cable. Such communication technologies are
called as wireless technologies. Wireless technologies make the use of radio frequencies and
infrared waves.
8.1.1 Wireless Transmission Media
In wireless communication technology, information travels in the form of electromagnetic signals
through air. Electromagnetic spectrum of frequency ranging from 3 KHz to 900 THz is available
for wireless communication as shown in Figure 8.2. Wireless technologies allow communication
between two or more devices in short to long distance without requiring any physical media. There
are many types of wireless communication technologies such as Bluetooth, WiFi, WiMax.
The electromagnetic spectrum range (3KHz to 900THz) can be divided into 4 categories – Radio
waves, Microwaves, Infrared waves and Visible or Light waves, according to their frequency
ranges. Electromagnetic Wave Spectrum of these, three are useful for wireless communication.

Fig. 8.2: Electromagnetic waves spectrum

Types of Wireless Data Transmission
Radio Waves Transmission – These are electromagnetic waves that travel at the speed of light in
vacuum. It is using the radio frequency modulation for data transmission in wireless
communication. Radio waves have the lowest frequency and highest wavelength in the spectrum.
The radio waves have frequency range from 3 KHz to 1 GHz. These waves are easy to generate and
these can travel along long distances. These waves are omni directional in nature which means
that they can travel in all the directions. They are widely used for the communication between
both indoor and outdoor because they have the property that they can penetrate through the
walls very easily. Radio waves are generally used for transmitting sound, images that include both
voice signal and television signals. Figure 8.3 shows that antenna broadcasting the radio signal
are received by receiver antenna of Radio. Radio waves are used for directing the movement of
ships and aircraft with the help of radio compass or radio time signals.

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 2. Operating System and Computer Network Page 43
Fig. 8.3: Antenna broadcasting the radio signals to Radio station
Microwave Transmission – Microwaves are electromagnetic waves which have frequency range
between 1 GHz to 300 GHz. These can travel along long distances. These are unidirectional in
nature which means that they can travel only in straight line. At very high frequency that cannot
penetrate into walls. It needs line-of-sight propagation i.e. both communicating antenna must be
in the direction of each other. Microwave transmission is used for long-distance
telecommunication, where installation of physical transmission media is not possible and line-of-
sight transmission is available. These waves are usually used for one to one communication
between sender and receiver, such as cellular phones, satellite networks, and wireless LAN. It
provides very large information-carrying capacity. Figure 8.4 shows Microwaves used in mobile
tower for signal transmission

Fig. 8.4: Microwaves Transmission in mobile tower for signal transmission

Infrared Transmission – These are very high frequency electromagnetic waves of frequency range
300GHz – 400THz. They cannot penetrate solid objects such as walls. They also use line-of-sight
of propagation. It is used for short-distance point-to-point communication such as mobile-to-
mobile, mobile-to-printer, remote-control-to-TV, and Bluetooth-enabled devices to other devices
like mouse and keyboard. The remote control uses infrared light waves to control electronic
appliances as shown in Figure 8.5.

Fig. 8.5: Infrared light wave used in television remote

8.1.2 Types of Wireless Communication Technologies

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 2. Operating System and Computer Network Page 44
The wireless communication technology has become an integral part of our life. It allows us to
communicate even in remote areas. The devices used for wireless communication are cordless
telephones, mobile phones, GPS units, wireless computer parts, and peripherals. Wireless
communication technology is categorized into different types depending on the distance of
communication, the range of data, and the type of devices used. There are many wireless
communication technologies such as Radio and Television Broadcasting, Satellite communication,
Cellular Communication, Global Positioning System, WiFi and Bluetooth. Some of them are
discussed here.

Fig. 8.6 Types of communication technologies

Bluetooth – Bluetooth uses radio waves in the frequency range of 2.402 to 2.480 GHz. It is a
short-range wireless technology that can be used to connect mobile-phones, mouse, headphones,
keyboards, and computer wirelessly over a short distance. One can print documents with
Bluetooth-enabled printers without a physical connection. All these Bluetooth-enabled devices
have a low-cost transceiver chip. This chip uses the unlicensed frequency band of 2.4 GHz to
transmit and receive data. These devices can send data within a range of 10 meters with a speed
of 1 - 2 Mbps.
In Bluetooth technology, the communicating devices within a range of 10 meters build a personal
area network called piconet. The devices in a piconet work in a master-slave configuration. A
master device can communicate with up to 7 active slave devices at the same time.
Bluetooth technology allows up to 255 devices to build a network. Out of them, 8 devices can
communicate at the same time and remaining devices can be inactive, waiting for a response
command from the master device.

Fig. 8.7 Bluetooth technology

Wi-Fi – Wi-Fi is low-cost wireless communication technology commonly used in home networking.
A WiFi setup consists of a wireless router which serves a communication hub, linking portable
device with an internet connection. This network facilitates the connection of devices in close
proximity to a router. Wi-Fi is a form of low-power wireless communication used by many

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 2. Operating System and Computer Network Page 45
electronic devices such as laptops and smartphones. Wi-Fi networks need to be secured with
passwords so not to be accessed by others.

Fig. 8.8 Wi-fi communication technology

Wireless LAN – This is another way of wireless communication. Wireless LAN is a local area
network (LAN), and it is a popular way to connect to the Internet. The international organisation
IEEE assigns numbers to each different standards of LAN. The wireless LAN is number as 802.11,
and it is popularly known as Wi-Fi. These networks consist of communicating devices such as
laptops and mobile phones, as well as the network device called APs (access points) which is
installed in buildings or floors (Figure 8.9). An access point is a device that is used to create a
wireless local area network, by connecting to a wired router, switch, or hub. The APs are
connected to a wired network, and all the devices communicate or access the Internet through an
access point.

Fig. 8.9: Access point creating a wireless LAN

Wi-Fi gives users the flexibility to move around within the network area while being connected to
the network. Following are some of the benefits of WLAN:
 Wireless connections can be used to extend or replace an existing wired infrastructure
 Resulted in increased access for mobile devices
 Provides easy access to the Internet in public places
8.2 Mobile Telecommunication Technologies
Today the mobile phone network is the most used network in the world. The ability to be
connected to the network on-the-go makes it very convenient to communicate with people via call
or instant messages. It is also handy to access the Internet using the mobile phone network
through wireless connection. Besides, the Internet of Things (IoT) is letting us control and
communicate with other smart devices as well.
The architecture of the mobile network has rapidly evolved over the last few decades. The different
landmark achievements in mobile communication technologies are classified as different
generations. They are identified as 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, and 5G. Let us briefly discuss the mobile
telecommunication generations.

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 2. Operating System and Computer Network Page 46
The first generation (1G) mobile network system came around 1982. It was used to transmit only
voice calls. The analog signals were used to carry voices between the caller and receiver.
The second generation (2G) mobile network system came around 1991. Instead of analog signals,
voice calls were transmitted in digital form thus providing improved call quality. This increased
capacity allowed more people to talk simultaneously, and led to improved security as the signals
could be encrypted. It also enabled an additional service to send SMS and MMS (Multimedia
messages).
The third generation (3G) mobile network technology was developed during late 90s, but it was
introduced commercially around 2001. It offered both digital voice and data services. 3G provided
Internet access via the same radio towers that provide voice service to the mobile phone. It
facilitated greater voice and data capacity.
Therefore, more simultaneous calls could happen in the same frequency range and also a
significantly faster data transfer speed.
Demand for faster data is always increasing and thus 4G mobile networks were developed and
now 5G networks have also come into being. 4G is much faster than 3G and this has
revolutionised the field of telecommunication by bringing the wireless experience to a new level
altogether. 4G systems support interactive multimedia, voice, video, wireless internet and other
broadband services. Technologically, 4G is very different compared to 3G.
The fifth generation or 5G is currently under development. It is expected to be a milestone
development for the success of IoT and Machine to Machine (M2M) communications. Machine to
machine (M2M) is direct communication between devices — wired and wireless. 5G is expected to
allow data transfer in Gbps, which is much faster than 4G. It is expected to be able to support all
the devices of the future such as connected vehicles and the Internet of Things.
8.3 Network Protocol
In communication, Protocol is a set of standard rules that the communicating parties — the
sender, the receiver, and all other intermediate devices need to follow. The protocol identifies the
rules, syntax, semantics, and synchronization of communication and feasible error managing
methods. A Network Protocol is composed of rules, procedures, and types that describe
communication among a couple of devices over the network. The sender and receiver can be parts
of different networks, placed at different geographic locations. Besides, the data transfer rates in
different networks can vary, requiring data to be sent in different formats.
8.3.1 Need for Protocols
We need protocols for different reasons such as flow control, access control and addressing. Flow
control is required when the sender and receiver have different speeds of sending and receiving
the data. Figure 8.10 shows that Computer A is sending data at the speed of 1024 Mbps and
Computer B is receiving data at the speed of 512 Mbps. In this case, Computer B must be able to
inform computer A about the speed mismatch so that computer A can adjust its data
transmission rate. Otherwise some data will be lost, as shown in Figure 8.10.
Access control is required to decide which nodes in a communication channel will access the link
shared among them at a particular instant of time. Otherwise, the transmitted data packets will
collide if computers are sending data simultaneously through the same link resulting in the loss
or corruption of data.

Fig. 8.10: Speed mismatch between two computers can result into loss of data

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 2. Operating System and Computer Network Page 47
Protocols also define:
 how computers identify one another on a network.
 the form to which the data should be converted for transit.
 how to decide whether the data received is for that node or to be forwarded to another
node.
 ensuring that all the data have reached the destination without any loss.
 how to rearrange the packets and process them at the destination.
If all the rules or protocols of a communication network are defined at one place, it becomes
complex to ensure that communicating parties follow the guidelines. In this section, we will briefly
talk about some of the protocols required in communication.
8.4 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)/Internet Protocol (IP)
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol. It is a set of standardised
rules and procedures, used for interconnecting various network devices over the internet by
defining how the data should be transmitted, routed, broken into packets, addressed, and
received at the destination. The TCP defines how applications can create communication channels
across a network. IP defines the way each packet is addressed and routed to ensure it reaches the
correct destination.
TCP uses a connection-oriented service. It decides a path and data units are delivered via the
decided path. When the TCP conversation is finished, the session is terminated. TCP ensures that
the message or data is broken into smaller chunks, called IP packets. Each of these packets are
routed (transmitted) through the Internet, along a path from one router to the next, until it
reaches the specified destination. TCP guarantees the delivery of packets on the designated IP
address. It is also responsible for ordering the packets so that they are delivered in sequence.
The IP protocol ensures that each computer or node connected to the Internet is assigned an IP
address, which is used to identify each node independently. It can be considered to be the
adhesive that holds the whole Internet together.
There are many redundant connection paths in the Internet, with backbones and ISPs connecting
to each other in multiple locations. So, there are many possible paths between two hosts. Hence,
two packets of the same message can take two different routes depending on congestion and other
factors in different possible routes. When all the packets finally reach the destination machine,
they are reassembled into the original message at the receiver‘s end.
The commonly used TCP/IP protocol includes – HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, SMTP, PPP, Telnet.
8.4.1 HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol. It is the primary protocol used to access the World
Wide Web. Tim Berners-Lee led the development of HTTP at CERN in 1989 in collaboration with
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C).
HTTP is a request-response (also called client-server) protocol that runs over TCP. The common
use of HTTP is between a web browser (client) and a web server (server). A client sends a request
to the server through a web browser to view specified information. After receiving a request, the
server sends specified information to the client. It is a non-secure transmission.
HTTP facilitates access of hypertext from the World Wide Web by defining how information are
formatted and transmitted, and how the Web servers and browsers should respond to various
commands.
A web page is written using a mark-up language like HTML and is stored on a web server for
access via its URL. Once a user opens a web browser and types in the URL of the intended web
page, a logical communication link between the user machine (client) and the web server is
created using HTTP.
For example, whenever we enter the URL http//www.psscive.ac.in in a browser, it sends HTTP
request to the web-server where psscive.ac.in is hosted. The HTTP response from the web-server
fetches and sends the requested web-page, which is displayed on browser.

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Fig. 8.11: Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

8.4.2 HTTPS
HTTPS stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure. HTTPS establishes a connection between
the client and the server for data transmission. It is a secure transmission. The client mainly uses
this HTTPS to send private information like credit card details, online transactions, to the server
across the internet connection.

Fig. 8.12: Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure

8.4.3 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the protocol used for transferring files from one machine to another.
It is a standard mechanism provided by TCP/IP. Transforming files from one system to another
seems very simple, but some problems need to be dealt with before transforming files. For
example, two systems may use a different file name convention, may have different directory
structures, may have a different way of representing data. All these problems are resolved by FTP.
FTP also works on a client-server model. When a user requests for a file transfer with another
system, FTP sets up a connection between the two nodes for accessing the file. Optionally, the
user can authenticate using user ID and password. The user then specifies the file name and
location of the desired file. After that, another connection sets up and the file transfer happens
directly between the two machines. However, some servers provide FTP logins without
authentication for accessing files.

Fig. 8.13 File transfer using FTP

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8.4.4 Point to Point Protocol (PPP)
PPP is a communication protocol which establishes a dedicated and direct connection between
two communicating devices. This protocol defines how two devices will authenticate each other
and establish a direct link between them to exchange data. For example, two routers with direct
connection communicate using PPP. The Internet users who connect their home computers to the
server of an Internet Service Provider (ISP) through a modem also use PPP.
The communicating devices should have duplex modes for using this protocol. This protocol
maintains data integrity ensuring that the packets arrive in order. It intimates the sender about
damage or lost packets and asks to resend it.
8.4.5 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
SMTP is a protocol used for email services. It is a Push protocol that is used to send an email.
After that, POP post office protocol) or IMAP (internet message access protocol) protocols retrieve
emails on the receiver end. It uses information written on the message header (like an envelope on
a letter sent by post), and is not concerned with the content of the email message. Each email
header contains email addresses of recipients. The email containing header and body are entered
into a queue of outgoing mails.
SMTP simply defines how data or commands transfer from client to server or server to client. It is
used two times between the sender and sender‘s mail server and between two mail servers. To
transfer mails, SMTP uses three phases, i.e. connection establishment, mail transfer and
connection termination. The commands, which are used to send data from client to server and
responses, which is used to send data from server to client.
HELO – This command is used to identify the user and full domain name, which is transmitted
only once per session.
MAIL – This command is used to initiate a message transfer.
RCPT – This command comes after MAIL and is used to identify the recipient‘s fully qualified
name. For multiple recipients, RCPT is used for each of the recipients.
DATA – This command is used to send data one line after the other.

Fig. 8.14 SMTP Protocol

The SMTP sender program takes mails from the outgoing queue and transmits them to the
destination(s). When the SMTP sender successfully delivers a particular mail to one or more
destinations, it removes the corresponding receiver‘s email address from the mail‘s destination
list. When that mail is delivered to all the recipients, it is removed from the outgoing queue. The
SMTP receiver program accepts each mail that has arrived and places it in the appropriate user
mailbox.
SUMMARY
 Data communication refers to the exchange of data between two or more networked or
connected devices like laptops, PC, printers, routers etc.
 Sender, receiver, messages, channel and protocols are major components of data
communication.

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  In data communication, transmission media are the links that carry messages between
two or more communicating devices. These are broadly classified into guided and
unguided media.
 In guided transmission, there is a physical link made of wire/cable through which data in
terms of signals are propagated between the nodes.
 These are usually metallic cable, fibre-optic cable, etc. They are also known as wired
media.
 In unguided transmission, data travels in air in terms of electromagnetic waves using an
antenna. They are also known as wireless media.
 The capacity of channels is measured bandwidth. The unit of bandwidth is Hertz.
 Communication can be done in three different modes — simplex, half-duplex, and full-
duplex communication.
 Switching techniques are alternative to dedicated lines whereby data is routed through
various nodes in a network. It forms a temporary route for the data to be transmitted. Two
commonly used switching techniques are – circuit switching and packet switching.
 Electromagnetic spectrum of frequency ranging from 3 KHz to 900 THz is available for
wireless communication. This spectrum range (3KHz to 900THz) can be divided into four
categories- Radio in Computer Science - Class XII 220 2020-21waves, Microwaves,
Infrared waves and Visible or Light waves, according to their frequency ranges.
 Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology that can be used to connect mobile-phones,
mouse, headphones, keyboards, computers, etc. wirelessly over a short distance.
 Based on the architecture of the mobile network, mobile communication technologies are
classified into different generations identified as 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, and 5G.
 In communication, protocol is a set of standard rules that the communicating parties —
the sender, the receiver, and all other intermediate devices need to follow. Flow control,
access control, addressing, etc. are examples of protocol.
 HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol. It is the primary protocol used to access the
World Wide Web, which was developed by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN in 1989.
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the protocol used for transferring files from one machine to
another. Like HTTP, FTP also works on a client-server model.
 Point-to-Point protocol (PPP) defines how two devices will authenticate each other and
establish a direct link between them to exchange data.
 TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol. It is a set of
standardised rules that uses a client-server model of communication in which a user or
machine (a client) requests a service by a server in the network.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
A. Multiple choice questions
1. The frequency band of Bluetooth radio is around _______ (a) 2.1 GHz (b) 2.2 GHz (c) 2.3
GHz (d) 2.4 GHz
2. What are the benefits of Bluetooth technology? (a) Cable replacement, ease of file sharing
(b) Internet connectivity (c) Low-cost technology (d) All of the above
3. The Bluetooth technologies used in _____ (a) wireless keyboard (b) wireless mouse
4. What was the range of Bluetooth? (a) Only 10m (b) More than 10m (c) Less than 10m (d)
None of the above
5. Which of the following is not a wireless transmission media (a) Radio waves transmission
(b) Microwave transmission (c) Infrared transmission (d) fibre option transmission
6. Which of the following is not a wireless communication technology (a) Bluetooth (b) WiFi (c)
WiMax (d) WAN
7. Which of the following is example of infrared transmission (a) mobile-to-mobile (b) mobile-
to-printer (c) remote-control-to-TV (d) All of the above
8. The protocols is required for (a) flow control (b) access control (c) addressing (d) All of the
above

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 2. Operating System and Computer Network Page 51
 9. Which of the following protocol is used to access the web pages (a) HTTP (b) FTP (c) PPP (d)
SMTP
10. Which of the following protocol is used for email services (a) HTTP (b) FTP (c) PPP (d) SMTP

B. Fill in the blanks

1. Electromagnetic spectrum of frequency ranging from _________ is available for wireless
communication.
2. The spectrum used by Bluetooth starts from _______ and ends at ________.
3. Bluetooth technology allows up to _______ devices to build a network.
4. The power consumption in Bluetooth is _______.
5. The data speed of Bluetooth is around ______ .
6. Microwave transmission is used for ____________ telecommunication
7. In Bluetooth technology, the communicating devices within a range of 10 meters build a
personal area network called _________.
8. Bluetooth technology allows up to _____ devices to build a network.
9. IP protocol ensures each node connected to the Internet is assigned _________
10. Radio waves have the _____ frequency and ____ wavelength in the spectrum.
11. Radio waves are used for transmitting ______ signal and ______ signals.
12. Infrared transmission is used for __________telecommunication.
13. The TV remote control uses _____ to control TV.
14. Wi-Fi is _______ wireless communication technology used in home networking.
15. HTTP is the __________used to access the World Wide Web.
C. State whether true or false
1. Infrared is used for short-distance point-to-point communication.
2. The devices in a piconet work in a master-slave configuration.
3. In Bluetooth technology 7 devices can communicate at the same time.
4. Wi-Fi is low-cost and low-power wireless communication technology.
5. TCP/IP is a set of standardised rules that uses a client-server model of communication.
6. SMTP defines how data or commands transfer from client to server and vice versa.
7. FTP is a protocol used to make a dedicated and direct connection between two
communicating devices.
8. HTTPS is used for unsecure transmission.
9. TCP uses a connectionless oriented service
10. It is not possible that we can communicate between two computers without using any wire
or cable.
Short answer questions
1. What is the advantage and disadvantage of using Bluetooth technology?
2. What is HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)? How it works?
3. What is File Transfer Protocol (FTP)? How it works?
4. What is Pint to Point Protocol (PPP)? How it works?
5. Differentiate between SMTP and TCP/IP.
6. What is protocol and its need in computer network?
7. What is meaning of wireless communication?
8. Differentiate between radio wave and microwave transmission.
9. Write down common wireless devices to which you are using in your daily life.
10. What do you understand by mobile telecommunication technologies?

Answer Key
MCQ
1. d 2.c 3.c 4.a 5.d 6.d 7. d 8.d 9.a 10.d
Fill in the blanks
1. 3 KHz to 900 THz 2. 2.402 GHz, 2.480 GHz 3. 255 4. Low
5. 1-2 Mbps 6. long-distance 7. Piconet 8. 255

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 2. Operating System and Computer Network Page 52
9. IP address 10. lowest, highest 11. voice, television
12. short -distance 13. infrared light waves 14. low-cost 15. primary protocol
True False
1.T 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.F 8.F 9.F 10.F

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 2. Operating System and Computer Network Page 53
 Chapter 9. Network Security
9.1 THREATS AND PREVENTION
Being alone is the most ideal situation for an individual in terms of security. It applies to
computers as well. A computer with no link to an external device or computer is free from the
security threats. However, it is not an ideal solution for a human being or a computer to stay
alone in order to mitigate any security threats, as the world at present is on its way to become
fully connected. This connectedness of various devices and computers has brought into our focus
the various network threats and its prevention. Network security is concerned with protection of
our device as well as data from illegitimate access or misuse. Threats include all the ways in
which one can exploit any vulnerability or weakness in a network or communication system to
cause harm or damage one‘s reputation. In network security, threat prevention refers to policies
and tools that protect the network. With an increasing threat such as malware and ransomware
from email spam and phishing attacks, advanced threat prevention requires an integrated, multi-
layered approach to security. This may include tools for intrusion threat detection and prevention,
advanced malware protection, and additional endpoint security threat prevention.
9.2 NETWORK SECURITY
All modern-day companies require a network of computers, servers, printers, switches, access
points, and routers to operate. These devices and applications provide a huge benefit to the
organisation. But on the other hand, they also represent a risk. It is necessary to protect a
network. Network security helps to protect proprietary information from attack. Network security
is the protection of networking infrastructure from unauthorized access, misuse, or theft. It
involves creating a secure infrastructure for devices, applications, users, and applications to work
in a secure manner.
Cyber Attack
Cyber-attacks are performed with malicious intent when a threat actor attempts to exploit a
vulnerability or weakness in a system or individuals of an organization. These attacks threaten to
steal, alter, destroy, disable or gain access to or make use of an unauthorized asset.

Fig. 9.1 Protection from cyber attacks

There are different types of cyber-attacks such as, Malware attacks, Network security attacks, and
Wireless security attacks. Let us discus these attacks.
9.3 MALWARE ATTACKS
Malware is a short term used for MALicious softWARE. It is any software developed with an
intention to damage hardware devices, steal data, or cause any other trouble to the user. Various
types of malware have been created from time-to-time, and large-scale damages have been
inflicted. Many of these malware programs have been identified and counter measures have been
initiated. However, different types of malware keep on coming on regular basis that compromise
the security of computer systems and cause intangible damages. Besides, each year, malware

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 2. Operating System and Computer Network Page 54
incur financial damages worth billions of dollars worldwide. Figure 9.2 shows the different types
of malware such as Viruses, Worms, Ransomware, Trojans, and Spyware.

Fig. 9.2: Types of Malware

9.3.1 Virus
A computer virus is a piece of software code created to perform malicious activities and hamper
resources of a computer system like CPU time, memory, personal files, or sensitive information. A
computer virus infects other computer systems that it comes into contact with by copying or
inserting its code into the computer programs or software (executable files). A virus remains
dormant on a system and is activated as soon as the infected file is opened or executed by a user.
Most viruses self-replicate without the knowledge of the user. These viruses can be spread from
one system to another via email, instant messaging, website downloads, removable media (USB),
and network connections. Some of the most common intentions or motives behind viruses include
stealing passwords or data, corrupting files, spamming the user‘s email contacts, and even taking
control of the user‘s machine. Some file types are more susceptible to virus infections –
.doc/docx, .exe, .html, .xls/.xlsx, .zip. Some well-known viruses include CryptoLocker,
ILOVEYOU, MyDoom, Sasser and Netsky, Slammer, Stuxnet.
9.3.2 Worms
Worm is also a malware that incurs unexpected or damaging behaviour on an infected computer
system. Worms are standalone programs that are capable of working on its own. It does not
require to host program to insert its code. This makes it different from virus. Also, a virus
replicates when a user opens or execute the infected file, while a worm replicates on its own and
can spread to other computers through the network. Worms are commonly used against email
servers, web servers, and database servers. Some prominent examples of worms include Storm
Worm, Sobig, MSBlast, Code Red, Nimda, Morris Worm.
9.3.3 Ransomware
It is a type of malware that targets user data. It either blocks the user from accessing their own
data or threatens to publish the personal data online and demands ransom payment against the
same. Some ransomware simply blocks the access to the data while others encrypt data making it
very difficult to access. In May 2017, a ransomware WannaCry infected almost 200,000
computers across 150 countries. It worked by encrypting data and demanding ransom payments
in the Bitcoin cryptocurrency. It literally made its victims ―cry‖ and hence the name. Crypto-
Malware is a type of ransomware that encrypts user files and requires payment within a time
frame and often through a digital currency like Bitcoin.

Fig. 9.3: Ransomware

9.3.4 Trojan

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Since the ancient Greeks could not infiltrate the city of Troy using traditional warfare methods,
they gifted the king of Troy with a big wooden horse with hidden soldiers inside and eventually
defeated them. Borrowing the concept, a Trojan is a malware, that looks like a legitimate software
and once it tricks a user into installing it, it acts pretty much like a virus or worm. When
activated, Trojans can allow threat actors to spy on you, steal your sensitive data, and gain
backdoor access to your system. However, a Trojan does not self-replicate or infect other files, it
spreads through user interaction such as opening an email attachment or downloading and
executing a file from the Internet.

Fig. 9.4: Trojan horse

9.3.5 Spyware
It is a type of malware that spies on a person or an organisation by gathering information about
them, without the knowledge of the user. It records and sends the collected information to an
external entity without consent or knowledge of the user. Spyware usually tracks internet usage
data and sells them to advertisers. They can also be used to track and capture credit card or bank
account information, login and password information or user‘s personal identity.
9.3.6 Adware
An Adware is a malware that is created to generate revenue for its developer. An adware displays
online advertisements using pop-ups, web pages, or installation screens. Once an adware has
infected a substantial number of computer systems, it generates revenue either by displaying
advertisements or using ―pay per click‖ mechanism to charge its clients against the number of
clicks on their displayed ads. Adware is usually annoying, but harmless. However, it often paves
way for other malware by displaying unsafe links as advertisements.
9.3.7 Keyloggers
A keylogger can either be malware or hardware. The main purpose of this malware is to record the
keys pressed by a user on the keyboard. A keylogger makes logs of daily keyboard usage and may
send it to an external entity as well. In this way, very sensitive and personal information like
passwords, emails, and private conversations can be revealed to an external entity without the
knowledge of the user. One strategy to avoid the threat of password leaks by keyloggers is to use a
virtual keyboard while signing into your online accounts from an unknown computer.
A) Online Virtual Keyboard Vs On-Screen Keyboard
The names ―on-screen‖ and ―virtual‖ keyboard refer to any software-based keyboard and are
sometimes used interchangeably. But, there exists a notable difference between ―on-screen‖ and
―online virtual‖ keyboards. Both types of keyboards may look the same, but the difference is in
terms of the layout or ordering of the keys. The on-screen keyboard of an operating system uses a
fixed QWERTY key layout (Figure 9.5), which can be exploited by sophisticated keylogger software.
However, an online virtual keyboard randomises the key layout every time it is used (Figure 9.6),
thereby making it very difficult for a keylogger software to know or record the key(s) pressed by
the user.

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Fig. 9.5: A QWERTY keyboard layout

Fig. 9.6: Online virtual keyboard

9.3.8 Modes of Malware distribution
A malware once designed, can take many routes to reach your computer. Some of the common
distribution channels for malware are:
Downloaded from the Internet – Most of the time, malware is unintentionally downloaded into
the hard drive of a computer by the user. Of course, the malware designers are smart enough to
disguise their malware, but we should be very careful while downloading files from the Internet
(especially those highlighted as free stuff).
Spam Email – We often receive an unsolicited email with embedded hyperlinks or attachment
files. These links or attached files can be malware.
Removable Storage Devices – Often, the replicating malware targets the removable storage
media like pen drives, SSD cards, music players, mobile phones, etc. and infect them with
malware that gets transferred to other systems that they are plugged into.
Network Propagation – Some malware like Worms have the ability to propagate from one
computer to another through a network connection.
9.3.9 Combating Malware
Common signs of some malware infection include the following:
 frequent pop-up windows prompting you to visit
 some website and/or download some software;
 changes to the default homepage of your web browser;
 mass emails being sent from your email account;
 unusually slow computer with frequent crashes;
 unknown programs start-up as you turn on your computer;
 programs opening and closing automatically;
 sudden lack of storage space, random messages, sounds, or music start to appear;
 programs or files appear or disappear without your knowledge.
Malware exists and continues to evolve, and so is the mechanism to combat them. As the saying
goes that prevention is better than cure, we list some preventive measures against the malware
discussed earlier.
 Using antivirus, anti-malware, and other related software and updating them on a regular
basis.

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  Configure your browser security settings
 Always check for a lock button in the address bar while making payments.
 Never use pirated on unlicensed software. Instead go for Free and Open Source Software
(FOSS).
 Applying software updates and patches released by its manufacturers.
 Taking a regular backup of important data.
 Enforcing firewall protection in the network.
 Avoid entering sensitive (passwords, pins) or personal information on unknown or public
computers.
 Avoid entering sensitive data on an unknown network (like Wi-Fi in a public place) using
your own computer also.
 Avoid clicking on links or downloading attachments from unsolicited emails.
 Scan any removable storage device with an antivirus software before transferring data to
and from it.
 Never share your online account or banking password/pins with anyone.
 Remove all the programs that you don‘t recognise from your system.
 Do not install an anti-spyware or antivirus program presented to you in a pop-up or ad.
 Use the pop-up window‘s „X‟ icon located on the top-right of the popup to close the ad
instead of clicking on the „close‟ button in the pop-up. If you notice an installation has
been started, cancel immediately to avoid further damage.
9.4 ANTIVIRUS
Antivirus is a software, also known as anti-malware. Initially, antivirus software was developed to
detect and remove viruses only and hence the name anti-virus. However, with time it has evolved
and now comes bundled with the prevention, detection, and removal of a wide range of malware.
9.4.1 Methods of Malware Identification used by Antivirus
(a) Signature-based detection – In this method, an antivirus works with the help of a signature
database known as ―Virus Definition File (VDF)‖. This file consists of virus signatures and is
updated continuously on a real-time basis. This makes the regular update of the antivirus
software a must. If there is an antivirus software with an out-dated VDF, it is as good as having
no antivirus software installed, as the new malware will infect the system without getting
detected. This method also fails to detect malware that has an ability to change its signature
(polymorphic) and the malware that has some portion of its code encrypted.
(b) Sandbox detection – In this method, a new application or file is executed in a virtual
environment (sandbox) and its behavioural fingerprint is observed for a possible malware.
Depending on its behaviour, the antivirus engine determines if it is a potential threat or not and
proceeds accordingly. Although this method is a little slow, it is very safe as the new unknown
application is not given access to actual resources of the system.
(c) Data mining techniques – This method employs various data mining and machine learning
techniques to classify the behaviour of a file as either benign or malicious.
(d) Heuristics – Often, a malware infection follows a certain pattern. Here, the source code of a
suspected program is compared to viruses that are already known and are in the heuristic
database. If the majority of the source code matches with any code in the heuristic database, the
code is flagged as a possible threat.
(e) Real-time protection – Some malware remains dormant or gets activated after some time.
Such malware needs to be checked on a real-time basis. In this technique, the anti-malware
software keeps running in the background and observes the behaviour of an application or file for
any suspicious activity while it is being executed i.e. when it resides in the active (main) memory
of the computer system.
9.5 SPAM
Spam is a broad term and applies to various digital platforms like messaging, forums, chatting,
emailing, advertisement, etc. However, the widely recognised form is email spam. Depending on

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their requirements, organisations or individuals buy or create a mailing list (list of email
addresses) and repeatedly send advertisement links and invitation emails to a large number of
users. This creates unnecessary junk in the inbox of the receiver‘s email and often tricks a user
into buying something or downloading a paid software or malware.
Nowadays, email services like Gmail, Hotmail, etc. have an automatic spam detection algorithm
that filters emails and makes things easier for the end users. A user can also mark an undetected
unsolicited email as ―spam‖, thereby ensuring that such type of email is not delivered into the
inbox as normal email in future.
9.6 HTTP V/S HTTPS
Both the HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) and its variant HTTPS (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
Secure) are a set of rules (protocol) that govern how data can be transmitted over the WWW (World
Wide Web). In other words, they provide rules for the client web browser and servers to
communicate.
HTTP sends information over the network as it is. It does not scramble the data to be transmitted,
leaving it vulnerable to attacks from hackers. Hence, HTTP is sufficient for websites with public
information sharing like news portals, blogs, etc. However, when it comes to dealing with personal
information, banking credentials and passwords, we need to communicate data more securely
over the network using HTTPS. HTTPS encrypts the data before transmission. At the receiver end,
it decrypts to recover the original data. The HTTPS based websites require SSL Digital Certificate.
9.7 NETWORK SECURITY ATTACKS
Network security attacks have become more common in recent years in part because small and
mid-sized businesses are not making investments into securing their systems fast enough. As a
result, hackers target businesses because their systems are often easier to compromise. Other
reasons include a rise in hacktivism, bring your own device (BYOD) use, and cloud-based
applications.
Types of network security attacks includes, Denial of Service (DoS), Distributed Denial of Service
(DDoS), Buffer Overflow Attacks, Ping Attacks, SYN Flood, DNS Amplification, Back Door,
Spoofing, Smurf Attack, TCP/IP Hijacking, Man In The Middle Attacks, Replay Attacks, DNS
Poisoning, ARP Poisoning, Domain Kiting, Typosquatting, Client Side Attacks, Watering Hole
Attacks, Zero Day Attacks. Some of them are discussed here.
9.7.1. Denial of Service (DoS)
In a Denial of Service (DoS) attack a malicious threat attacker overloads a server with data
preventing valid request coming from real clients on the network. The DoS attack floods the victim
resource with traffic, making the resource appear busy. A DoS attack can also be performed on
entire networks because the attack is targeted at the central router or firewall. As a result,
network bandwidth is compromised, and denies access to all systems on that network. A DoS
attack on website will flood it with a very large number of network packets by using different IP
addresses and overload the web server and will not be able to provide service to a legitimate user.
The users will think that the website is not working, causing damage to the victim‘s organisation.
Same way, DoS attacks can be done on resources like email servers, network storage, disrupting
connection between two machines. If a DoS attack makes a server crash, the server or resource
can be restarted to recover from the attack. However, a flooding attack is difficult to recover from,
as there can be some genuine legitimate requests in it as well.

Fig. 9.7: Denial of Service (DoS)

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To prevent a denial of service,
 Buy more bandwidth.
 Build redundancy into your infrastructure.
 Deploy anti-DoS hardware and software modules.
 Deploy a DoS protection appliance.
 Protect your DNS servers.
9.7.2. Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS)
A variant of DoS, known as Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) is an attack on a system that is
launched from multiple sources and is intended to make a computer‘s resources or services
unavailable. DDoS attacks typically include sustained, abnormally high network traffic. The
attacker installs a malicious software known as Bot on the Zombie machines, which gives it
control over these machines. Depending upon the requirement and availability, the attacker
activates a network of these Zombie computers known as Bot-Net to carry out the DDoS attack.
While as a simple DoS attack may be countered by blocking requests or network packets from a
single source, DDoS is very difficult to resolve, as the attack is carried from multiple distributed
locations.

Fig. 9.8: Distributed Denia9 Of Service (DoS)

To prevent a distributed denial of service attack,
 Develop a denial of service response plan.
 Secure the network infrastructure.
 Filter routers at the edge of network to spot and drop DDoS connections.
 Blackholing the site that is being DDoS‘d, thereby directing all traffic to an invalid address.
9.7.3. Buffer Overflows
In this attack, the attacker overwrites certain memory areas of the computers within the network
with code that will be executed later when the buffer overflow occurs as programming error. Once
the malicious code is executed, an attacker can initiate a DoS attack or gain access to the
network. A buffer overflow itself doesn‘t cause damage, it does expose a vulnerability.

Fig. 9.9: Buffer Overflows

To prevent a buffer overflow attack,
 Perform routine code auditing (automated or manual).
 Provide training including bounds checking, use of unsafe functions, and group standards.
 Use compiler tools such as StackShield, StackGuard, and Libsafe.
 Use safe functions such as strncat instead of strcat, strncpy instead of strcpy, etc

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  Patch web and application servers regularly and be aware of bug reports relating to
applications upon which your code is dependent.
 Periodically scan application with one or more of the commonly available scanners that
look for buffer overflow flaws in your server products and your custom web applications.
9.7.4. Ping Attacks
A ping is used to check connectivity between a source and a destination device by way of ICMP
echo-requests and echo-reply messages. A Ping Attack floods the target device with requests
packets. The destination device is forced to respond with an equal number of reply packets and
cannot keep up with the volume of requests. This causes the target to become inaccessible to
normal traffic and unresponsive to normal ping requests.

Fig. 9.10: A ping attack

To prevent a Ping attack,
 Configure firewall to block ICMP pings from entering your network at the perimeter.
 Add filters to tell your router to detect and drop malformed data packets or those coming
from suspicious sources.
 Look for spoofed packets that do not originate from within your network, also known as
egress filtering.
 Install network monitoring software to alert for traffic patterns that are not ordinary.
 Scan network for open ports on a regular basis that is outside of your baseline.
9.7.5. SYN Flood
For every client and server connection using the TCP protocol, a three-way handshake is
established, which is a set of messages exchanged between the client and server. The three-way
handshake is initiated when the client system sends a SYN message to the server. The server then
receives the message and responds with a SYN-ACK message back to the client. Finally, the client
confirms the connection with a final ACK message.
A SYN flood manipulates the handshake which allows the attacker to rapidly initiate a connection
to a server without finalizing the connection. The server has to spend resources waiting for half-
opened connections, which can consume enough resources to make the system unresponsive to
legitimate traffic. The SYN flood is a form of a denial-of-service attack.

Fig. 9.11: SYN flood manipulation attack

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To prevent SYN Flood attack,
 Install an IPS to detect anomalous traffic patterns.
 If capability exists, configure the onsite firewall for SYN Attack Thresholds and SYN Flood
protection.
 Install up to date networking equipment that has rate-limiting capabilities.
 Install commercial tools to gain visibility across the entire network with the ability to see
and analyse traffic from different parts of the network.
9.7.6. DNS Amplification
A Domain Name Server (DNS) Amplification attack is a popular form of Distributed Denial of
Service (DDoS), in which attackers use publicly accessible open DNS servers to flood a target
system with DNS response traffic. The primary technique consists of an attacker sending a DNS
name lookup request to an open DNS server with the source address spoofed to be the target‘s
address. When the DNS server sends the DNS record response, it is sent instead to the target.
Attackers will typically submit a request for as much zone information as possible to maximize the
amplification effect.

Fig. 9.12: Domain Name Server (DNS) Amplification attack

To prevent DNS Amplification attacks,
 Implement Source IP Verification on network device.
 Disable Recursion on Authoritative Name Servers.
 Limit Recursion to Authorized Clients.
 Implement Response Rate Limiting (RRL) setting on DNS Server.
9.7.7. Back Door
A backdoor is a malware type that negates normal authentication procedures to access a system.
As a result, remote access is granted to resources within an application, such as databases and
file servers, giving perpetrators the ability to remotely issue system commands and update
malware. Backdoor installation is achieved by taking advantage of vulnerable components in a
web application. Once installed, detection is difficult as files tend to be highly obfuscated.

Fig. 9.13: Backdoor malware attack

To prevent Back Door Attacks,
 Use an Anti-virus solution.

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  Implement a network monitoring tool.
 Implement a solution to detect untrusted software on endpoints.
 Ensure that every device is protected by a host firewall.
9.7.8. Spoofing Attack
A spoofing attack occurs when a malicious party impersonates another device or user on a
network in order to launch attacks against network hosts, steal data, spread malware or bypass
access controls. There are several different types of spoofing attacks that malicious parties can
use to accomplish this. Some of the most common methods include IP address spoofing attacks,
ARP spoofing attacks and DNS server spoofing attacks.

Fig. 9.14: Spoofing attack

To prevent a Spoofing Attack,
 Packet filtering.
 Avoid trust relationships with unknown entities.
 Implement a spoofing detection software.
 Enable cryptographic network protocols, such as Transport Layer Security (TLS), Secure
Shell (SSH), HTTP Secure (HTTPS).
9.7.9. TCP/IP Hijacking
TCP Hijacking is a cyber-attack in which an authorized user gains access to a legitimate
connection of another client in the network. Having hijacked the TCP/IP session, the attacker can
read and modify transmitted data packets, as well as send their own requests to the addressee.
The intruder can determine the IP addresses of the two-session participants, make one of them
inaccessible using a DoS (Denial of Service) attack, and connect to the other by spoofing the
network ID of the former.

Fig. 9.15: TCP hijacking cyber-attack

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To prevent TCP/IP Hijacking,
 Use SSL when authenticating users or performing sensitive operations.
 Regenerate the session id whenever the security level changes (such as logging in). You can
even regenerate the session id every request if you wish.
 Implement session timeouts.
 Store authentication details on the server and do not send details such as a username a
cookie.
 Lock down access to the sessions on the file system or use custom session handling.
9.7.10. Man In The Middle Attacks
A Man-in-the-Middle (MitM) attack is when an attacker intercepts communication between two
parties either to secretly eavesdrop or modify traffic traveling between the two. Attackers might
use MitM attacks to steal login credentials or personal information, spy on the victim, or sabotage
communications or corrupt data. MitM attacks consist of sitting between the connection of two
parties and either observing or manipulating traffic. This could be through interfering with
legitimate networks or creating fake networks that the attacker controls. Compromised traffic is
then stripped of any encryption in order to steal, change or reroute that traffic to the attacker‘s
destination of choice.

Fig. 9.16: Man-in-the-Middle (MitM) attack

To prevent a MITM Attack,
 Incorporate the latest version of encryption protocols such as TLS.1.3 on infrastructure
assets.
 Train staff not to use open public Wi-Fi or Wi-Fi offerings at public places where possible.
 Train staff to recognize browser warnings from sites or connections that may not be
legitimate.
 Implement VPNs to help ensure secure connections.
 Implement multi-factor authentication

9.8. WIRELESS ATTACKS

A wireless attack involves identifying and examining the connections between all devices
connected to the business‘s WiFi. These devices include laptops, tablets, smartphones, and any
other internet of things (IoT) devices. There are various types of wireless attacks. It includes, Data
Emanation, Jamming, Bluetooth Vulnerabilities, Near-Field Communication, War Driving, Evil
Twin, De-authentication and Disassociation, War Chalking, Packet Sniffing and Eavesdropping,
Replay Attacks (Wireless), WPS Attacks, WEP/WPA Attacks, IV Attack, TKIP Attack, WPA2
Attacks. Some of them are discussed here.

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Fig. 9.17: Wireless attack
9.8.1. Data Emanation
In this attack data is compromised by receiving the analog output from a device and transferring
the by-product to another resource. The source of the attack can derive from emanations from the
sound of keyboard clicks, light from LEDs, and reflected light. The electromagnetic field generated
by a network cable or device can also be manipulated to eavesdrop on a conversation or to steal
data.
To prevent Data Emanation Attacks,
 Do not place access points near outside walls.
 Conduct a site survey to identify the coverage area and optimal placement for wireless
access points to prevent signals from going beyond identified boundaries.
 Implement a Faraday cage or Faraday shield to mitigate data emanation.
 Encrypt all data transmitted through your access point.
 Use firewalls on each network access point.
9.8.2. Jamming
It is a type of Denial of Service (DoS) attack targeted to wireless networks. The attack happens
when RF frequencies interfere with the operation of the wireless network. Normally jamming is not
malicious and is caused by the presence of other wireless devices that operate in the same
frequency as the wireless network. Hackers can perform Denial of Service (DoS) jamming attacks
by analyzing the spectrum used by wireless networks and then transmitting a powerful signal to
interfere with communication on the discovered frequencies.
To prevent Jamming Attacks,
 Implement steganography.
 Implement Cryptographic Puzzle Hiding Scheme.
 Implement Triple DES encryption.
 Install honeypots.
9.8.3. Bluetooth Vulnerabilities
Several attack methods target Bluetooth devices specifically. These include:
Bluejacking Bluetooth attacks – This is the practice of sending unsolicited messages to nearby
Bluetooth devices. Bluejacking messages are typically text, but can also be images or sounds.
Bluejacking is relatively harmless but does cause some confusion when users start receiving
messages.
Bluesnarfing Bluetooth attacks – Any unauthorized access to or theft of information from a
Bluetooth connection is bluesnarfing. A bluesnarfing attack can access information, such as
email, contact lists, calendars, and text messages.
Bluebugging Bluetooth attacks – Bluebugging attacks allow an attacker to take over a mobile
phone. Attackers can listen in on phone conversations, enable call forwarding, send messages,
and more.

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To prevent Bluetooth Vulnerability Attacks,
 Enable the ―find my device‖ service on your phone through a trustworthy entity like Apple
or Google so you have a way of using their technologies to find and remotely lock your
phone if you lose it.
 Avoid the use of Bluetooth to communicate sensitive information like passwords.
 Do not leave your Bluetooth in ―discoverable‖ mode when you‘re pairing a new peripheral
with your phone or laptop.
 Turn Bluetooth off when you‘re not using it.
9.8.4. Near-Field Communication
Near Field Communication (NFC) technology allows two devices placed within a few centimetres of
each other to exchange data. It works when both devices are equipped with an NFC chip. This
technology is usually embedded in commuter cards, smart cards, and smartphones. The security
attacks and risks that could occur in NFC are due to the physical nature of the NFC sensors and
its operating mechanism which uses the insecure communication channel. NFC communication
is susceptible to eavesdropping, ticket cloning, data corruption, data modification, data insertion,
and Denial of Service (DoS) attacks.
To prevent Near Field Communication Attacks,
 Turn off unused networking features.
 Monitor NFC updates and patch your device promptly.
 Limit maximum latency.
 Pay attention to the terminal when making a transaction.
9.8.5. Evil Twin
In this attack a hacker sets up a fake Wi-Fi network that looks like a legitimate access point to
steal victims‘ login credentials or other sensitive information. The attack can be performed as a
man-in-the-middle (MITM) attack. Because the hacker owns the equipment being used, the victim
will have no idea that the hacker might be intercepting things like bank transactions.
An evil twin access point can also be used in a phishing scam. A victim will connect to the evil
twin. It will prompt to enter sensitive data, such as their login details. After getting these details
the hacker simply disconnects the victim and show that the server is temporarily unavailable.
To prevent Evil Twin Attacks,
 Do not log into any accounts on public Wi-Fi.
 Avoid connecting to Wi-Fi hotspots that say ‗Unsecure,‘ even if it has a familiar name.
 Use 2-factor-authentication for all your sensitive accounts. Learn to recognize social
engineering attacks, phishing, and spoofed URLs.
 Visiting only HTTPs websites, especially when on open networks.
 Use a VPN whenever you connect to a public hotspot.
9.8.6. Packet Sniffing and Eavesdropping
An eavesdropping attack, also known as a sniffing or snooping attack, is a theft of information as
it is transmitted over a network by a computer, smartphone, or another connected device.
The attack takes advantage of unsecured network communications to access data as it is being
sent or received by its user. An eavesdropping attack can be difficult to detect because the
network transmissions will appear to be operating normally.
To be successful, an eavesdropping attack requires a weakened connection between a client and a
server that the attacker can exploit to reroute network traffic. The attacker installs network
monitoring software, the “packet sniffer,” on a computer or a server to intercept data as it is
transmitted.
To prevent Packet Sniffing and Eavesdropping,
 Use a personal firewall.
 Keep antivirus software updated.
 Use a virtual private network (VPN).

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  Use a strong password and changing it frequently.
 Ensure smartphone is running the most up to date version.
9.8.7. Replay Attacks (Wireless)
A simple, yet effective strategy for wireless DoS is to replay locally overheard data packets. These
packets are then carried by other forwarding nodes resulting in increased levels of congestion on a
wider scale. There are variations of the attack, where either control or data packets are replayed.
The objective of the attacker is to make the packet to look like a legitimate unit avoiding at the
same time detection. The intelligence of such an attack lies in convincing the MAC level
recipient(s) of a packet to accept and forward it and, the final destination into believing that this
was a legitimately retransmitted packet and that no attack is being launched.
To prevent Replay Attacks (Wireless),
 Place the access points in separate virtual LANs and implement some type of intrusion
detection to help identify when an attacker is attempting to set up a rogue access point or
is using a brute force attack to gain access.
 Encrypt all data transmitted through your access point.
 Set up the access point to accept only Media Access Control (MAC) addresses.
 Use firewalls on each network access point.
 Disable the broadcasting of the SSID from all access points.
 Implement EAP-TLS to use different keys for encryption and broadcast traffic.
 Set up a RADIUS server and a certificate authority.
9.8.8. WPS Attacks
Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS) is a wireless standard that enables simple connectivity to ―secure‖
wireless APs. The problem with WPS is that its implementation of registrar PINs make it easy to
connect to wireless and can facilitate attacks on the very WPA/WPA2 pre-shared keys used to lock
down the overall system. The WPS attack is relatively straightforward using an open source tool
called Reaver. Reaver works by executing a brute-force attack against the WPS PIN.
To prevent WPS Attacks,
 Implement tools to detect rogue Wireless Access Points (WAPs).
 Disable WPS.
 Set up MAC address controls on your Access Points.
 Ensure wireless router is capable of WPS intruder lockout for the WPS PIN.
9.8.9. WPA2 Attacks
WPA2 is a type of encryption used to secure the vast majority of Wi-Fi networks. A WPA2 network
provides unique encryption keys for each wireless client that connects to it. The vulnerability
could potentially allow a hacker to spy on your data as well as gain access to unsecured devices
sharing the same Wi-Fi network.
To prevent WPA2 Attacks,
 Ensure that Wi-Fi-enabled devices are updated as soon as a software update is made
available.
 Ensure wireless router is running up to date firmware.
 Implement a reputable VPN solution on all mobile and computers before connecting to Wi-
Fi.
 Browse to only HTTPS URLs when surfing the web over Wi-Fi connection.
9.9 FIREWALL
A firewall is a network security device designed to protect a trusted private network from
unauthorised access or traffic originating from an untrusted outside network such as Internet or
different sections of the same network, to which it is connected (Figure 9.18). Firewall can be
implemented in software, hardware or both. As discussed earlier, a malware like worm has the

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capability to move across the networks and infect other computers. The firewall acts as the first
barrier against malware.

Fig. 9.18: A firewall between two networks

A firewall acts as a network filter and based on the predefined security rules, it continuously
monitors and controls the incoming and outgoing traffic. As an example, a rule can be set in the
firewall of a school LAN, that a student cannot access data from the finance server, while the
school accountant can access the finance server.
9.9.1 Types of Firewall
There are different types of firewalls. Some of the popular firewall types includes Network firewall,
Web application firewall, Hardware-based, Software-based, Cloud-based, Personal computer
(Windows, macOS) firewall and Mobile firewall. They are mostly categorized under two types –
network-based and host-based.
Network Firewall – If the firewall is placed between two or more networks and monitors the
network traffic between different networks, it is termed as Network Firewall. They filter all the
traffic coming and going across a network. It is usually installed at the network edge and acts as
the first layer of protection to block any unwanted traffic.
Host-based Firewall – If the firewall is placed on a computer and monitors the network traffic to
and from that computer, it is called a host-based firewall. They are installed on different network
nodes, controlling each outgoing and incoming packet or byte. The firewall consists of an
application suite installed on a server or computer. Host-based firewalls can protect the individual
host against unauthorized access and attacks.
9.10 COOKIES
The term "cookie" was derived from the term "magic cookie" used by Unix programmers to indicate
a packet of data that a program receives and sends it back unchanged. A computer cookie is a
small file or data packet, which is stored by a website on the client‘s computer. A cookie is edited
only by the website that created it, the client‘s computer acts as a host to store the cookie.
Cookies are used by the websites to store browsing information of the user. For example, while
going through an e-commerce website, when a user adds items to cart, the website usually uses
cookies to record the items in the cart. A cookie can also be used to store other user-centric
information like login credentials, language preference, search queries, recently viewed web pages,
music choice, favorite cuisine, etc., that helps in enhancing the user experience and making
browsing time more productive. Depending upon their task, there are different types of cookies.
Session cookies keep track of the current session and even terminate the session when there is a
time-out (banking website). So, if you accidentally left your e-banking page open, it will
automatically close after the time-out. Similarly, authentication cookies are used by a website to
check if the user is previously logged in (authenticated) or not. This way, you don‘t need to login
again and again while visiting different web pages or links of the same website. You might have
also noticed that certain information like your Name, Address, Contact, D.O.B, etc. automatically
fills up while filling an online form. This auto-fill feature is also implemented by websites using
cookies.
9.10.1 Threats due to Cookies

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Usually, cookies are used for enhancing the user‘s browsing experience and do not infect your
computer with malware. However, some malware might disguise as cookies e.g. “supercookies”.
There is another type of cookie known as “Zombie cookie” that gets recreated after being deleted.
Some third-party cookies might share user data without the consent of the user for advertising or
tracking purposes. As a common example, if you search for a particular item using your search
engine, a third-party cookie will display advertisements showing similar items on other websites
that you visit later. So, one should be careful while granting permission to any websites to create
and store cookies on the user computer.
9.11 HACKERS AND CRACKERS
Hackers and crackers are people having a thorough knowledge of the computer systems, system
software (operating system), computer networks, and programming. They use this knowledge to
find loopholes and vulnerabilities in computer systems or computer networks and gain access to
unauthorised information. In simple terms, a hacker is a person that is skilled enough to hack or
take control of a computer system. Depending on the intent, there are different types of hackers.
9.11.1 White Hats: Ethical Hacker
If a hacker uses its knowledge to find and help in fixing the security flaws in the system, its
termed as White Hat hacker. These are the hackers with good intentions. They are actually
security experts. Organisations hire ethical or white hat hackers to check and fix their systems for
potential security threats and loopholes. Technically, white hats work against black hats.
9.11.2 Black Hats: Crackers
If hackers use their knowledge unethically to break the law and disrupt security by exploiting the
flaws and loopholes in a system, then they are called black hat hackers.
9.11.3 Grey Hats
The distinction between different hackers is not always clear. There exists a grey area in between,
which represents the class of hackers that are neutral, they hack systems by exploiting its
vulnerabilities, but they don‘t do so for monetary or political gains. The grey hats take system
security as a challenge and just hack systems for the fun of it.
9.12 SECURITY ISSUES AND THREATS IN EMAIL COMMUNICATION
E-mail is one of the main modes of communication today, but it is also not free from threats. The
threats in Email communication are as follows.
Eavesdropping – E-mail messages are communicated through Internet. So, it is very easy for
someone to track or capture your message and read it.
Identity Theft – If proper security protocols are not followed, someone may steal or capture your
username/ password and used to read your email messages and send email messages from your
account without your knowledge.
Message Modification – Anyone having administrative rights on any of SMTP server can captures
your message, read and also alter your message contents if it is not encrypted.
False Messages – Sender‘s name can easily be fabricated so it is very easy to send message that
pretends to be send by someone else.
Unprotected Backups – Messages generally stored in plain Text on SMTP server and also
backups can be created. Even if you delete the message they can be residing on the severs/
backup-servers for years. So, anyone who accesses these servers can also access or read your
message.
Repudiation – As it is known that email messages can easily be forged so anyone sending you
some message can later on deny regarding sending of message and it is very difficult to prove it.
This has implications corresponding to emails use as contracts in business communications.
Email spoofing – Sometime email that pretends to be received from an authentic source but in
actual it is send from somewhere else.
Email Spamming – Spam or junk mail refers to sending of email to number of persons for any
advertisement purpose or for some malicious intent. To send spam often lists are created by
searching data from Internet, or by stealing mailing list from the internet.

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Email bombing – E-mail “bombing” refers to sending identical mail repeatedly by abusers to a
particular address/user.
Sending threats – Sometimes false statements are also forwarded to third parties or users to
injure the reputation of some particular person. It is called as Defamation; a communication is
not considered defamatory unless it is forwarded to someone other than the target.
Email frauds – Email Fraud is intentional deception made for some personal or monetary gain.
Emails used as tools to spread malicious software – Emails are also used as tools to spread
viruses, worms and other malicious software. They are attached to emails as attachment, when
you click on them they attack your computer or browser.
Phishing- It is also most common attack through email, defined to steal confidential information
like passwords, ATM pin and other bank credentials. It works as some email coming to you that
pretends to be from some trusted source you know like your bank. These emails entice you to
click on some link present in email or to open some attachment or respond to some message and
that click directed to you their site in actual but it appears like your trusted website of bank and
ask to fill some confidential information like passwords which is actually stolen from you and use
for any malicious intent later on.
9.13 LIMITATIONS EXIST IN CURRENTLY USED PROTOCOLS
Any Network service like email system must provide following five services for security reasons.
Message Confidentiality – It promotes privacy that is the message transfer between sender and
receiver is secure and no one can read or track the message while transferring.
Message Integrity – It says that the same message/data should arrive at receiver end as it can be
sent by sender. No alteration intentionally or accidentally takes place during transfer.
Message Authentication – It ensures that message can be received from the sender only or from
the trusted source. In this receiver must be sure about the identity of sender.
Message Non-repudiation – It ensures that anytime sender should not be able to deny sending of
message which originally sends by him/her.
Entity Authentication – It ensures identification of user; the user must be verified before
accessing the resources and services. This is done by asking login-id and password.
SMTP – SMTP does not encrypt messages. So, the communication between SMTP servers is in
plain text so eavesdropping takes place. If you are login to SMTP server using your username and
password that is also pass in plain text so again anyone stole your information during transfer.
Messages sent through SMTP also contains information about sending computer and software
used which when capture can be used for malicious intent. So, SMTP lacks privacy concern.
POP and IMAP – POP and IMAP are pull protocols, Request is sent to mail server to access the
mailbox and for that login using username and password is required. These details are not
encrypted before sending unless SSL is used. So, our confidential information is at stake.
SUMMARY
 Malware is a software developed with an intention to damage computer hardware,
software, steal data, or cause any other trouble to a user.
 A virus is a piece of software code created to perform malicious activities and hamper
resources of a computer system.
 The Worm is also a malware that incurs unexpected or damaging behaviour on an infected
computer system.
 Worms are standalone programs that are capable of working on its own.
 Ransomware is a type of malware that targets user data.
 Ransomware either blocks the user from accessing their own data or threatens to publish
their personal data online and demands ransom payment against the same.
 Trojan is a malware, that looks like a legitimate software and once it tricks a user into
installing it, it acts pretty much like a virus or a worm.
 Spyware records and sends the collected information to an external entity without the
consent or knowledge of a user.

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  An adware displays unwanted online advertisements using pop-ups, web pages, or
installation screens.
 A keylogger makes logs of daily keyboard usage and may send it to an external entity as
well.
 The on-screen keyboard is an application software that uses a fixed QWERTY key layout.
 Online virtual keyboard is a web-based or a standalone software with a randomised key
layout every time it is used.
 A malware can take many routes to reach your computer, which include: Downloaded
from the Internet, Spam Email, using infected Removable Storage Devices, and network
propagation.
 An antivirus software is used to detect and remove viruses and hence the name anti-virus.
 Antiviruses now come bundled with the prevention, detection, and removal of a wide range
of malware.
 Some of the prominent methods of malware identification used by an antivirus include:
Signature-based detection, Sandbox detection, Heuristics.
 Any unwanted data, information, email, advertisement, etc. is called Spam.
 HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) and HTTPS (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure) are
a set of rules or protocol that govern how data can be transmitted over the World Wide
Web.
 Firewall is a network security system designed to protect a trusted private network from
unauthorised access or traffic originating from an untrusted external network.
 There are two basic types of firewalls — Network Firewall and Host-based Firewall.
 A computer cookie is a small file or data packet, which is stored by a website on the
client‘s computer.
 Cookies are used by the websites to store browsing information of the user.
 Hackers/Crackers find loopholes and vulnerabilities in computer systems or computer
networks and gain access to unauthorised information.
 If a hacker uses its knowledge to find and help in fixing the security flaws in the system,
its termed as White Hat hacker.
 If hackers use their knowledge unethically to break the law and disrupt security by
exploiting the flaws and loopholes in a system, then they are called black hat hackers.
 The grey hats take system security as a challenge and just hack systems for the fun of it.
 The Denial of Service (DoS) attack floods the victim resource with traffic, making the
resource appear busy.
 Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) is an attack, where the flooded requests come from
compromised computer (Zombies) systems distributed across the globe or over a very large
area.
 Network Intrusion refers to any unauthorised activity on a computer network.
 Snooping is the process of secret capture and analysis of network traffic by malicious
users.
 Eavesdropping is an unauthorised real-time interception or monitoring of private
communication between two entities over a network.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
A. Multiple choice questions
1. Which of the following comes under the cyber-attacks (a) Malware attacks (b) Network
security attacks (c) Wireless security attacks (d) All the above
2. A computer virus is (a) Hardware (b) Software (c) Bacteria (d) Freeware
3. Who is known by the name of crackers in the context of computer security? (a) Black Hat
Hackers (b) White Hat Hackers (c) Elite Hackers (d) Script Kiddie

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 2. Operating System and Computer Network Page 71
 4. In computing ______ is a network security system that monitors and controls incoming and
outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security rules. (a) Spyware (b) Cookie (c)
Spam(d) Firewall
5. What is the system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network
called as? (a) Computer scan (b) Digital scan (c) Biotech (d) Firewall
6. What does DDoS stand for? (a) Data Denial-of-Service (b) Distributed Denial-of-Service (c)
Distributed Data of Server (d) Distribution of Data Service
7. Which of the following is malicious software that, on execution, runs its own code and
modifies other computer programs? (a) Virus (b) Spam (c) Spyware (d) Adware
8. Which of the following is not a type of hacker? (a) White Hat (b) Black Hat (c) Green Hat (d)
Grey Hat
9. Which of the following is not a type of firewall? (a) Hardware-based, (b) Software-based, (c)
Cloud-based, (d) Python based
10. Which of the following usually observe each activity on the internet of the victim, gather all
information in the background, and send it to someone else? (a) Spyware (b) Malware (c)
Adware (d) Trojan
B. Fill in the blanks
1. Network security is the protection of networking infrastructure from _____access.
2. Malware is a short term used for ________ software.
3. A computer virus is a piece of software code created to perform _____ activities and
__________ resources of a computer system
4. Most viruses _____ without the knowledge of the user.
5. Worms are commonly used against ______ servers, ______ servers, and ____servers.
6. Ransomware are simply type of malware that targets ___________.
7. Spyware records and sends the collected information to an __________without consent or
knowledge of the user.
8. A keylogger makes logs of daily keyboard usage and send it to an _____.
9. Antivirus software was developed to ______ and ______ viruses.
10. Cookies are used by the websites to store ______ _______of the user.

C. State whether true or false

1. Security threat prevention refers to policies and tools that protect the network.
2. Network security helps to protect proprietary information from attack.
3. A computer virus is a hardware used to hamper resources of a computer system.
4. Crypto-Malware is a type of ransomware that encrypts files and requires payment through
a digital currency like Bitcoin.
5. Trojans does not allow threat actors to spy and steal your sensitive data.
6. An Adware is a malware that is used to generate revenue for customers.
7. Malware are distributed via spam email to user's computer.
8. Antivirus cannot be used to detect malware.
9. Email services like Gmail, Hotmail etc. have an automatic spam detection algorithm.
10. Network Intrusion refers to authorised activity on a computer network.
D. Short answer questions
1. Why is a computer considered to be safe if it is not connected to a network or Internet?
2. What is a computer virus? Name some computer viruses that were popular in recent years.
3. How is a computer worm different from a virus?
4. How is Ransomware used to extract money from users?
5. How did a Trojan get its name?
6. How does an adware generate revenue for its creator?
7. Briefly explain two threats that may arise due to a keylogger installed on a computer.
8. How is a Virtual Keyboard safer than On Screen Keyboard?

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 2. Operating System and Computer Network Page 72
 9. List common signs of malware infection and explain different modes of malware
distribution.
10. List some preventive measures against malware infection.
11. What are the risks associated with HTTP? How can we resolve these risks by using
HTTPS?
12. List one advantage and disadvantage of using Cookies.
13. Write a short note on White, Black, and Grey Hat Hackers.
14. Differentiate between DoS and DDoS attack.
15. How is Snooping different from Eavesdropping?

Answer Key
MCQ
1. d 2. b 3. a 4. d 5. d 6. b 7. a 8. c 9. d 10. a
Fill in the blanks
1. unauthorized 2. Malicious 3. malicious, hamper 4. self-replicate
5. email, web, database 6. user data 7. external entity 8. external entity
9. detect, remove 10. browsing information
True False
1. T 2. T 3. F 4. T 5. F 6. F 7. T 8. F 9. T 10. F

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 2. Operating System and Computer Network Page 73