Studies in Computational Intelligence 1159

Hung Phu Bui

Ehsan Namaziandost Editors

Innovations in
Technologies
for Language
Teaching and
Learning
Studies in Computational Intelligence

Volume 1159

Series Editor
Janusz Kacprzyk, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
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Hung Phu Bui · Ehsan Namaziandost
Editors

Innovations in Technologies
for Language Teaching
and Learning
Editors
Hung Phu Bui Ehsan Namaziandost
School of Foreign Languages Department of General Courses
University of Economics Ho Chi Minh City Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Sciences
Ahvaz, Iran

ISSN 1860-949X ISSN 1860-9503 (electronic)

Studies in Computational Intelligence
ISBN 978-3-031-63446-8 ISBN 978-3-031-63447-5 (eBook)
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Preface

The advent of technology is acknowledged to greatly influence applied linguistics and

language education, resulting in recently emerging research interests and innovations
in integrating technology into language education. Practitioners and researchers have
made attempts to retest existing hypotheses, cultivate language learning, contribute
to the mosaic of language education, and facilitate distance education. To disseminate
the results of this research line, several journals (e.g., Computer-Assisted Language
Learning, CALICO, Language Learning and Technology, and ReCall) have been
introduced by international giant publishers and research institutions. Monographs,
co-authored books, and edited books have also been released to disseminate research
results and provide guidelines for practitioners and researchers. For instance, socio-
cultural theory posits the importance of socialization for knowledge development
as external mediation may provide input for internal mediation. That is, knowledge
transformation is referred to as a social cognitive process in which humans internalize
what they learn from communicating with experts and peers. Intersected between
this theory and technology, an emerging strand of studies regards social media as
platforms for social interaction for second language learners. It is evident that such
interventions may facilitate incidental and intentional learning. Practically, several
endeavors have made efforts to ease distance education. Although mixed results
can be seen from learners’ language development, technology itself is well docu-
mented to improve accessibility of materials, mediate language learning through
videoconferencing, and be convenient for learners.
It is our pleasure to be invited to edit Innovations in Technologies for Language
Teaching and Learning. Initially, we were interested in the topic but reluctant due
to our heavy schedules and work commitments. Then, motivated by colleagues, we
finally accepted the invitation after several weeks of careful consideration. Instead of
focusing on sending invitations to renowned scholars in the fields like other editors,
we decided to publicize the call for chapters on social media apart from sending
invitations to scholars in our networks in order to attract attention of scholars beyond
our networks. As a result, more than expected, we received more than 70 chapter
proposals. The screening stage resulted in only 40 accepted proposals. We finally
accepted only 13 out of 30 submitted full chapters.

v
vi Preface

It is our honor to select and edit the 13 chapters of this book. They report studies
conducted in the past two years and discuss contemporary topics of interest in the
intersection between technology and language education. As the authors are from
different places around the world, their endeavors contribute to the diversity of
perspectives in this book.
The first chapter “Captioned Viewing for Language Learning: A Cognitive
and Affective Model” reports a study conducted in China, using caption-enhanced
audiovisual content as a tool for language acquisition in second and foreign language.
Results indicate the cognitive progress and emotional enrichment experienced by
learners, resulting in a deeper processing of input. The author argues that Multimedia
platforms can further expand the range of strategies available to learners, empowering
them as active participants in leveraging the benefits offered by captions.
The second chapter “Extended Reality in Computer-Assisted Language Learning”
is a systematic review on the use Extended reality (XR), including Augmented,
Virtual, and Mixed/Merged Realities. Twenty eight articles published in the leading
Q1-ranked CALL journals in Scopus from 2010 to 2022 were selected. Findings
highlight the state-of-the-art picture of extended reality aiming at (1) mapping the
research trends and (2) determining the affordances of using extended reality as a
CALL tool.
The third chapter “Pedagogical Use of Video Clips During the COVID-19
Pandemic Lockdown: Educators’ Perceptions at a Bilingual Education Preschool
in Vietnam” reports a qualitative study conducted in Vietnam, delving into the peda-
gogical strategies employed by non-professional producers of video clips to engage
young learners in online education. Seventeen participants, including teachers, school
managers, and team leaders, were invited to participate in interviews. Results show
the importance of maintaining direct and indirect communication with young learners
through technology, including livestream activities and regular interactions with
parents. The authors argue for the roles of educators and curriculum designers in
optimizing the use of digital resources in remote areas in Vietnam.
The fourth chapter “The Role of Supportive Environments in Shaping EFL
Teachers’ Adoption of ChatGPT” reports a study on the use of ChatGPT, an emerging
technology. The study applied the technology acceptance model (TAM) to explain
EFL teachers’ intention to adopt ChatGPT for teaching activities. The results show
that Vietnamese teachers regularly used ChatGPT for various purposes, such as
creating exercises and questions, planning lessons, engaging in professional devel-
opment, seeking teaching materials, and addressing students’ issues. It is also evident
that teachers’ acceptance of ChatGPT can be predicted by the environment. The
authors argue that it might be essential for educators and policymakers to integrate
AI tools like ChatGPT into their classrooms and institutions.
The fifth chapter “EFL Writing Teachers’ Agency in Response to AI Emergence
from an Ecological Perspective” reports a qualitative study on EFL teachers’ use of
AI in teaching writing. Data were collected from video-assisted interviews with seven
Vietnamese experienced teachers. Findings highlight the teachers’ initial hesitation to
adopt AI due to their adherence to traditional pedagogies, lack of clear AI integration
guidelines, and concerns over AI’s accuracy and potential misuse. From an ecological
Preface vii

perspective, the authors argue that the environment and teacher training may change
the teachers’ mindsets about the use of AI in teaching second language writing in
the context of Vietnam.
The sixth chapter “EFL Learners’ Perceptions of Pronunciation Corrective Feed-
back: Insights from Synchronous High Variability Phonetic Training” disseminates
a study on English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students’ perceptions of Pronunci-
ation Corrective Feedback (PCF) in online classrooms. Data were collected from a
questionnaire administered to 40 EFL learners and in-depth interviews with a subset
of 15 students after a 10-hour virtual pronunciation teaching using High Variability
Phonetic Training. The findings highlight the participants’ positive perceptions of
Pronunciation Corrective Feedback assisted by technology. The study underscored
the theoretical and pedagogical implications of incorporating online PCF into EFL
instruction.
The seventh chapter “Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL): A Sociocul-
turual Theory (SCT) Perspective” critically reviews ten recently published articles
on the use of mobile-assisted language learning in the light of sociocultural theory.
The data analysis shows two emerging themes: perceptions of MALL via descriptive
research and the effects of a certain application or a digital/cultural role on language
learning via experimental investigation. The authors argue that mobile devices may
be used as tools to mediate learning through social interaction.
The eighth chapter “Teachers’ Experiences with Generative AI as Co-Pilots
in High School L2 Writing Instruction: A Case in Vietnam” reports a case study
on Vietnamese high school EFL teachers’ experiences and viewpoints regarding the
use of AI Chatbots in the writing classroom. The analysis of the interviews with
twelve teachers shows four main themes: ensuring academic integrity, making peda-
gogical adjustments, addressing ethical issues related to bias and plagiarism risks,
and engaging in continuous professional development for AI literacy. The results
suggest useful insights into the effective blending of AI capabilities with traditional
writing pedagogy.
The ninth chapter “Vietnamese Graduate Students’ Perspectives on the Use
of ChatGPT” discloses an investigation into the perspectives of Vietnamese graduate
students of TESOL on the use of ChatGPT. Data were collected from 32 Vietnamese
graduate students in a TESOL course. Findings reveal that the graduate students
generally perceived ChatGPT to be an effective language tool. This emerging tech-
nology was believed to improve language classroom understanding, engagement,
and self-confidence, making it ideal for project conception and ideation. The results
suggest a harmonic synergy between humans and technological advances in language
education.
The tenth chapter “Generative AI and Second/Foreign Language Education
from Vygotsky’s Cultural-Historical Perspective” is a conceptual chapter reviewing
the use of ChatGPT in second and foreign language learning from a sociocultural
perspective. The authors outline three main principles of sociocultural theory for
understanding L2 acquisition: (1) the environment as a source of the ideal forms of
the target language, (2) internalization through active and meaningful social inter-
actions, and (3) optimal L2 acquisition when effectively scaffolded in the ZPD of
viii Preface

the individual. The authors highlight the significance of ChatGPT’s capabilities to

provide target language input, simulate authentic conversations, answer questions on
diverse topics, and offer feedback as crucial functions for facilitating the second and
foreign language learning.
Identifying the significant impacts of corpus on language use, communication,
and the supply of authentic materials collected by digital devices, the author of the
eleventh chapter “Building a Corpus for Teaching and Learning a Second Language
by Using Sketch Engine” argues for the use of corpus in second and foreign language
education. The chapter gives guidelines for building a corpus for the purpose of
learning and teaching a second language in the digital technology era. Practically, it
provides practical tasks of building and applying a corpus in English learning and
teaching.
The authors of the twelfth chapter “Using Corpora in Translation Studies
and Translation Education” are interested in a different tenet of corpus. This chapter
outlines the essence of using corpora in translation studies in second and foreign
language contexts. It initially reviews the changes in theoretical perspectives on the
development of corpus. The chapter then presents different corpus-based approaches
to Translation Studies and characterizes types of corpora used for research purposes.
It also discusses the strengths and weaknesses of using corpora as data sources and
for data analyses. The chapter ends with recommendations on possible application
of corpus-based approaches to research in Translation Studies.
The thirteen chapter “Technological Advancements and L2 Motivational Self
System” provides a view of the intersection between technological advancements and
the second language motivational self system in second language acquisition. The
three main components: (1) the ideal L2 self, (2) the ought-to L2 self, and (3) the L2
learning experience of the L2 motivational self system are first reviewed. The author
then argues that technology-enhanced language learning presents a transformative
paradigm, fostering personalized, inclusive, and engaging learning environments for
the generation of learning motivation. To conclude, the authors call for more research
into the use of emerging technologies to enhance second language motivation to
broaden the agenda of second language education.

Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Hung Phu Bui

Ahvaz, Iran Ehsan Namaziandost
About This Book

The advent of technology has changed the landscape of language education. This
edited book discusses the current issues and reports research conducted around
the world. The chapter topics are quite diverse, targeting the needs of undergrad-
uate and graduate students and researchers. It views the mosaic of the field from
cognitive, affective, educational, and educational perspectives. All the chapters give
implications for further advances in technology and education.

ix
Contents

Captioned Viewing for Language Learning: A Cognitive

and Affective Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Mark Feng Teng
Extended Reality in Computer-Assisted Language Learning . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Dara Tafazoli
Pedagogical Use of Video Clips During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Lockdown: Educators’ Perceptions at a Bilingual Education
Preschool in Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Duy-Bao Thai and Ngoc-Tai Huynh
The Role of Supportive Environments in Shaping EFL Teachers’
Adoption of ChatGPT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Nguyen Hoang Mai Tram and Vu Tran-Thanh
EFL Writing Teachers’ Agency in Response to AI Emergence
from an Ecological Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Hoang Le-Khanh, Khoa Do, and Vu Tran-Thanh
EFL Learners’ Perceptions of Pronunciation Corrective Feedback:
Insights from Synchronous High Variability Phonetic Training . . . . . . . . 95
Rizgar Qasim Mahmood and Hung Phu Bui
Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL): A Socioculturual
Theory (SCT) Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Le Pham Hoai Huong and Tran Thi Thanh Thuong
Teachers’ Experiences with Generative AI as Co-Pilots in High
School L2 Writing Instruction: A Case in Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Nghi Tin Tran
Vietnamese Graduate Students’ Perspectives on the Use
of ChatGPT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Pham Vu Phi Ho

xi
xii Contents

Generative AI and Second/Foreign Language Education

from Vygotsky’s Cultural-Historical Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Ngo Cong-Lem and Samran Daneshfar
Building a Corpus for Teaching and Learning a Second Language
by Using Sketch Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Phan Thi Thanh Thao
Using Corpora in Translation Studies and Translation Education . . . . . . 219
Lien-Huong Vo and Thuy-Minh B. Nguyen
Technological Advancements and L2 Motivational Self System . . . . . . . . . 235
Viet Quoc Hoang
Editors and Contributors

About the Editors

Hung Phu Bui works as a lecturer and researcher at School of Foreign Languages,
University of Economics Ho Chi Minh City (UEH University), Vietnam. He holds a
Ph.D. in Language Education. His research interests span across different aspects of
applied linguistics and language education. His publications mainly center around
applications of cognitive linguistics in L2 acquisition, sociocultural theory in L2
acquisition, teacher and student cognition, social interaction in L2 classrooms, L2
classroom assessment, teaching English for specific purposes, and computer-assisted
language teaching and learning. Influenced by educational, linguistic, and psycho-
logical perspectives, his endeavors, mainly published in leading journals in the fields
of language education, applied linguistics, and educational psychology, have been
stimulating interesting discussions. Serving as the keynote and plenary speaker in
many national and international conferences in the world, Hung has had opportu-
nities to spread his knowledge and research interests to students, colleagues, and
novice researchers.

Ehsan Namaziandost is currently a lecturer at Ahvaz Jundishapur University of

Medical Sciences and Islamic Azad University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran. He holds an
M.A. degree in TEFL from Islamic Azad University of Ahvaz. He got his Ph.D. in
TEFL at Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord, Iran. His main interests of research
are CALL, TEFL, Second Language Acquisition, Educational Psychology, Motiva-
tion and Anxiety, EFL Teaching and Learning, Language Learning and Technology,
Teaching Language Skills, and Language Learning Strategies. His research papers
and articles have been published in different international journals. He is a member
of editorial boards of many international journals such as Journal of Psycholinguistic
Research, Journal of Language and Education, International Journal of Language
Education, Studies in English Language and Education (SiELE), BMC psychology,
PLOS ONE, and CALL-EJ. Ehsan is an Associate Editor in PLOS ONE, BMC
Psychology, Social Sciences and Humanities Open (SSHO), and CALL-EJ.

xiii
xiv Editors and Contributors

Contributors

Hung Phu Bui University of Economics Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City,
Vietnam
Ngo Cong-Lem Faculty of Foreign Languages, Dalat University, Da Lat,
Vietnam;
Faculty of Education, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia;
BehaviourWorks, Australia, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
Samran Daneshfar Faculty of Education, Monash University, Melbourne,
Australia
Khoa Do The National College of Education Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh
City, Vietnam
Viet Quoc Hoang University of Economics Ho Chi Minh City (UEH University),
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Le Pham Hoai Huong English Department, University of Foreign Languages and
International Studies, Hue University, Hue City, Vietnam
Ngoc-Tai Huynh Tra Vinh University, Tra Vinh, Vietnam
Hoang Le-Khanh Independent Researcher, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Rizgar Qasim Mahmood The University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
Thuy-Minh B. Nguyen HUFLIS, Hue University, Hue, Vietnam
Vu Phi Ho Pham Faculty of Foreign Languages, Van Lang University, Ho Chi
Minh City, Vietnam
Dara Tafazoli School of Education, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan,
NSW, Australia
Mark Feng Teng Faculty of Languages and Translation, Macao Polytechnic
University, Macau SAR, China
Duy-Bao Thai Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
Phan Thi Thanh Thao University of Foreign Languages and International
Studies, Hue University, Hue, Vietnam
Tran Thi Thanh Thuong Ho Chi Minh College of Foreign Economic Relations,
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Nguyen Hoang Mai Tram Faculty of Business Administration, Ho Chi Minh
City University of Foreign Languages–Information Technology, Ho Chi Minh City,
Vietnam
Nghi Tin Tran Faculty of Foreign Languages, Ho Chi Minh City University of
Industry and Trade, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Editors and Contributors xv

Vu Tran-Thanh School of Education, Durham University, Durham City, UK

Lien-Huong Vo HUFLIS, Hue University, Hue, Vietnam
Captioned Viewing for Language
Learning: A Cognitive and Affective
Model

Mark Feng Teng

Abstract The use of caption-enhanced audiovisual content is an effective tool for

language acquisition in second and foreign language contexts. The inclusion of
captions plays a crucial role in language learning by providing students with a visual
reference that complements auditory input, leading to improved language compre-
hension. This effect is particularly noticeable when the material closely matches the
learners’ language proficiency. By examining diary data collected from 20 partici-
pants over an entire semester of a listening course, this chapter reveals the cognitive
progress and emotional enrichment experienced by learners, resulting in a deeper
processing of input. Despite the clear benefits, learners need guidance in developing
active viewing strategies to make efficient use of captioned material. Multimedia plat-
forms can expand the range of strategies available to learners, empowering them as
active participants in leveraging the benefits offered by captions. The chapter empha-
sizes the importance of training learners to effectively navigate these strategies for
optimal language learning outcomes.

Keywords Captioned viewing · Language learning · Vocabulary learning ·

Affective process · Cognitive process

1 Introduction

1.1 The Background to the Study

Originally designed to meet the needs of individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing,
captions have been around since at least the 1970s, mainly in English. However, it
is only in recent years, particularly in the second decade of the twenty-first century,
that we have seen the widespread availability of audio-visual content in multiple

M. F. Teng (B)
Faculty of Languages and Translation, Macao Polytechnic University, Macau SAR, China
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 1

H. P. Bui and E. Namaziandost (eds.), Innovations in Technologies for Language
Teaching and Learning, Studies in Computational Intelligence 1159,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-63447-5_1
2 M. F. Teng

languages, along with the affordability of everyday technology that allows for the full
use of this content. In the near future, we can certainly expect the emergence of online
language learning materials on platforms such as YouTube and Netflix, which actively
harness the potential of captions. An impactful example of the influence of captions
is evident in the “effects of” and “effects with” captions [1]. Participants showed
a strong tendency to turn to online dictionaries while watching videos, enabling
them to quickly access the meanings of unfamiliar words and reducing the time
and inconvenience associated with traditional word lookup methods. Clearly, the
ability to instantly see the written representation of unknown words within the video
provides a significant benefit.
The combination of easily accessible multilingual audio-visual content and the
corresponding technological tools to utilize this resource presents significant oppor-
tunities for language learners. The integration of captions into language learning
platforms has the potential to enhance comprehension, vocabulary acquisition, and
overall language proficiency. Over the past thirty-five years, extensive research has
produced conclusive evidence indicating that the inclusion of captions, particu-
larly same-language subtitles designed for individuals with hearing impairments,
significantly improves access to and comprehension of TV programs and films for
second/foreign language viewers [2]. However, this improvement depends on the
viewers having a reasonable level of proficiency in the language of the captions
[3]. Despite the wealth of research focusing on the immediate benefits of captioned
viewing, our understanding of the cognitive and affective dimensions involved in
language learning through captioned viewing remains limited [4]. While it is clear
that learners who engage with foreign language programs and films accompanied
by captions generally demonstrate better comprehension and may acquire certain
words and phrases, especially with regular viewing, significant progress is yet to
be made in understanding the extent to which routine captioned viewing influences
learners’ cognitive processes and emotional responses. Furthermore, there is a gap in
our comprehensive understanding of the optimal conditions necessary to maximize
the value of captions for language learning [5]. Additionally, the characteristics of
learner-viewers who effectively utilize or may not fully exploit the language learning
potential offered by captions remain an area that requires further exploration.
The main goal of this chapter is to broaden our knowledge and understanding of
how foreign language learners interact with captions. By delving deeper into their
viewing behaviors, we aim to uncover valuable insights that can enhance our under-
standing of the educational benefits of captioned viewing and identify the specific
factors and learner characteristics that facilitate the effective use of captions for
language learning. In pursuit of these objectives, our study utilizes a qualitative explo-
ration of learners’ cognitive and affective experiences during captioned viewing.
By combining data from diaries and interviews, this chapter seeks to provide a
comprehensive picture of the complex dynamics involved in the language learning
process through captioned content. The need for a cognitive and affective model
becomes increasingly evident in this context. Such a model would not only help
clarify the cognitive processes at play during captioned viewing but also shed light
on the affective aspects, such as learner motivation, engagement, and emotional
Captioned Viewing for Language Learning: A Cognitive and Affective … 3

responses. Integrating such a model into our analysis will contribute to a more
nuanced understanding of the mechanisms through which captions impact language
learning.

1.2 Benefits of Captioned Viewing

It is widely recognized that the inclusion of captions in viewing experiences, with

their detailed context, serves as a powerful instructional tool with proven motiva-
tional, attentional, and emotional benefits for viewers [5]. Furthermore, various media
forms such as film, television, video, and digitized images not only provide signif-
icant exposure to authentic oral language input but also contribute to long-term
improvements in comprehension [6–8]. The incorporation of captions in audiovisual
materials brings them closer to real-life situations, allowing viewers to “see” the
message alongside listening, thanks to visual cues and accompanying online texts.
Exploring the realm of listening comprehension requires an examination of its
nuanced definition. It is fundamentally an active cognitive process, involving not
just the decoding of individual sounds but an intricate interplay of speculation and
prediction. This complexity arises from the inherent nature of incomplete acoustic
input, which often demands the cognitive task of filling in missing information.
Additionally, the comprehension process is intricately linked to visual information
and cultural knowledge. Supporting the significance of visual cues, an experiment
involving 53 intermediate-level Grade 8 Canadian pupils in a core French program
yielded noteworthy results. Participants exposed to a 15-min video-and-sound clip
outperformed their counterparts in the sound-only condition by nearly twice the
scores. Such empirical evidence underscores the positive impact of incorporating
visual elements in enhancing listening comprehension [9]. Furthermore, the role
of captions in aiding comprehension is substantiated by Markham, who conducted
a study involving 76 advanced, intermediate, and beginning ESL students in an
American university[10]. These students were exposed to two educational television
programs of varying lengths. The results of multiple-choice comprehension tests,
centered on the vocabulary and syntax of the captions, revealed a consistent pattern.
Across all proficiency levels, responses were notably more accurate when captions
were made available. In essence, Markham’s findings indicate that captions have the
capacity to empower students to perform beyond their established proficiency levels,
demonstrating their utility across diverse linguistic abilities.
Studies consistently demonstrate the positive effects of captions on language
learners’ abilities, including verbatim recall, retention, proper vocabulary use, and
proficiency in oral and written communication tasks [11, 12]. In a qualitative inves-
tigation conducted by Vanderplank at a UK university, thirty-six intermediate and
advanced learners of French, German, Italian, and Spanish were granted access to
a varied selection of DVD films with optional subtitles, enabling them to watch at
their convenience [13]. Their experiences, documented through viewing journals,
revealed significant variations in viewing behaviors, attitudes towards watching with
4 M. F. Teng

subtitles, and caption-guided viewing strategies over the study period. Participants
were categorized into three primary groups based on their approaches: minimal users,
focused on enjoying films akin to their native language experiences; evolving users,
displaying notable changes in viewing behaviors over time; and maximal users, expe-
rienced in utilizing films to enhance their language learning journey. Another study
[14], involving twenty participants, explored language acquisition through captioned
viewing. They introduced a learning trajectories model based on corpus analysis,
outlining three distinct stages. In the initial phase, learners navigated a spectrum
of emotional states, comprising both positive and adverse emotions, along with an
optimistic perspective on linguistic advancement. Progressing to the intermediate
stage, encounters with challenges and negative affect became apparent within the
learning trajectory, coupled with noticeable improvements in vocabulary acquisition
and spoken language proficiency. Finally, the concluding stage culminated in a favor-
able evaluation of the instructional approach, surpassing the initial emotional fluc-
tuations. In this concluding phase, learners acknowledged comprehensive advance-
ments in language proficiency, cognitive abilities, communicative skills, and cultural
understanding, emphasizing the holistic educational benefits derived from sustained
engagement with subtitled videos in the realm of language learning.

1.3 Factors that Influence Captioned Viewing

While visual cues contribute to overall comprehension, they may not necessarily
assist in understanding the actual spoken text [9]. This highlights the limitations of
relying solely on video content and emphasizes the need to explore techniques like
captioning and subtitling to enhance the pedagogical effectiveness of the medium.
Additionally, learner-related factors, such as prior vocabulary knowledge [15], profi-
ciency level [3], and working memory [16, 17], play crucial roles in influencing the
benefits of captioned viewing on vocabulary acquisition.
A recent study focused on a comparative analysis of incidental learning, specifi-
cally focusing on individual words and collocations within the context of captioned
viewing [18]. Their research revealed subtle distinctions in the impact of various
captioning approaches—whether using complete captions or limiting to keywords—
on the acquisition of diverse language items. These results underscore the idea that the
nature of vocabulary learning, whether it involves individual words or collocations,
exhibits variations even within the same captioned viewing condition.
It appears evident that captions play a pivotal role in enhancing the effectiveness
of video content for language learning. By providing learners with visual support
and additional context, captions facilitate a deeper understanding of the spoken text
and enable them to engage with the content more effectively. Furthermore, learner-
related factors such as prior vocabulary knowledge, proficiency level, and working
memory significantly influence the benefits gained from captioned viewing. Tailoring
the captioning approach to suit individual learner needs and preferences can further
optimize the learning experience.
Captioned Viewing for Language Learning: A Cognitive and Affective … 5

2 The Present Study

To bridge the current knowledge gaps identified in the cognitive and affective model
[19], this study embarks on a comprehensive exploration of the multifaceted dimen-
sions of students’ experiences with captioned videos, examining not only the cogni-
tive aspects related to learning but also the affective elements that influence their
engagement and reception of educational content. By scrutinizing both cognitive and
affective perspectives, the research endeavors to provide a holistic understanding of
the impact and effectiveness of captioned videos in the language learning context.
The primary focus of this investigation centers on addressing the following research
question:
How do students perceive the utilization of captioned videos, considering both
cognitive and affective perspectives?

2.1 Participants

To assemble participants for this study, calls for volunteers were circulated among
students enrolled in a listening course at a prestigious educational institution in
China. To meet the eligibility criteria, participants were required to have attained
a minimum score of 110 out of 150 points in the English subject upon university
admission. Baseline language levels were further assessed through a self-assessment
questionnaire, with all participants indicating an intermediate level or higher.
A total of 30 participants willingly took part in the study, comprising 16 females
and 14 males. Their participation was entirely voluntary, with each individual
expressing their interest based on personal decision-making. Analysis of the ques-
tionnaires revealed a shared trait among participants: while they all exhibited confi-
dence in their reading skills in English, a notable lack of confidence surfaced when
it came to watching TV programs and films in the same language. Despite this, they
all expressed a collective goal of wanting to bolster their ability to watch films in
English with confidence.
The final dataset comprised 20 participants (11 females and 9 males) who dili-
gently provided 38 reflective diaries over a minimum period of 10 weeks. Partici-
pants who contributed only a few lines during this timeframe were excluded from
the analysis. In the ensuing results section, participants’ comments from their online
or hard-copy diaries are presented using pseudonyms to preserve anonymity. These
diary entries stand as invaluable qualitative data, offering insights into participants’
experiences and perceptions of using captioned videos for language learning.
6 M. F. Teng

2.2 Captioned Videos

For this study, captioned videos were chosen by downloading full-length feature films
from widely used streaming platforms such as YouTube and Netflix. The selection
process was meticulous, aiming to encompass a diverse range of genres, including
comedy, documentaries, thrillers, dramas, modern settings, historical settings, and
more. The intention was to curate a broad array of films that would provide partic-
ipants exposure to various storytelling styles, contexts, and language usage. This
inclusive approach facilitated a thorough examination of the impacts of captions
across different genres and types of films, allowing for a more comprehensive analysis
of participants’ language learning experiences.

2.3 Data Collection

The research spanned a 16-week period, encompassing an entire semester to allow

for a substantial and thorough investigation. Data collection transpired throughout
a semester-long listening comprehension course, wherein participants were tasked
with watching at least one video per week and engaging in comprehension exercises.
Concurrently, they were required to document their experiences and feedback in
diaries, adhering to a comprehensive checklist provided for guidance.
The checklist incorporated various facets for participants to address in their feed-
back. They were prompted to evaluate the accuracy of captions in conveying audio
content and reflect on their utilization, including whether they paused to decipher
unfamiliar words and phrases during viewing. Another focal point was the potential
evolution of their viewing behavior over time concerning captions—whether reliance
diminished or intensified as the study progressed.
Furthermore, the checklist featured rating scales to assess the perceived useful-
ness of captions for each film on a scale from 1 to 10, ranging from not useful to
invaluable. Participants were also asked to rate their confidence in watching each
film with or without captions on a similar scale, from not confident without them/
highly dependent to totally confident/can watch happily without them. Addition-
ally, participants were encouraged to reflect on emotional changes during captioned
video viewing, as well as any observed behavioral and cognitive changes in language
learning during and after such viewings.
It is essential to clarify that the objective of these rating scales was not to garner
quantitative data due to the diverse film choices and individual preferences. Rather,
the scales served as tools to prompt participants to engage in reflective analysis of
their experiences with captions for each film and their overall development over time.
To accommodate participants’ language preferences, they had the flexibility to
submit diary entries either as hard copies or online, in their preferred language.
Approximately half of the participants chose English, while the other half opted for
Chinese, ensuring inclusivity and aligning with their linguistic comfort.
Captioned Viewing for Language Learning: A Cognitive and Affective … 7

2.4 Data Analysis

The data were analyzed through qualitative analysis. Qualitative analysis involves
studying non-numerical data, such as text, to gain deeper insights and understanding
of the underlying meanings and patterns present within the data. In this study, we
utilized a thematic analysis method to explore and uncover the key themes that
emerged from the data. Through a systematic and iterative process, I carefully exam-
ined the data, coding and categorizing relevant information into themes based on
recurring concepts, ideas, or patterns. This allowed me to identify and extract mean-
ingful themes that captured the essence of the data. By employing a theme-based
approach, it was possible to draw out the nuances and complexities embedded within
the dataset. During the analysis process, I identified and delineated two distinct
themes. The two themes that were derived from the analysis provided a compre-
hensive overview of the main topics and ideas present in the data, offering valuable
insights into the research question or objective of the study.

3 Results

Analysis of the diaries.

Analysis of the diaries indicated two main themes, which were reported by most
of the 20 participants in captioned viewing for language learning.
– Cognitive development
– Affective enrichment

3.1 Cognitive Development

The majority of participants either made comments showing they valued benefits
of the captions in cognitive development, since many of the films they watched
would have been difficult or impossible to follow and fully understand otherwise (12
participants), or displayed an explicit possibility for cognitive development, including
enhanced motivation, memory, commitment, and engagement through watching with
captions from the start in their comments (5 participants).
A typical positive comment was made by Sue,
I found that using captions while watching foreign language films really helped with process
both the visual and textual information simultaneously. It improved my concentration and
multitasking abilities.

Evan put it another way:

It was like a mental workout that enhanced my language processing skills and overall
cognitive abilities.
8 M. F. Teng

Tony spoke for an example in his positive comment on

There was this scene in an American film where the characters were having a rapid conversa-
tion. Without the captions, I would have struggled to keep up with the dialogue and understand
the nuances. It was challenging at first, but with practice, it became easier, and I became
more engaged in the video.

Only 3 of the 20 participants expressed explicitly negative comments about the

presence of captions early on (‘cheating’, concern they were reading rather than
listening, distracting, disrupting viewing and enjoyment). Yet even these partici-
pants tended to modify their attitudes somewhat over time as they reported how
the captions enabled them to follow speech and plots that enhance their motiva-
tion, memory, confidence, and engagement. For example, John, who watched five
consecutive videos, wrote for her first film,
When I first started using captions, I felt like I was cheating. I was concerned that I was
relying too much on reading rather than listening to the dialogue.

But then later:

However, as I continued watching videos with captions, I realized that the captions
enhanced my motivation to learn the language and improved my memory retention.
I found that I could engage better with the content and connect with the characters
and storylines on a deeper level.
Similarly, Jodie was quite hostile to the captions when she started watching:

I felt like captions were a distraction and took away from the immersive experience of
watching a film.

But as the project goes on, she becomes more positive:

I became more confident in my ability to understand spoken language, and my vocabulary
expanded. The captions acted as a bridge between listening and reading, activating my prior
knowledge for better memory and engagement.

She finally wraps up:

Captions not only enhanced my comprehension but also boosted my confidence in using the
language in real-life situations.

Cognitive development also included the Noticing and guessing skills. Captions
contribute significantly to the development of noticing and guessing skills. By
presenting written words alongside spoken language, captions provide learners with
the opportunity to observe the connections between sounds and their corresponding
written forms. This observation aligns with the theoretical argument that multimodal
input, such as combining auditory and visual cues, enhances learners’ ability to
notice patterns and make educated guesses about unfamiliar words or phrases based
on contextual cues [19]. Eddie reported,
I found that the captions played a significant role in developing my noticing and guessing
skills. I had the opportunity to observe the written words alongside the spoken language.
This helped me notice the connections between the sounds and the corresponding written
forms. I started to recognize patterns and make educated guesses about the meanings of
unfamiliar words or phrases based on context.
Captioned Viewing for Language Learning: A Cognitive and Affective … 9

Captions aid in understanding unfamiliar expressions: The participant’s encounter

with a colloquial expression exemplifies how captions assist in understanding
unfamiliar language elements. By displaying the words in written form, captions
provide learners with additional contextual information that helps them grasp the
intended meaning of expressions that may be unfamiliar or idiosyncratic. It appears
that captions provide visual support that can bridge the gap between spoken and
written forms of language, enabling learners to decode and comprehend unfamiliar
vocabulary more effectively. For example, Jodie claimed,
There was a scene in a film where a character used a colloquial expression that I hadn’t
encountered before. However, with the captions on, I was able to see the words written out
and get a sense of their meaning in that particular context.

Captions improve inferential skills. The participant’s increased ability to infer

meanings and understand the intended message, even when encountering unfamiliar
words or phrases, suggests that captions enhance inferential skills. By integrating
written and spoken information, captions allow learners to engage in higher-order
cognitive processes, such as drawing inferences and making connections between
linguistic elements and contextual cues. This supports that captions provide scaf-
folding for learners, enabling them to go beyond surface-level comprehension and
develop a deeper understanding of the language. Jack said,
I became more adept at inferring meanings and understanding the intended message, even
when encountering unfamiliar words or phrases.

The participant’s observation regarding the effect of captions on pronunciation

highlights how captions contribute to pronunciation development. By providing
learners with a visual representation of the written words alongside the auditory
input, captions enable learners to pay closer attention to subtle nuances of pronunci-
ation. Multimodal input, including visual cues, aids in refining pronunciation skills
and developing a more accurate perception of the language’s sound system, as shown
by Janelle,
The captions also helped me notice my pronunciation. By seeing how words were written
and hearing them simultaneously, I was able to pay closer attention to the subtle nuances of
pronunciation. This helped me refine my own pronunciation and develop a better ear for the
language.

3.2 Affective Enrichment

The data suggests that captions significantly contribute to enhancing emotional

understanding and resonance during captioned viewing. The participant reported that
reading captions alongside dialogue enables them to pick up on subtle emotional cues
expressed through the text. For example, Jane said,
I noticed that captions played a role in refining my emotional understanding while watching
films. As I read the captions alongside the dialogue, I was able to pick up on subtle emotional
10 M. F. Teng

cues expressed through the text. This helped me better grasp the characters’ emotions, their
intentions, and the overall mood of the scenes.

The above observation suggests that captions significantly contribute to a more

nuanced and refined emotional understanding while watching films. By simulta-
neously reading the captions alongside the spoken dialogue, the participant was
able to discern subtle emotional cues embedded in the text. This practice not only
enhanced their comprehension of the characters’ emotions but also provided insights
into the characters’ intentions and the overall mood of the scenes. The participant’s
experience underscores the role of captions as a valuable tool for not only aiding in
language comprehension but also deepening the emotional connection to the content.
It highlights how textual cues, in the form of captions, serve as an additional layer
of information that enriches the viewer’s emotional engagement with the narrative,
characters, and overall cinematic experience.
The captions acted as a facilitator for emotional resonance. They provided descriptive details
or sound effects that enhanced the emotional atmosphere. I remember a scene where soft,
melancholic music was playing, and the captions described it as “gentle, sorrowful melody.”
This textual representation deepened my emotional response, making me more attuned to
the mood and evoking a stronger emotional connection.

The above observation underscores the role of captions as facilitators for emotional
connection, providing descriptive details and sound effects that enrich the overall
emotional atmosphere. An example of describing music as a “gentle, sorrowful
melody” exemplifies how captions can deepen emotional responses and create a
stronger connection to the mood of the scenes. This argues for the value of captions
not only as aids for comprehension but also as tools for fostering a deeper emotional
engagement with the content. The following observation from Jessica also supported
such idea:
I noticed that having captions while viewing content helped me feel less anxious and more
at ease. The presence of captions provided a sense of support and reassurance, especially
when encountering challenging or unfamiliar material.

The following data by Lucy suggests a notable shift in the affective dimension of
the participant’s viewing experience, particularly in the context of watching films or
videos in a foreign language. Initially, the participant expressed experiencing anxiety
at the outset of viewing foreign language content. This anxiety is attributed to the
challenge of comprehending everything being said, indicating a potential source of
stress associated with language barriers and the fear of missing crucial informa-
tion during the viewing process. However, a significant positive change is observed
with the introduction of captions. The participant noted that the presence of captions
alleviated the pressure to keep up with the fast-paced spoken language, especially
in situations involving rapid dialogue or challenging accents. The captions, func-
tioning as a visual anchor, enable the participant to follow along at their own pace.
This shift results in a more comfortable and less stressful viewing experience.
At the beginning, when watching films or videos in a foreign language, I often experience
anxiety about not understanding everything that is being said.
Captioned Viewing for Language Learning: A Cognitive and Affective … 11

The presence of captions also alleviated the pressure to keep up with the fast pace of
spoken language. In situations where the dialogue was rapid or the accents were challenging,
the captions provided a visual anchor that allowed me to follow along at my own pace. This
created a more comfortable and less stressful viewing experience.

In interpretation, this change in affective dimension suggests that the inclusion

of captions acts as a mitigating factor, alleviating the initial anxiety associated with
language comprehension challenges. The visual support provided by captions not
only addresses the stressors related to rapid speech and challenging accents but also
empowers the viewer to control the pace of their understanding. As a result, the
viewing experience becomes more accommodating, fostering a sense of comfort
and reducing the overall stress associated with language barriers. The presence of
captions transforms the affective dimension from one marked by anxiety and pressure
to a more positive and adaptable state, ultimately enhancing the viewer’s overall
emotional well-being during foreign language content consumption.

4 Discussion

The attitudes of learners toward the use of captions, and the extent to which they incor-
porate them for enhanced comprehension and language development, align closely
with findings from previous research, as exemplified in studies [13, 14]. Consistent
with Teng and Yip’s investigation of learners’ long-term learning trajectories [14],
individuals who initially perceived captions as challenging tended to undergo a trans-
formation in their perspective, growing more appreciative of the value that captions
bring. Over time, these learners proactively engaged with captions by gathering and
noting new words or developing strategies to optimize the benefits derived from the
tri-modal input of sound, text, and visuals. The feedback obtained from participant
diaries in the current study reaffirms the cognitive and affective development spurred
by the availability of captions. Notably, the presence of captions tended to elevate
levels of memory retention, engagement, and attention among participants, concur-
rently mitigating anxiety associated with the learning process. This dual impact
suggests that captions not only enhance comprehension but also contribute signif-
icantly to learners’ overall cognitive and emotional engagement. Comparisons can
also be drawn between the behavior of participants in the present study and the
findings [12]. Much like the EURECAP participants studied by Rodgers and Webb,
individuals in the current research exhibited a tendency to rely more on captions at
the outset of viewing, particularly as they familiarized themselves with characters’
speech and when confronted with challenging material, notably beyond their profi-
ciency level in terms of vocabulary and accent familiarity. Similar to the observations
made by Rodgers and Webb, learners in the current study expressed the ability to
follow and understand less challenging films effectively without captions, relying on
context and inference for occasional difficult parts or opting to replay segments with
captions enabled.
12 M. F. Teng

In the realm of cognitive development, the participants exhibited a noteworthy

motivation to not just passively watch, but to actively understand and enjoy films.
There was a palpable and personal desire among the majority of participants, approxi-
mately 15 out of the 20, to fully exploit the rich language learning resource embedded
in captioned content. Importantly, over half of these participants were already expe-
rienced in using foreign language films and TV programs as tools for developing
their language skills. This group of participants demonstrated a proactive stance
towards utilizing captions, driven by a commitment to enhancing their language
knowledge and skills. Their motivation stemmed from reported improvements in
memory and engagement, and a manifestation of higher agency in utilizing captions
beyond the mere acquisition of new words and phrases. A significant number of
students exhibited a strategic approach to exploiting captions, recognizing them as a
valuable resource for language development. These findings resonate with insights
from Teng, suggesting that the recreational material itself, in this case, the films,
played a pivotal role in enhancing learners’ memory for word learning and reten-
tion [8]. This argument supports the idea that the engaging and enjoyable nature of
the content contributes to a more effective and lasting cognitive impact on learners,
further emphasizing the multifaceted benefits of captioned viewing in the language
learning process.
In the realm of affective refinement, the diaries shed light on a notable internal
conflict experienced by some participants when faced with the prospect of watching
and enjoying a captioned film in a foreign language. These individuals exhib-
ited a discernible progression through several stages, reflecting evolving atti-
tudes and perceptions toward the utilization of captions in the language learning
process Initially, a cohort of participants expressed anxiety about watching films
with captions, uncertain about the potential impact on their viewing experience.
However, as they immersed themselves in captioned content, a transformative shift
occurred. Participants moved beyond their initial apprehension, recognizing that
captions played a pivotal role in enhancing their comprehension skills and acquiring
language knowledge. Importantly, this transition did not disrupt their recreational
film-watching experience; instead, it elevated their engagement with the content.
The progression continued as participants entered the next stage, marked by active
exploitation of the opportunities afforded by the choice and control over captioned
viewing. In this phase, participants not only enjoyed the films but also leveraged
captions strategically to optimize language learning opportunities. It is noteworthy
that some participants traversed from the initial stage of anxiety to both the second and
third stages, showcasing a developmental trajectory in their approach to captioned
viewing. While some individuals remained in the initial stage, none regressed in
the opposite direction, suggesting a trend toward positive adaptation and accep-
tance of captions. This observed evolution in participants’ cognitive and affective
development through captioned viewing mirrors the characteristics of successful
autonomous language learners. These individuals actively engage in valued activi-
ties, such as watching TV and films in English, aligning with the notion that effective
language learners harness diverse resources, including captioned content, to enhance
their linguistic proficiency. The parallel drawn between participants’ developmental
Captioned Viewing for Language Learning: A Cognitive and Affective … 13

stages and the behavior of successful language learners underscores the transforma-
tive potential of captioned viewing as a dynamic tool in the language acquisition
process.
Vanderplank and Teng have recently put forth cognitive and affective models [19],
aiming to address dimensions that are notably absent in existing cognitive theories of
multimedia learning. The present findings align with the proposed cognitive-affective
learning models and bear significant implications for how we should approach the
promotion of language learning through captioned TV programs and films. The
models outlined below strive to encapsulate key affective factors, including moti-
vation, engagement, and commitment, alongside cognitive factors such as language
knowledge and skill level, prior subject matter knowledge, information load, and the
deployment of learning strategies for lexical inferring. Together, these factors form
the driving forces behind the comprehensive utilization of captioned audio-visual
materials for language learning purposes.
The data suggests a Conceptual Cognitive-Affective Model, contributing to
previous studies [14]. In the initial state, viewers often encounter anxiety when
engaging with films or videos in a foreign language, attributing this unease to the
inherent challenge of comprehending spoken language, thereby presenting a potential
impediment to a seamless viewing experience. As an intervention strategy, the intro-
duction of captions emerges as a pivotal support mechanism designed to alleviate
language comprehension challenges. Captions function as a visual aid, providing
a parallel textual representation of the spoken dialogue, thereby addressing the
linguistic barriers that contribute to the viewer’s initial anxiety. In the intermediate
state, the viewer experiences a discernible reduction in the pressure associated with
keeping pace with fast-paced spoken language. The captions play a crucial role as a
visual anchor, affording the viewers the opportunities to follow the narrative at their
own pace, mitigating the stressors linked to the rapidity of dialogue. The ultimate
outcome is a transformed viewing experience characterized by enhanced comfort
and diminished stress. The presence of captions facilitates a more adaptive and
less stressful encounter, contributing to an overall positive affective dimension. The
viewers, feeling more at ease, attest to the efficacy of captions in creating a conducive
environment for language comprehension and emotional engagement during foreign
language content consumption.
The existing landscape of language learning theories and models has yet to
comprehensively encapsulate the full extent of agency and potential presented by
captions within the contemporary digital milieu. While prevailing theories acknowl-
edge the role of captions in facilitating comprehension, the transformative impact of
captions on foreign language learning, as witnessed in the current digital environ-
ment, is not fully embraced. Contrary to conventional perspectives, captions have
the capacity to redefine the manner in which language learners engage with foreign
language content, particularly in the realms of films and TV programs. The essence of
this transformative potential is exemplified by the findings of this study. Participants,
when exposed to captions, exhibited a spectrum of responses, ranging from merely
relishing the heightened accessibility facilitated by captions to proactively seizing
control over their viewing experience. This nuanced range of engagement reflects
14 M. F. Teng

the multifaceted nature of the opportunities uniquely presented by captions in the

contemporary digital landscape. Crucially, the study underscores that participants
may opt to enjoy the extended access provided by captions, reveling in the enhanced
understanding of dialogue and narrative elements. However, a more profound layer of
engagement is unveiled as participants choose to navigate a stage or two beyond mere
enjoyment. In doing so, they exercise deliberate control over their viewing experi-
ences, strategically leveraging captions to maximize the language learning prospects
embedded within the audiovisual content. This choice to exercise agency in viewing
habits aligns with the idea that captions are not merely passive aids for comprehen-
sion but active tools that learners can wield to augment their language proficiency.
The study thus illuminates a pivotal shift in perspective, emphasizing that captions
are not only beneficial for understanding content but are also potent instruments for
learners who wish to take intentional strides in their language acquisition journey.
Consequently, the transformative potential of captions in the contemporary digital
environment lies not only in enhancing accessibility but also in empowering learners
to actively shape and optimize their language learning experiences.

5 Concluding Remarks

Considering the myriad benefits associated with captioned viewing, the integration of
captioned audio-visual materials into the mainstream of foreign language education
seems not only plausible but also highly advantageous. However, for this transition
to occur seamlessly, teachers may need to change their mindsets about the use of
captioned audio-visual materials. Indeed, there exists a discernible reluctance among
educators in a foreign language to fully exploit the potential of captions in language
education. This hesitation persists even when considering the potential benefits for
learners’ overall cognitive and emotional growth. Learner-viewers would greatly
benefit from guidance and advice aimed at maximizing the value and potential of
caption-supported viewing for cognitive and affective development.
It is crucial to acknowledge the prevailing gap in adopting captioned viewing
as a pedagogical tool, particularly in the context of supporting language learning.
Despite the clear advantages, teachers have been slow to embrace this approach,
potentially due to a lack of awareness or understanding of the full spectrum of benefits
that captioned materials can offer. One promising development is the increasing
availability of multi-lingual captions, which can further enhance the appeal and
utility of captioned viewing for language learners. As this information becomes more
widespread, it is hopeful that a shift in attitudes will transpire. The dissemination
of knowledge about the benefits and broader accessibility of captioned materials
may pave the way for more positive perceptions, not only among mature and self-
efficacious independent language learners but also within the broader educational
community.
Captioned Viewing for Language Learning: A Cognitive and Affective … 15

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Mark Feng Teng is an associate professor at Macao Polytechnic University. He was the recip-
ient of the 2017 Best Paper Award from the Hong Kong Association for Applied Linguistics
(HAAL), and the Ministry of Education in China (2023). His research portfolio mainly focuses
on computer-assisted vocabulary learning, and metacognition in L2 writing. His publications have
appeared in international journals, including Applied Linguistics, TESOL Quarterly, Language
Teaching Research, System, Applied Linguistics Review, Computer Assisted Language Learning,
Computers & Education, Foreign Language Annals, and Thinking Skills and Creativity, among
others. His recent monographs were published by Routledge, Springer, and Bloomsbury. He also
edited and co-edited special issues for several SSCI-index or Scopus-index journals. He serves as
co-editor for International Journal of TESOL Studies.
Extended Reality in Computer-Assisted
Language Learning

Dara Tafazoli

Abstract Extended reality (XR), including Augmented, Virtual, and Mixed/Merged

Realities, has widely grown in popularity over the past decade and is in line with the
growing advances in smart and portable technologies. This tempted many Computer-
Assisted Language Learning (CALL) researchers to benefit from the potential of
extended reality for developing language educational applications and materials and
exploring the effectiveness of these advanced technologies on language learning.
Along this line, various literature reviews have analyzed and synthesized the appli-
cations of extended reality in language education separately. Nevertheless, CALL
scholarships lack a comprehensive systematic review, including various types of
XR. A systematic review would assist in reaching a better understanding of the
status of XR in language education. Therefore, this paper reports a systematic
review of extended reality research published (n = 28) in the leading Q1-ranked
CALL journals in Scopus, including Language Learning & Technology, System,
Computer Assisted Language Learning, ReCALL, CALICO, JALTCALL, CALL-EJ,
and Teaching English with Technology in the period of 2010 to 2022. Drawing on the
PRISMA model as the focal analysis procedure, this systematic review presents the
contemporaneous state-of-the-art picture of extended reality aiming at (1) mapping
the research trends and (2) determining the affordances of using extended reality as
a CALL tool.

Keywords Augmented Reality (AR) · Computer-Assisted Language Learning

(CALL) · Extended Reality (XR) · Mixed/Merged reality (MR) · PRISMA
model · Systematic review · Virtual Reality (VR)

D. Tafazoli (B)
School of Education, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 17

H. P. Bui and E. Namaziandost (eds.), Innovations in Technologies for Language
Teaching and Learning, Studies in Computational Intelligence 1159,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-63447-5_2
18 D. Tafazoli

1 Introduction

Extended reality (XR), including Augmented Reality (AR), Virtual Reality (VR),
and Mixed/Merged Reality (MR) has widely grown in popularity over the past
decade. Given the nature of XR, what is outlined as realistic simulations, authen-
ticity, a high sense of presence, and exposure are also highlighted as critical
needs for language learning [1–5], Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
researchers worldwide have conducted various studies on the affordances of XR in
language education.
CALL Researchers have suggested that the exclusive learning environments of
XR based on computer-mediated communication (CMC) provide language learners
with an innovative and unique learning environment (e.g., [6]). Scholars have counted
various affordances of this inimitable learning environment which are substantiated
by pedagogical theories, such as constructivism, situational learning, engagement
theory, inquiry-based learning, and game-based learning [7–9]. The XR affordances
proliferate learners’ interest [10], motivation [10, 11], engagement [11, 12], and
spatial memory and knowledge [11, 12], (b) provide an inaccessible environment [1,
12], distance learning [12], and empathy training [12], (c) lessen distraction [1], (d)
connect classroom concepts with real world [13], (e) facilitate interactions [1], (f)
provide a rich and dynamic target culture-based context [2, 14], and (g) encourage
learners to (co-)construct their learning environment [1].
Regardless of the virtual worlds’ positive impacts [15], research has shown that
language educators vacillate between using or not using XR. For example, Parmaxi
et al. [16] divulged that advanced digital literacy and the high cost of VR tools are
considered as the main hindrances. Moreover, Lege and Bonner [12] argued that
lack of VR-specific pedagogy, cognitive demand, and immersion breaking are the
main challenges in integrating VR. Southgate et al. [17] also explained that teachers
should introduce VR to the classroom before implementing it. Furthermore, gender
should also be reflected on as an influential variable in VR integration [18].
Recently, some CALL researchers have systematically reviewed the applications
of VR and AR [6, 19–24]. Focusing on VR in language education, Parmaxi [21]
reviewed 26 articles in a short time span of 2015 to 2018 and proposed 12 future
research guidelines. Pinto et al. [23] synthesized 97 research publications through a
bibliometric approach and devoted to VR gamification. Li et al.’s [20] synthesis of
21 articles stipulated that VR is rewarding in expanding students’ language skills,
including listening, speaking, writing, and cross-cultural communicative compe-
tence. Accentuating the AR, Parmaxi and Demetriou [22] inquired into 54 published
papers from 2014 to 2019, and they delineated the eminence of future attention
to AR in language learning. Huang et al. [19] systematic review is a sole study
which not only reviewed VR but also included AR technology in 88 empirical
studies and explained why these technologies are obliging in language learning.
Despite the mentioned systematic reviews, CALL scholars need a broader review
to inspect aggregated VR, AR, MR, and XR findings in the field to give an account
of the usability of such technologies in language education. Therefore, based on the
Extended Reality in Computer-Assisted Language Learning 19

neoteric interest and advancement in educational applications of XR and the dearth

of a systematic review, I believe that this paper would be a timely and pertinent
synthesis for CALL educators and researchers.
This systematic review presents the contemporaneous state-of-the-art picture of
XR in published articles in the field of CALL from 2010 to 2022 aiming at (1)
mapping the research trends and (2) determining the affordances of using XR as
a CALL tool. In the next section, I explained the implementation of the PRISMA
methodology in the current systematic review.

2 Methods

In order to apprehend a broad overview of the XR, I employed the PRISMA (Preferred
Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis) methodology [25] which
is considered a well-grounded approach to a systematic review of the literature [26].
I electronically searched for articles published from 2010 to 2022. This time span
gave a wide range of former and later applications of XR in language education.
First, I searched for possible systematic reviews with the same aims as the current
study; however, no specific published paper was found.

2.1 Identification of Data Sources and Search Strategies

The utilization of XR in language education is still an emerging research topic;

therefore, to discern the most relevant scholarly papers in CALL, I decided to
opt for only Q1-ranked journals in Scopus, which focus on technology integra-
tion in language education. Consequently, the corpus of the current systematic
review included research articles associated with the utilization of XR in Computer
Assisted Language Learning (CALL), ReCALL, System, Language Learning & Tech-
nology (LLT), CALICO, CALL-EJ, JALTCALL, and Teaching English with Tech-
nology (TEwT) journals. All the mentioned journals are the top-ranked academic
and fully refereed international journals. Although the journals are in English, they
have international readership and authorship.
In the screening stage and after pinpointing the journals, I systematically searched
the articles published by mentioned journals from 2010 to 2022. I kept an eye on
titles, abstracts, and keywords for relevant terms and their combinations, including
‘virtual realit*’ OR ‘augmented realit*’ OR ‘mixed realit*’ OR ‘merged realit*’ OR
‘extended realit*,’ OR ‘extended realit*,’ OR ‘virtual world.’ It should be noted that
the asterisk (*) mark was used to extend my search by detecting words that initiate
with the same letters. For example, realit* returns articles with the words reality and/
or realities. For some journals, such as CALL-EJ, where the systematic search was
unattainable, I manually searched for ‘virtual,’ ‘extended,’ ‘augment,’ ‘merge,’ ‘VR,’
‘AR,’ ‘XR,’ and ‘MR.’
20 D. Tafazoli

Table 1 Eligibility criteria

Inclusion criteria Exclusion criteria
The included article should have been published The article was published before 2010 or after
between January 2010 to December 2022 2022
The included article should use virtual, The article intended to construct virtual,
augmented, merged/mixed and/or extended augmented, mixed/merged and/or extended
realities as a technological device in language realities, showing the technology design,
education growth, or user interface productivity
The included article should be peer-reviewed The article is formulated as a page (i.e.,
abstract article), book review, lesson plan or
editorial
The included article should be written in English Articles in a non-English language
The full text of the article should be available

2.2 Search Results and Eligibility Criteria

In the initial search, a total of 1,795 articles were sorted out for further analysis
based on the study’s aims. According to Liberati et al. [26], inclusion and exclusion
criteria are remarkable determinants in securing a systematic review’s credibility and
applicability. Therefore, as shown in Table 1, we specified incremental eligibility
criteria for further assessment of the collected articles.

2.3 Data Coding and Data Analysis

The data coding procedure in the current study was based on three main stages and
three raters. In the first stage, I coded selected papers preliminary. In order to ensure
the validity and reliability of the coding, in the second stage, two research assistants
in Applied Linguistics, focusing on CALL, from the University of Cordoba, Spain,
and Isfahan University, Iran, were invited to aid in formal coding and analyzing the
publications independently. The vetters effectuated content analysis according to an
adapted template proposed and employed by Tafazoli [27] (Appendix B). In the last
stage, we established a panel of vetters, compared the results, discussed and solved
the disagreements in the group discussion, and revised the coded articles after a
number of rounds of reading and re-reading the selected publications and researched
consensus for 28 articles (Fig. 1). It should be mentioned that the average inter-rater
reliability was around 0.94, which evinces acceptable agreement between the vetters.
I applied the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS 25.0) to operate the
descriptive analysis.
Extended Reality in Computer-Assisted Language Learning 21

Identification, screening and inclusion of studies

2,430 records identified from:

CALL (n = 382)
Identification

ReCALL (n = 197)
CALL-EJ (n = 120)
Duplicate records removed
JALTCALL (n = 154)
(n = 635)
CALICO (n = 223)
LLT (n = 206)
TEwT (n = 246)
System (n = 902)

Records screened Records excluded based on

(n = 1,795) titles, abstracts, and keywords
analysis
Screening

(n = 1,756)

Records not included based on

Records assessed for eligibility
the exclusion criteria
(n = 39)
(n = 11)
Included

Studies included in review

(n = 28)

Fig. 1 PRISMA 2020 flow diagram for systematic reviews (Adapted from Page et al. [25])

3 Results

3.1 Research Trends in XR

Number of Published Studies from 2010 to 2022

As exhibited in Fig. 2, 28 studies were published by seven journals in the time span of
2010 to 2022 (Refer to Appendix B for detailed information). Interestingly, System
has not published any papers on the specified date, and CALL journal, with eight
articles, is the frontier among the selected journals. It should be noticed that all
the published papers are in the second half of the time span, and the first paper was
published by Language Learning and Technology in 2016 (i.e., [2]). 2021 with ten and
2022 with nine articles were the high-yielding years for XR in language education.
This could be a noteworthy sign for language education owing to the interest of CALL
researchers in this area which leads to the development of stakeholders’ knowledge
22 D. Tafazoli

12

10

0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

CALL ReCALL CALICO CALL-EJ LL&T JALTCALL TEwT

Fig. 2 Publication number for seven journals (2010–2022)

and literacy on how and where to use XR. Moreover, more teachers will be fond
of generating lesson plans and integrating XR into their language classes in the
near future. In spite of the fact that the number of publications has rocketed since
2020, I believe that the number of articles is still meager, which might be due to the
complexity and intricacy of integrating such technologies into language education
[28].
Research Contexts
Before presenting the data in this section, it is worth mentioning that out of 28
included articles in this systematic review, eight were not empirical studies and had
no data to enumerate the study context. Moreover, three of the empirical studies did
not define the education settings of their studies. Therefore, I titled them as ‘Not
specified.’
Based on the geographical context of the studies, data analysis divulged that a large
portion of studies on XR in language education had been carried out by American (n
= 7) and Taiwanese (n = 5) scholars. Furthermore, one of the studies has a research
site both in the USA and Taiwan (i.e., [29]). Among all scholars around the world,
data analysis disclosed that Iranian, Japanese, Korean, Spanish, and Saudi Arabian
scholars are other active researchers in the field.
Regarding the education context, twelve studies were administered in higher
education (HE), and five were in K12 (Table 2). The high number of research in
higher education conveys that extended technologies are more welcomed among
adult language learners, consistent with previous studies [24]. The tiny number of
published papers in the context of K12 also aligns with Lan’s [4] study. It is worth
Extended Reality in Computer-Assisted Language Learning 23

Table 2 The contexts of the

Contexts of the studies Number
studies
Country
USA 7
Taiwan 5
Japan 2
Iran 2
Korea 1
Saudi Arabia 1
Spain 1
Taiwan & USA 1
Total 20
Education setting
Higher Education (HE) 12
K12 5
Not specified 3
Total 20

mentioning that out of 20 empirical studies, only two of them were conducted with
teachers, and the participants of the rest of the studies (n = 18) were students.

4 Target Language

As indicated in Table 3, the English language is the dominant target language

with 14 empirical studies. This is an expectable finding where the position of the
English language in academic, social, technological, economic, and science is well-
established. In another systematic review of VR in language education, Zheng et al.
[24] also confirmed that English is the target language for research in 43 out of 69
empirical research from 2010 to 2020.
CALL researchers in other languages, such as Chinese (2 studies), French (1
study), Spanish (1 study), and Russian (1), were also engrossed in extended technolo-
gies integration. Out of 28 included articles, the specification of the target language
did not apply to the seven review articles. Also, two articles did not determine
the target language under investigation. As mentioned in the section above, where
CALL researchers in Iran, Japan, Korea, and Saudi Arabia have researched the issue,
we should at least expect more research on other languages like Persian, Japanese,
Korean, and Arabic in the coming years.
24 D. Tafazoli

Table 3 The target language

Target language Number
of the studies
English 14
Chinese 2
French 1
Spanish 1
Russian 1
NA 7
Not specified 2
Total 28

5 Types of XR

Among miscellaneous types, including VR, AR, MR, and XR, data analysis indicated
that VR accounts for the majority of XR with 17 papers (61%) since 2010. AR with
seven publications (25%) is in the second rank. XR with two (7%) and MR with one
(3%) paper are in the following rankings (see Fig. 3).

3% 4%
7%

VR
25%
AR
61% XR
MR
VR and AR

Fig. 3 Types of XR used in the studies

Extended Reality in Computer-Assisted Language Learning 25

5.1 Affordances of XR in CALL

Affordances for Linguistic Knowledge and Skills

The findings of the current systematic review proved that XR has outstanding affor-
dances for linguistics knowledge and skills which are the elemental purpose of
language teaching and learning [30, 31]. I included oral skills, writing, listening,
and vocabulary, in this category. It is worth mentioning that none of the conducted
research was focused on reading comprehension.
Oral skills, including speaking and pronunciation, are the most favorable research
topics for CALL researchers. Five studies focused on oral skills [10, 32–35]. For
instance, Alemi and Khatoony [32] conducted a 10-session study using Virtual
Reality Assisted Pronunciation Training (VRAPT) to burgeon 18 Iranian low-
intermediate EFL students’ pronunciation. The quantitative results pointed out that
VR positively escalates students’ pronunciation. In an exploratory study in the US,
Enkin [34] probed 21 undergraduate advanced students’ perceptions of fully extended
social VR and face-to-face Spanish-speaking practices and experiences. The quanti-
tative data unveiled that students had a positive experience with VR, and they found
it a more fun way to practice speaking, which subsided the harmful effects of self-
consciousness. On top of that, the qualitative data supported the quantitative findings
by giving prominence to the low-stress environment of VR. In another study, Xie
et al. [10] conducted a mixed-methods research on 12 Chinese language learners in
the US. The researchers applied VR to boost students’ oral proficiency through role-
played tour guides in six venues. The collected data from observations, reflections,
and interviews demonstrated that VR had a helpful influence on the development of
learners’ oral presentations in terms of content and vocabulary. Also, students were
contented that the VR environment provoked active learning.
In addition, writing is another language skill considered a popular research topic
for researchers with three representatives [8, 36, 37]. Focusing on a Funds of Knowl-
edge point of view and through a mixed-methods study, Chen et al. [8] scrutinized the
effect of VR on 22 English language students’ expository writing. The data analysis
outcomes admitted that students’ writing skills had been tweaked, particularly in
“description, cause/effect, compare/contrast, and enumeration” (p. 1). The students’
positive attitudes toward the VR-assisted writing environment were also extracted
from qualitative data. In another research by Lin et al. [37], AR context-aware ubiq-
uitous writing (ARCAUW) application approved its positive impact on promoting
EFL students’ writing concerning “long-term memory, motivation, and self-regulated
cognition” (p. 989).
Only one study (i.e., [38]) focused on listening skills through mobile VR. I exam-
ined how mobile VR can develop 49 Taiwanese EFL students’ listening compre-
hension. Collected data from post-tests and recalls showed a significant positive
effect. Also, qualitative data from the interviews declared that learning with VR is
motivating, beneficial, and convenient.
Two studies (i.e., [39, 40] also looked into the affordances of XR for vocabulary
learning. In Saudi Arabia, Binhomran and Altalhab [39] explored the affordances of
26 D. Tafazoli

AR for young EFL learners through experimental mixed-methods research. Although

the results of the pre-post-delayed tests were insignificant, the mean scores favored
the AR. Additionally, the analysis of the interviews disclosed that AR led to “better
understanding and higher levels of motivation among students” (p. 38). In Taiwan,
Tai et al. [40] employed a commercialized VR app to scrutinize the merits of VR
for EFL learners’ vocabulary learning. The data collected from 48 language learners
in two intact classes indicated that the vocabulary learning and retention in the VR-
supported group were considerably more excessive than in the control group. Also,
the EFL learners determined VR as a motivating and beneficial tool for vocabulary
learning.
Affordances for Non-Linguistic Knowledge and Skills
In this review, I included culture (3 studies), pragmatic competence (1 study), multi-
modal literacy (1 study), and willingness to communicate (1 study) in the non-
linguistic knowledge and skills section. Focusing on culture, Chun et al. [41] empha-
sized that the paramount affordance of VR is to immerse language learners in an
authentic cultural context which calls attention to the fact that how XR could be
salient for ‘languaculture’ – a notion which is proposed by Agar [42] and foregrounds
the interwoven relationship between language and culture. Caspar [43] conducted
project-based research consisting of content creation projects to understand the affor-
dances of extended technologies for cultural learning. The students in this research
acted in various roles, such as artist-makers, language learners, and creators of
culture. He concluded that extended technologies could be efficacious and inno-
vative language and culture pedagogy tools. Finally, through another project-based
approach, Enkin et al. [35] designed a three-part project for advanced students in
the Russian language to expand their language and cultural learning through presen-
tational speaking in an extended VR-infused Makerspace for experiential learning.
The results underscored the positive influence of VR on expanding cultural learning
and enhancing students’ motivation, speaking skills, artistic creativity, and deeper
learning.
Regarding pragmatic competence, Taguchi [44] surveyed the functionality of VR
for pragmatic competence drawing attention to uttering the speech act of request.
To do so, she designed a role-play task in two groups of computer-assisted and VR-
assisted with ten native and non-native English-speaking participants. The analyzed
data from the interviews demonstrated a positive impact of VR in which the partic-
ipants were exposed to many audio-visual cues to direct them to the felicitous
actions.
Multimodal literacy is another area which CALL scholars investigate. Yeh and
Tseng [45] deployed multimodal literacy questionnaires and students’ reflection
essays to find out how 52 EFL college students manipulated various multimodal
modes for communicative purposes. The results showed that visual (e.g., visual
effects, images, and animations) and auditory (e.g., background music and sound
effects) forms are the most agreeable modes and content creation through AR
by combining various multimodal media notably developed students’ multimodal
literacy.
Extended Reality in Computer-Assisted Language Learning 27

Finally, Ebadi and Ebadijalal [33] reported the mixed-methods study on the affor-
dances of VR for the willingness to communicate (WTC) of 20 Iranian upper-
intermediate EFL learners. The researchers applied various data collection instru-
ments, including recorded oral performance of students, WTC scale, and inter-
views. Data analysis confirmed the outperforming of the experimental group (with
the VR tool), and, at the end of the research, they were more enthusiastic about
communicating with others.
Affordances in Relation to Language Learners’ Psychological Characteristics
The current systematic review disseminated that CALL researchers are also keen on
investigating the language learners’ psychological characteristics, including percep-
tion or attitude (10 studies) and foreign language anxiety (2 studies), in XR-supported
learning environments.
Participants’ attitudes or perceptions about XR are one of the research foci in
many published papers [8, 33, 34, 37–40, 46–48]. In general, participants’ attitudes,
whether teachers or students, were positive toward integrating XR in language educa-
tion; however, they raised some concerns about such integration. From a positive point
of view, the participants expressed that XR promotes their enthusiasm [8, 33], enjoy-
ment [8, 37], motivation [8, 33, 34, 38–40], confidence [33, 38], and engagement
[8, 34, 37, 38].
Also, the participants stated that XR-mediated environments are fun and joyful [8,
34, 37, 47, 48], free [34, 37], stress-free [33], interactive [37, 40], authentic and rich
[37, 40], and effective and useful [34, 38, 48], and these technologies are powerful
tools for learning [8]. On the other hand, the current systematic review showed that,
from participants’ perspectives, XR could be time-consuming [8], frustrating [40],
and distracting [8] due to having too much functionality [40]. Moreover, some partic-
ipants experienced glitches and were unable to handle multiple tasks simultaneously
[38].
Finally, two studies spotlighted language learners’ anxiety (i.e., [48, 49]). Thrasher
[49] conducted an investigation into the impact of VR on students’ Foreign Language
Anxiety (FLA). She led an eight-week study with 25 French language learners. The
analysis of self-reported and physiological FLA (i.e., salivary cortisol) data revealed
that the French language learners were less anxious in the VR-supported group. In
the second study, York et al. [48] explored the influence of three different CMC
modalities (i.e., voice, video, and VR) on Japanese EFL learners’ FLA. The results
showed that all three CMC modalities contributed equally and positively to reducing
learners’ FLA.
Affordances in Relation to Teachers and Design of Learning Environments
Surprisingly, a very limited number of published papers focused on teachers [29],
teacher education [46], and the design of learning environments based on XR [50].
Liaw and Wu [29] accentuated teachers’ identities in intercultural telecollabora-
tive research that applied MR. The findings highlighted the fact that an MR-supported
environment is a safe setting in which teachers can practice their professional agency,
which assists teachers in maturing their identity and reaching the desired sense of
28 D. Tafazoli

being qualified teachers. Furthermore, this environment enabled teachers to restruc-

ture the new ideological identity. Belda-Medina [46] reported the affordances of AR
in a teacher training program in Spain. He focused on pre-service teachers’ creativity
skill and attitudes toward AR. In this research, 229 pre-service teachers created 47
vision- and location-based projects to teach English to young learners. The researcher
argued that although pre-service teachers’ attitudes were positive toward integrating
AR in the classes for various features such as collaboration and enjoyment, they
required adequate practical training in order to be able to create educational AR
content and implement it appropriately in the classroom.
In relation to the design of the learning environment, Divekar et al. [50] debated
that the combination of multimodal spoken dialogue, extended technologies, and
collaborative learning has not been researched sufficiently. Therefore, they proposed
the Cognitive Extended Language Learning Environment (CILLE), a combination of
Artificial Intelligence (AI) and XR. The researchers believed that this combination
could build “naturalistic conversational interactions targeted towards comprehensive
foreign language acquisition” (p. 1). The researcher evaluated the proposed CILLE
in a seven-week research project in Chinese language courses in higher education.
The mixed-methods study results demonstrated that CILLIE successfully developed
students’ vocabulary, comprehension, and oral proficiency.

6 Conclusion

In order to map the research trends and determine the affordances of Extended Reality
(XR) as a CALL tool, in this paper, I systematically reviewed 28 articles investigating
XR-supported language education in eight top CALL journals through the PRISMA
methodology between 2010 to 2022. The findings of the first section, research trends
in XR, of the current review showed that XR-supported language education had
gained attention since 2020, and CALL scholars published more articles in 2021 and
2022, respectively. In addition, American and Taiwanese scholars are frontiers in
published XR articles. The favorable context was higher education, and the English
language was the main target language in the reviewed empirical studies. Finally,
Virtual Reality (VR), with 61% and Augmented Reality (AR), with 25%, were the
dominant types of published articles. Exploring the research trends on XR highlights
that we should expect an increase in the number of publications in the coming years,
not only in over-represented countries (e.g., the USA) but also in under-represented
contexts.
Regarding the affordances of XR in CALL, the second section, the findings
divulged that XR-supported environments have affordances for linguistics knowl-
edge and skills (i.e., oral skills, writing skill, listening comprehension skill, and
vocabulary), and non-linguistic knowledge and skills (i.e., culture, pragmatic compe-
tence, multimodal literacy, and willingness to communicate), affordances in rela-
tion to language learners’ psychological characteristics (i.e., perception or attitude
and foreign language anxiety), and affordances in relation to teachers and design
Extended Reality in Computer-Assisted Language Learning 29

of learning environments. The diverse affordances of XR-supported learning envi-

ronments for (non)linguistic knowledge and skill, language learners’ psychological
characteristics, and teacher education verified that XR is a promising technology
for language education. However, empirical studies on the merits of XR in teacher
education and the design and development of such tools are scarce. Therefore, it
would not be possible to judge the affordance of XR from teachers and material
developers’ perspectives. Furthermore, the lack of XR-specific pedagogy that spells
out ‘why’ and ‘how’ language education stakeholders should constructively and
compellingly integrate technology is crystal clear. In other words, implementing XR
without sufficient and efficient teacher training is useless.
As a newly emerged technology in language education, XR remains new to us.
Therefore, researchers, teachers, and materials developers necessitated teaming up
and designing functional XR-based tools and tasks for language education stake-
holders, particularly when some researchers suggested XR become educational tech-
nology tools beyond the classroom, which is appropriate for distance homeschooling
[51]. In this study, I only reviewed published articles in Q1-ranked CALL-related
journals between 2010 to 2022. It is suggested that future studies include published
articles in other journals focused on the interplay between pedagogy and educational
technology. Also, further systematic reviews and meta-anlaysis can expand the liter-
ature by including more databases (e.g., IEEE) which many researchers are eager to
publish with. Furthermore, in spite of the fact that the affordances of XR are highly
acknowledged by the researchers in the current review, none of the conducted studies
were longitudinal. Language learners and teachers may find it practical upon initial
use, but it might bring new challenges in the long run. Once again, the current body
of research findings is not inclusive and definitive; further investigation seems neces-
sary to determine whether XR-supported language environments are viable means
for improving learning outcomes.

Acknowledgements My gratitude to Bahare Omrani, a PhD student, University of Cordoba, Spain,

and Sahar Dabir, MA graduate, Isfahan University, Iran, for assisting me in coding. My sincere
thanks to Lee McCallum, Coventry University, UK, for her insightful comments on the final draft
of the paper.

Appendix A: Included Articles in the Review

No Authors and Journal Research Target Technology Education

publication date context language used setting
1 Lege and JALTCALL NA NA VR NA
Bonner (2020)
2 Binhomran and JALTCALL Saudi English AR K12
Altalhab (2021) Arabia
(continued)
30 D. Tafazoli

(continued)
No Authors and Journal Research Target Technology Education
publication date context language used setting
3 York et al. ReCALL Japan English VR HE
(2021)
4 Chen et al. CALL USA English VR K12
(2020)
5 Lee and Park CALL Korea English AR HE
(2020)
6 Xie et al. (2021) CALL USA Chinese VR HE
7 Wu (2021) CALL Taiwan English AR Not specified
8 Tai et al. (2022) CALL Taiwan English VR K12
9 Lin et al. (2022) CALL Taiwan English AR HE
10 Ebadi and CALL Iran English VR Not specified
Ebadijalal
(2022)
11 Divekar et al. CALL USA Chinese XR HE
(2022)
12 Taguchi (2021) CALICO USA English VR HE
13 Liaw and Wu CALICO Taiwan & Not MR Teachers
(2021) USA specified
14 Caspar (2021) CALICO USA Not XR HE
specified
15 Enkin et al. CALICO USA Russian VR HE
(2021)
16 Thrasher (2022) CALICO USA French VR Not specified
17 Chun et al. CALICO NA NA VR NA
(2022)
18 Alizadeh (2019) CALL-EJ NA NA VR NA
19 Enkin (2022) CALL-EJ USA Spanish VR HE
20 Urueta and Ogi CALL-EJ Japan English VR HE teacher
[52] and students
21 Bonner and CALL-EJ NA NA VR & AR NA
Reinders (2018)
22 Alemi and CALL-EJ Iran English VR Not specified
Khatoony
(2020)
23 Belda-Medina TEwT Spain English AR HE teachers
(2022)
24 Frazier et al. TEwT NA NA VR NA
[53]
25 Godwin-Jones LL&T NA NA AR NA
(2016)
26 Lan (2020) LL&T NA NA VR NA
(continued)
Extended Reality in Computer-Assisted Language Learning 31

(continued)
No Authors and Journal Research Target Technology Education
publication date context language used setting
27 Yeh and Tseng LL&T Taiwan English AR HE
(2020)
28 Tai (2022) LL&T Taiwan English VR K12

Appendix B: Coding Template (Adapted from Tafazoli [27])

Citation (Based on APA7th):

Aim
RQs
Keywords
Extended reality used Ignore the paper if it is not a kind of REALITY tech
Data collection instrument(s)
Design
Language skill/component/etc
Target language
Context
Theoretical background
Remarks

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Dara Tafazoli (PhD) is a research officer on the Virtual Reality (VR) School Study, Australia. He
is currently working on developing and implementing the CALL literacy framework for language
teachers at the School of Education, The University of Newcastle, Australia. Dara received his
PhD in Languages and Cultures from the University of Cordoba, Spain, in 2019. His research
interests are Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) and CALL teacher education and
professional development. His works have been published by Palgrave Macmillan, Springer,
Emerald, etc. Also, he has extensively served as an editorial board member for international jour-
nals, such as CALL Journal, ReCALL, Language Learning & Technology, CALL-EJ, Innovation
in Language Learning and Teaching, and Journal for Multicultural Education. Further info: www.
daratafazoli.com.
Pedagogical Use of Video Clips During
the COVID-19 Pandemic Lockdown:
Educators’ Perceptions at a Bilingual
Education Preschool in Vietnam

Duy-Bao Thai and Ngoc-Tai Huynh

Abstract This qualitative study explores the pedagogical strategies employed by

non-professional producers of video clips to engage young learners in online educa-
tion. The study investigates the use of video clips as a means to deliver educational
content and develop essential life skills for pre-school children during the lockdown
period. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with a sample of 17 participants
including teachers, school managers and team leaders to explore the usefulness of
teacher-made video clips in teaching young Vietnamese learners during the nation-
wide lockdown period in Vietnam. The obtained data were interpreted based on the
Meaningful Learning Framework (Karppinen in AACE Rev 13(3), 233–250 [1]). The
findings highlight the importance of maintaining direct and indirect communication
with young learners through technology, including livestream activities and regular
interactions with parents. Collaborative activities between teachers and parents are
also identified as effective in fostering children’s engagement in learning. Further-
more, findings reveal the role of parental assistance in enhancing children’s attention
and comprehension of online lessons. The outcomes of this study provide valuable
insights for educators and curriculum designers seeking to optimize the use of digital
resources in remote learning environments.

Keywords COVID-19 pandemic · Meaningful learning framework · Pedagogical

perspective · School-made video clips · Young learners

D.-B. Thai
Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
e-mail: [email protected]
N.-T. Huynh (B)
Tra Vinh University, Tra Vinh, Vietnam
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 35

H. P. Bui and E. Namaziandost (eds.), Innovations in Technologies for Language
Teaching and Learning, Studies in Computational Intelligence 1159,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-63447-5_3
36 D.-B. Thai and N.-T. Huynh

1 Introduction

In recent years, the integration of multimedia tools in educational settings has

gained significant attention due to its potential to engage, motivate, and enhance
learning outcomes for young students [2–4]. Within this context, teacher-made videos
have emerged as a powerful resource for teaching young learners, providing them
with visually stimulating content that complements traditional classroom instruction
[5–7].
The utilization of video clips as an instructional tool offers an array of benefits
that can positively impact young learners’ cognitive, linguistic, and socio-emotional
development [8–10]. By visually presenting information, video clips provide a
multisensory experience that caters to various learning styles, promoting active
engagement and knowledge retention [9–12]. Additionally, video clips can effec-
tively demonstrate complex concepts, making abstract ideas more accessible and
comprehensible to young minds [13, 14].
This study aims to investigate the effectiveness of incorporating video clips into the
pedagogical practices of educators working with young learners during the lockdown
period (due to the COVID-19) in the Vietnamese context. In particular, relying on the
Meaningful learning framework [1], the present study will explore how teacher-made
video clips are integrated into lesson plans and the benefits of such an integration with
respect to various components of the Meaningful learning framework. By examining
these aspects, this research aims to provide practical recommendations for educators
to optimize the use of video clips in their teaching practices.
In sum, this study intends to contribute to the growing body of research on multi-
media integration in early childhood education in the Vietnamese context by exam-
ining the effectiveness of teacher-made video clips as an instructional tool during the
time of COVID-19 pandemic, especially when the whole society is in the lockdown
period.

2 Literature Review

2.1 Benefits and Challenges of Using Video in Teaching

Young Learners

Video clips and other forms of digital tools have been recommended by experts as
a form of multimodal materials for teaching young learners [15–17]. However, both
benefits and issues associating to using videos to teach young learners were reported
in the literature.
As for the benefits, various studies have been reported the usefulness of inte-
grating videos and online activities in teaching young learners. Most of studies on
using videos in teaching young learner reports beneficial effects of such as digital
materials in teaching young learners. More specifically, various findings suggest
Pedagogical Use of Video Clips During the COVID-19 Pandemic … 37

that using video may enhance learners’ cultural, cognitive development and multilit-
eracy skills including foreign language acquisition [15, 17, 18]. One of such studies
was conducted by the researcher in [15]. In this research, multimodal pedagogical
methods including using videos were used for teaching a group of 25 third-grade
students, 14 boys and 11 girls to explore how third-grade students use their cultural-
linguistic prior experiences and semiotic resources at their disposal to construct
interpretations of Sleeping Beauty, a Disney video. The participants were taught
comprehension skills by using the selected video. The findings indicated that the
students used the specificity of their gender, social-cultural experiences at their ideas
to construct interpretations of the video. The participants could also generate new
meanings from the video. In another study on develop interactive system for kids to
watch videos, it was found that using interactive videos can foster young learners’
perception of the object, educate and enhance kids’ understanding of the world around
them [18].
One of the interesting findings relating to the usefulness of using video-based
instruction was reported in the field of special education. Video-based instructions
are effective for teaching action-based tasks such as walking, running and jumping
for children with developmental disabilities [19]. In their study on the usefulness of
video—based instruction in teaching three children with autism (aged 6–8 years), the
researchers in [19] reported that “all participants increased their correct target skills
with video prompting, and maintained their successful aquatic play skills during
the first, second and fourth weeks of maintenance, and generalization phases” [19,
pp. 52–53]. These findings suggests that video—based instructions are not only
beneficial to not only children with normal cognitive development, but also to children
with disability.
In the field of foreign language teaching, it was reported that applying educational
videos can facilitate young learners of English as a foreign language even kids [20].
In particular, the researchers found that 5th grade English learners who have low
motivation and vocabulary level experienced a significant improvement after the
implementations of educational videos in the instructions. The study reported that:
In the pretest, 70% of students had scores between 1 and 3, and the other 30%, between 3
and 4. So, as it can be analyzed, they did not reach a grade of 5. However, when students did
the posttest, the results obtained after the proposal, supported that educational videos were
an effective strategy as an emotional method, where the results were that 100% of students
improved their test grade”. [20, p. 78]

Not only benefits to student, using online video also brings benefits to teachers
and the teaching process [21–23]. Recently it was found that co-teachers especially
those working in the field of special education can take advantage of technology
share materials and online video tools virtual planning, sharing of resources, and
the co-designing of lesson plans [21]. Similarly, it was reported that using the online
teaching activities to teach young children makes the teaching process more effective,
concrete and meaningful because it blends theory well with practical images, audio,
or videos [22]. Also, the authors in [23] investigated the effects of the usage of
video-self modeling and activity photos on preschool children’s interaction levels.
38 D.-B. Thai and N.-T. Huynh

The authors conduct an experimental study in which the researchers videotaped and
photographed three children’s activities during circle time and then asked them to
imitate the behaviors in the video and image while presenting both materials with
an adult’s voice. The study results revealed that there is an increase in preschool
children’s engagement with videos activities and a decrease in their off-task behaviors
during circle time. In addition, the findings also showed that the children participating
in the study and the teachers both preferred the video mode over the photographic
activities. These findings indicate that young learners have interest in working with
videos in learning activities.
As for challenges of using videos clips to teach young learners, according to [24],
there are several obstacles for teachers when teaching young children with video
clips as follows including (i) Technological challenge (i.e., Teachers must spend
time familiarizing themselves with video creation technology as well as learning the
basics of video editing) and (ii) The challenge of time (i.e. It takes a lot of time to check
video clips and design activities to teach children online). Additionally, Regarding
the problems that often arise in teaching young children online, the authors in [22]
revealed the following six issues:
(1) The low income of family;
(2) Homelessness;
(3) Parents or guardians have less than high school education, or have a chronic
illness;
(4) Family stress such as crime, unemployment, being imprisoned, or family unrest;
(5) Children with developmental delay;
(6) Limited English proficiency of the children’s relatives.
These findings agree with a more recent studies conducted by researchers in [25]
who explored obstacles that kindergarten teachers face when implementing ICT in
classrooms. Findings from 30 semi-structured interviews with teacher participants
revealed two main difficulties with computer use in kindergarten namely teachers’
insufficient knowledge and maintenance problems. Especially, insufficient knowl-
edge was the primary issues reported by the majority of senior teacher participants
in this study. Additionally, the lack of internet access was also reported as one of
the challenges of applying ICT in kindergarten classrooms. Another challenge when
using online videos in teaching young learners was reported in the context of teaching
children with disabilities. In particular, there are several challenges for the videog-
rapher in locating the classroom with children with disabilities in order to design a
suitable teaching module [22].
The above findings suggest that using video clips to teaching young learners can be
either beneficial or challenging to the teachers and children. Therefore, it is important
for those who want to develop videos for teaching young learners to consider the
such challenges. The following sections will discuss methods and techniques in
developing and using videos for teaching young learners.
Pedagogical Use of Video Clips During the COVID-19 Pandemic … 39

2.2 Developing Videos for Teaching Young Leaners

Regarding techniques and methods in developing pedagogical videos, it was reported

that after developing digital tales with younger youngsters, instructors’ numerous
pedagogical techniques are as essential as the system and product [6]. These pedagog-
ical techniques include inviting to dialogue, explaining the practical, and instructing
for results. Findings from this study make a contribution to expertise of ways
instructors contain agencies of youngsters in technology-mediated tale introduction
approaches via way of means of highlighting the pedagogical views while the usage
of digital technology. Additionally, in a study investigating 40 embedded videos used
for teaching musical lessons on selected websites, it was found that the majority of the
videos use subtitles and supplementary reference materials, such as websites, books
and recordings [26]. As for teaching methods, it was reported that in all of examined
video, teachers give instructions in form of aural reinforcement or modelling instead
of using their voice only.
As for the length of the videos, researchers suggested that teachers should set the
video and activity photo presentation length reasonably so as not to affect children’s
interest [23]. It was reported that even though the children’s degree of involvement
with the classroom activities increased when using online videos, there were still
occasions when they were uncooperative with the teacher’s guidance in the classroom
[23]. Therefore, it is important to allow children to make their own choices for
minimizing undesired difficulties in the preschool classroom.
In terms of convenience, the author in [27] contended that the easy-to-handle
graphic interfaces allow young children two or three years old to trigger other videos
from the suggested playlist. Such a feature appears alongside the content preferred
by the adult in charge [27]. To incorporate life values into video clips, designers must
build a video clip with visual images or situations [28]. It can be understood that after
watching the clips, children can see the images or situations in the clip in real life,
and then apply the knowledge seen in the video clip to real life. It is recommended
that teachers can develop video clip incorporating life skills by building interactions
between young children and characters who are typically familiar with them through
the screen [4]. Specifically, the character on the screen making eye contact with the
viewer, asking questions, and requesting that the viewer do something with them,
eventually, drawing conclusions related to life skills. [4] further added that this design
can make children feel that they are in direct interaction with the on-screen char-
acters. As for the content of digital and online learning materials including videos,
researchers conducted a survey with 194 Dutch children ages 8 to 13 who access the
Internet at home to gain insight into positive and negative experiences of the partici-
pants [29]. The study found that students’ that children hold positive experiences with
the Internet when playing or downloading computer games, watching video clips and
songs, visiting kids’ entertainment sites, and seeking information about animals. By
contrast, the participants’ negative experiences were reported when children access
violent and sexual content. This means educational, and healthy entertaining content
40 D.-B. Thai and N.-T. Huynh

also play vital role in developing effective and appropriate video clips for young
children.

2.3 How to Engage Children When Using Video Clips

and Related Learning Activities

Various methods, techniques and related factors were reported as helpful in fostering
children’s engagement in educational video clips. These factors include parental
assistance, and narrative telling techniques.
Parent–child interaction can draw children’s attention to online video clip content
[30]. Specifically, when parents watch online video clips with their children, they can
pause the clip presentation, ask questions, and encourage children to talk about parts
of the story. It has the potential to both engage children in video clip content and helps
them in remembering video information for longer periods of time. Such a finding
aligns with previous studies on methods to enhance young learners’ engagement with
video clips. For instance, some researchers contended that parental interaction can
also assist youngsters in interpreting information and connecting it to their everyday
lives [31].
As for using narrative telling techniques, it was reported that putting an on-screen
actress in the clip and using dialogue questions can draw children’s attention to the
online lesson [31]. This is because it can make children pay attention to the video
content in order to come up the answers. Specifically, when the actress in the clip
poses a question, parents can discuss the answers with their children. It encourages
children to pay attention to the important aspects of the story, brainstorm for answers,
enrich their vocabulary knowledge, and increase their social interaction [30]. The
authors in [4] asserted that when onscreen characters are similar to young children,
the kids become more likely to trust the characters, as a result, learn the information
presented on the screen. Furthermore, young children are more interested in video
clips when the characters in these clips are those who are related to them such as their
mother, father, or their favorite popular television characters [28, 32]. The authors in
[30] also revealed that watching storybooks on video with parents can also engage
children in video clips. This is because the sober images, gentle animations, and
inspiring voices of adults reading stories lead children to find it interesting, and when
combined with sharing with parents makes children more receptive to information.
Undoubtedly, parents are the most familiar people for children, and seeing the mother
on the screen will pique their curiosity. In addition, the characters that children love
always occupy a lot of children’s attention when appearing on videos or pictures
[30].
Pedagogical Use of Video Clips During the COVID-19 Pandemic … 41

3 Research Methodology

The present study follows a qualitative research design using semi-structure inter-
views as the data collection tool. Regarding sampling, the convenience sample tech-
nique was employed in the present study. Particularly, a sample of 17 participants
who are national teachers (02), international teachers (05), education managers (06),
and team leaders (04). The background information of the participants is presented
in Table 1.
As for the procedure, this study went through major steps. In the first step, the
researchers searched for an appropriate theoretical framework to guide the analysis
of interview data. The researchers selected the Meaningful Learning Framework for
guiding the present research based on [1]. This framework consists of six compo-
nents namely Active, Constructive and individual, Collaborative and conversational,

Table 1 Participant information

No Participant Position Role
Code
1 VCM01 Manager Operate 2 campuses
2 VCM02 Manager Manage national teachers’ qualiy
3 VCM03 Manager Operate 1 campus
4 VCM04 Manager Operate 1 campus
5 VCM05 Manager Head of academic department
6 VCM06 Manager Inernational teachers coordinator
7 VCT01 Team leader Team leader of group of national teachers teaching
international program
8 VCT02 Team leader Event team leader involved in filming and editing
videos
9 VCT03 Team leader Team leader of national teachers
10 VCT04 Team leader
11 VCN01 National Teaching national curriculum
teacher
12 VCN02 National
teacher
13 VCI01 Internaional Teaching international curriculum
teacher
14 VCI02 Internaional
teacher
15 VCI03 Internaional
teacher
16 VCI04 Internaional
teacher
17 VCI05 Internaional
teacher
42 D.-B. Thai and N.-T. Huynh

Contextual, Guided, and Emotionally involving and motivating [1]. These compo-
nents are considered indicators of meaningful learning, particularly in the context of
working with digital videos.
After obtaining the transcriptions of the interviews, the researcher moves on to
the second step. We carefully read through the transcriptions and start coding the
content according to each of the components outlined in the Meaningful Learning
Framework. This process involves identifying and labeling relevant segments of the
transcriptions that align with the active, constructive and individual, collaborative
and conversational, contextual, guided, and emotionally involving and motivating
aspects of meaningful learning.
In the third step, the researchers categorized the coded transcriptions based on
the six components of the Meaningful Learning Framework. Coded segments were
organized into separate categories corresponding to each element of meaningful
learning. This categorization allows for a structured analysis and comparison of the
data within each component.
The final step involves analyzing and interpreting the data based on the categorized
content of the transcriptions. The researchers examined the patterns, themes, and
connections within each category to gain a deeper understanding of how the partici-
pants’ responses align with the elements of meaningful learning. This analysis helps
draw meaningful insights and conclusions regarding the participants’ experiences
and perceptions related to the meaningful learning framework and its components.

4 Findings

The interpretation of the interview data reveals that participants’ using of digital
video clips in the current study highly matches with the pedagogical perspective of the
Meaningful learning framework [1]. In particular, it was found that that six aspects of
Meaningful learning were reflected in the teachers’ application of creating video clips
to teach young learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. The six aspects of mean-
ingful learning are: Active, Constructive and individual, Collaborative and conver-
sational, Contextual, Guided, and Emotionally involving and motivating. Through
interpreting the extend to which teacher participants successfully follow the pedagog-
ical perspective of Meaningful learning, the findings will also help to explore how
digital resources could be employed to help preschool children not only develop
cognitively, socially, physically and linguistically but also maintain their learning
rhythm at home when school is closed.
Pedagogical Use of Video Clips During the COVID-19 Pandemic … 43

4.1 Active, Guided, Constructive and Individual

There were seventeen participants of the current study who belong to three groups
of professional roles namely managers (six participants), team leaders (four partic-
ipants), national teachers (two participants) and international teachers (five partici-
pants). The majority of these participants reported that they tried their best to creative
each teaching activities through video clips with active learning elements, i.e., their
digital video clips were created with criteria that ensure students will actively engage
in the activities and contents provided in the clips even though their pre-school
students could not physically attend the classrooms. These criteria were established
carefully based on the school curriculum, which is so-called ‘creative curriculum’.
One of the managers asserted that. Being well aware of special characteristics of
young learners, one of the members of school managers, Participant VCM06 (an
international teacher co-ordinator) explained the creative curriculum as a guidance
for teachers to create video clips:
So, we use, um, a creative curriculum, which is learned through play basically predominantly.
That’s what we encourage, we encourage learn through play. So, there you go. We hit the
nail on the head there. Basically, what we were trying to do with our videos is to have as
much play inside the videos as we possibly could. (Participant VCM06)

It is clear from the explanation of Participant VCM06 that video clips used for
teaching young learners during the lockdown time were developed with a consistently
and pedagogically to ensure the appropriateness of using digital resources for young
learners. Such an interpretation is supported from the pedagogical viewpoints of
other participants as well. Participant VCM02 (manager of national teacher quality),
for instance, provided examples of methods for integrating teaching and learning
activities in when creating video clips so as to maintain them motivation of young
learners:
To me, we must balance the numbers of clips to ensure not to get students bored. To me, they
like story telling or art activities to make toys, also musical movement. These 3 activities
excite students the most or experiment activities. They like doing it at home with some
available materials. For example, they can make bubble through washing liquid. (Participant
VCM02)

The report from participants in this study revealed that video clips were created
and used by teachers not just serving the purpose of giving students something to
watch at home for entertainment during the lockdown time at home, but the video
clips also provide young students with active and guided learning activities through
pedagogically integration of learning activities in the video clips including exercise
and other interesting activities for young learners to actively and indirectly interact
with the teachers through these activities. Participant VCM03 (a manager operating
one campus) provided detailed examples when being asked about the activities in
their video clips.
Different level will get different exercises for students to complete the best. Let me give
example of a clip that students took pictures and send back to us. A clip was about pulley.
44 D.-B. Thai and N.-T. Huynh

After that students will do the art craft. They used 2 boxes and be recorded by parents through
this process. Students understand and play with it. That makes parents happy because students
can understand with 2 roll of tissue paper and a string, they can make a trolley to lift heavy
things up. That is an example about simple machine clip. (Participant VCM03)

One team leader of group of national teachers teaching international program

at the school – Participant VCT01 expanded the pedagogical strategies used in the
video clips to ensure that their students have plenty of opportunities to review the
lessons in the clips.
Uh, sometimes for some specific topics, um, we also like sent out, um, you know, like the
worksheets, like the, some homework for them to do, and then they can revisit the knowledge.
And then I think it’s, um, quite a cool thing for some like older students, because they have
something to do after they, um, they watch the videos and then we can check on that to see
how much they understand. (Participant VCT01)

The above reports show that video clips used in the current study were created with
a profound pedagogical guidance in terms quality and the appropriateness. It was
also revealed that the school-made videos clips were designed to not only provide
information, but also to support young students learning and provoke thinking and
discussion. Instructors using the videos can guide students and suggest follow-up
learning tasks. To clarify this, one of the team leaders of national teacher at the
school contended:
Teachers usually give appropriate instructions language or exercise suitable for every level.
For example, after art and craft the lesson is done, teachers will assign younger kids to color
and older kids will be given more tasks to cut and paste. That belongs to skills, about the
knowledge, for example after listening to a story, younger kids will be asked about the name
of characters. Besides that, we give older kids critical questions. (Participant VCT03)

As indicated in the responses of the participants, there are various age-range

of pre-school learners who will use the clip produced by the participants during
the lockdown time. However, with the clear criteria which focus on the creative
curriculum (as established by the school) and the meaningful learning pedagogy,
responses from participants (who are either manger, teachers, team leaders) suggest
that the video clips are highly suitable for young learners, especially for the purpose
of making young students actively engage in guided learning activities. This is further
supported by the responses from both national and international teachers who are
teaching two different curriculums at the school. An international teacher, Participant
VCI01, for example, clarified the criteria for making video clips that:
Make it? Okay, so, okay. So, for me, um, I was basically informed to keep it fun and engaging.
Yeah. And we had some topics that we could choose from. And then I chose to choose a
topic that the kids could relate to maybe like something that they were familiar with. Yeah.
Um, for example, I chose like something easy, like food so that they could form more like a
relationship with the topic. (Participant VCI01)

Another teacher, who is teaching national curriculum - Participant VCN01 also

revealed that one of the pedagogical strategies for making young learners using the
video clips to engage is through parental support.
Pedagogical Use of Video Clips During the COVID-19 Pandemic … 45

We can also … also…. Through that... We can ask parents to support filming students to
make students more confident during online class. This shows the reality to prove their
development. (Participant VCN01)

Similarly, Participant VCM01 who was operating two campuses, noted the reasons
for the need of parental support when young learners use their school-made videos
during the lockdown time.
There is no guidance from teacher at home, sometimes, the guidance comes from parents/
sisters/brothers. So, it must be easy to carry out. It can be done at home (Participant VCM01)

In sum, through responses from participants in this study, it was reflected that the
school-made video clips for pre-school learners to maintain their rhythm of learning
during the lockdown time in Vietnam were well-prepared in terms of pedagogical,
practical purposes, and highly matched with two the aspects of Meaningful Learning
framework namely Active and Guided.
Next, we will demonstrate how the digital video clips fit another aspect of
meaningful learning framework namely Contextual, Constructive and individual.

4.2 Contextual, Constructive and Individual

Given the situation of Covid-19 pandemic, when all schools across the country must
be closed and students have to learn online, the school-made video clips are highly
authentic and relevant and contents which are close to the Vietnamese context. More
specifically, the digital videos were designed to not only to maintain learning habits
of young learners, but also develop their knowledge and various important skills to
deal with the current social situation. This characteristic of meaningful learning is
specified by participant VCM06, an international teacher educator:
Um, and you know, we highlighted those facts again through play also, obviously being
a COVID situation and being in lockdown. So again, having a thought about what can be
something that they can, but it’s not too difficult for them. So, we made things like fruit salad,
we made orange juice. Um, we had, uh, folding clothes, videos, um, how to help around the
house, how to do basic housework. Um, we also did some, um, things about, uh, emergency,
um, like what’s the word? The world is completely vaguely, uh, emergency services. ‘Who
do you call in this instance and what do you do if this happens?’ (Participant VCM06)

As can be seen, the video clips not only relevant to the young learners when they
have to stay at home, but also practical in terms of provide young students with
essential life skills, especially for protecting their physical and mental health during
the pandemic. When being asked about how to integrate life skills in their digital
clips, Participant VCM05 asserted:
For example, we teach them how to protect themselves when they are at home alone or to
escape from their fire, to react to the strangers or what they need to do when they are lonely
in a car. There was a sad story in an international school. A boy was left in the car. When
he was seen, he passed away. We brought that story to teach our kids a true lesson with
solutions. (Participant VCM05)
46 D.-B. Thai and N.-T. Huynh

The majority of teacher participants in the current study contended that various life
skills ranging from daily activities during the COVID-19 pandemic to social interac-
tions. This help to develop young students’ social cognition in addition to skills for
staying away from dangers in their life. Participant VCM02 provided clear examples
of how the content of their school-made video clips promote young learner’s social
cognitive development.
For example, to teach them how to go to the supermarket, we will put a life skill lesson that
should not follow and receive present from strangers, or what they should do if they get lost.
Or about insect’s topic, we teach students what to do if they are attacked by bees. Or how to
deal with angry friends? Or the more familiar skills that to be away from some dangerous
things: kitchen, hot bottle, knife, scissors…. What should they do to be safe or how to escape
when firing? (Participant VCM02)

It is clear from the responses of participants that pre-school children in the current
study not only have chances to develop their linguistic skills, but also various essential
skills for their life such as survival skills, mathematic skills, artistic skills, and so
on. The participant VCI05, who was responsible for teaching with the international
curriculum claimed that:
So for example, I, uh, I was in the three 3d shapes video making. So, uh, um, so this video
focus on the, the children’s cognition on 3d shapes, uh, like the cubes, like the sheers, like
the keyboards, and they also develop English language through the lesson or like flower leaf
and art video. Um, this video helps them to develop their English language, how they can
use different parts of the plan to make the craft. And also, they can focus on their fine motor
skill as well. Uh, so, uh, I feel like the most important thing outcome here is that the children
must feel interested in, must feel involved in the activities, and at least they try doing it.
(Participant VCI05)

According to the participants of this study, the school-made video clips were
design pedagogically which helps to develop vital life skills and knowledge for pre-
school students, and at the same time, maintain students’ physical and mental health
during the lockdown time. However, one of the interesting findings were the methods
used by the ‘non-professional producers’ of video clips. Since they are teachers and
education managers, they way they integrate activities for pre-school children to
interact with the video contents and the teachers is also highly pedagogical. This is
evident through the responses of two international teachers, Participants VCI01 and
VCI02.
Yeah. So, I chose to do the action verbs because I found it, I found it to be more achievable.
It was like a simple thing, like cut chop, um, also something that they were familiar with.
Um, and I felt that I use a lot of, you know, uh, familiarizing the kids with things, um, to
teach over, to teach via, um, online teaching. Um, it was easier for me, for the kids to grasp
something that they were, that they knew already. (Participant VCI01)

According to the participants, through interactions with pedagogical use of

linguistic means, i.e., via instructions and designed activities in the videos, young
learners will also develop their mental health and self-efficacy as well. Such an advan-
tage is mentioned by other international teacher, Participant VCI01 when being asked
about the benefits of the school-made video clips.
Pedagogical Use of Video Clips During the COVID-19 Pandemic … 47

Um, self-confident, uh, what else? Uh, enthusiastic, inquisitive, you know, um, the videos
that we uploaded, um, must like, um, make them inquire more or be, uh, curious and actively
explore their environment. Yeah. So, uh, knowing that they’re just at home, um, they still
must be able to, uh, like look around and, you know, continuously learning, because I believe
that, um, learning doesn’t only happen in the school or in the classroom, but it can happen,
um, anywhere, especially in your home. (Participant VCI02

According to the participants, the applications of school-made video clips were

successful both in terms of meeting the requirements for maintaining young learners’
learning rhythm, developing children’s knowledge, life-skills and other essential
skills during the lockdown time and in terms of teacher’s professional development.
Such a point is addressed by Participant VCT04 when mentioning about the success
of their school-made video clips.
Through clips and online interaction session I personally think I am confident to implement
to students if someday we must apply based on the criteria, numbers of students, length of
program or lesson depending on each level. We use 1 hour for online interaction because
just 10 students. So easy and confident to carry out online interaction sessions. (Participant
VCT04)

In sum, through interpretations of responses from 17 participants in the present

study, it was revealed the school-made video clips are highly relevant, contextual
and realistic to pre-school children. The application of these digital sources was
successful and was acknowledged by not only teacher participants but also informed
through feedback of parents. As Participant VCN03 stated:
Yes, I’m actually very happy because, uh, we have received positive feedback from parents.
Um, and, uh, they’ve said that the videos are really helpful, useful, and practical, um, for
the kids and, uh, a lot of videos, like the science experiment, videos, the, uh, the videos
about, um, what’s this likes about the simple machines, simple machine study, uh, they’re
quite engaging. And, um, like some students have asked lots of questions. So, I think the,
the videos have, um, maybe the kids more inquisitive and curious, which is, I think is a good
thing. Yeah, yeah, I would say an eight. I’m happy because, uh, our parents are, I mean,
the students, parents are really helpful and supportive, um, with us providing these online
materials or video clips. And it’s good because, uh, they, I think they also try their best to, to
support their kids and watch the videos with them. So, I think it’s really a good thing. Yeah.
(Participant VCN03)

The successful stories of applying digital resources like video clips to teaching
young learners during the lockdown time also come from the interactions between the
teachers, the children and the parents, which relate to other characteristics of mean-
ingful learning, namely Emotionally involving and motivating, and Collaborative
and conversational.

4.3 Collaborative and Conversational, Emotionally Involving

and Motivating

The majority of the participants of this study reported that to ensure their school-
made video clips emotionally involving and motivating, they have to strictly consider
48 D.-B. Thai and N.-T. Huynh

various factors including students’ differences in ages, cognitive levels, skills, and
the current uncertain situations of the COVID-19 pandemic. Such criteria were
mentioned clearly by Participant VCM02.
Firstly, mixing up many areas of a child development is possible because in a lesson we can
provide knowledge, develop skills or more. It depends on the content so that we can create
a clip that appropriate for all levels. For example, in the story lesson, the questions given to
different students based on the knowledge you want to bring to them. If they are younger,
there must be some simple questions. The older will be given the difficult tasks because their
observation skills are better than youngers. Right after the lesson, Koala, Panda, Giraffe will
be assigned by different tasks (Participant VCM 02)

It can be seen that the video clips were carefully produced to serve a wide range
of students who belong to different age groups. It is quite challenging to teacher
participants of the current study since they are all non-professional producers of video
clips. However, thanks to their pedagogical knowledge and skills, they maximize the
appropriate level and usefulness of the video to a diversity of means and activities.
One of such the methods was to maintain both direct and indirection communications
with young children by employing the technology. This method was mentioned by
Participant VCT02.
And also, we can do some livestream. Uh, they, the children can observe a class and also the
children and the teacher can interact with the, with each other. Yeah. That’s not, that’s what
I, I want like a big picture, a big vision about teaching online by the videos. (Participant
VCT02)

Performing livestream activities for the lessons in addition to letting young

learners to watch and interact with video clips were highlighted as one of the
elements making the successful stories of using digital resources during the lockdown
time. By doing some livestream, teachers can maximize the interactions between the
lesson contents and the children and their peers. Additionally, regular communica-
tions with parents were also reported by the participants as another essential factors
making them successfully use video clips for teaching young learners when the whole
schools are closed. One of the teachers, Participant VCN02 who was teaching with
the national curriculum asserted the role of teacher-parent interaction when using
digital video clips:
Teachers can communicate with parents via means of communication like Zalo, Viber. As
we were learning via clips. So, it is really necessary to have parents’ cooperation to connect
students and teachers. Ah, with clips were filmed…. Students will learn from those clips.
Which level students were? We will evaluate via the answers, records or clips sent by parents.
Since teachers could not meet directly with students, via those clips, we understand how they
gain the knowledge. (Participant VCN02)

One interesting findings from the way teachers interact with parents is the collab-
orative activities that teachers and parents enable young children to engage in
the learning activities. These simple, but meaningful activities are mentioned by
Participant VCM04.
…. Parents will video or take pictures and send to teachers or hand to teachers after back to
school. We will also award to encourage them. (Participant VCM04)
Pedagogical Use of Video Clips During the COVID-19 Pandemic … 49

When discussing about how teachers employed digital resources to maintain the
learning rhythm and at the same time, develop various life skills for pre-school
children during the lockdown time, the majority of the teacher participants claimed
that emotionally involving was one of the crucial elements to contribute to the success
of using digital resources. However, the participants also admitted that it is quite
challenging. As Participant VCM06 contended:
So, when I was creating clips or when we were thinking about sort of what we were going to
do for the clips, we always thought we always tried to put ourselves in inside the, the child’s
mindset. What would they (students) enjoy? Okay. You know, they don’t enjoy sitting down,
so let’s have a more practical way of doing things. They enjoy participation, they enjoy
colors, they enjoy bright roles, they enjoy things. (Participant VCM06)

According to the participants, the clear objectives and interesting contents, but
diverse topics of the video clips are essential for them to make the video emotionally
involving to the young learners. These criteria are addressed by participant VCM03,
VCM05 their responses.
The learning objectives will be chosen carefully each day. Both English and Vietnamese
learning content will be integrated as well. So, everyday watch the videos make kids feel like
they are at school. Every week topics were related to life skills, literacy, math and sometime
science. But not many science videos as they might ask their parents to get materials for
them in very hard situation that no one can go out. You know, Kindy teachers speak louder
than Kindy parents. (Participant VCM05)

As for the diversity of the topics, teachers have to select various interesting ones
for the kids to emotionally involve in each video clips.
Our topics keep changing. For example, today is about literacy, tomorrow will be math
and the next day will be art, creation on hands. Our set objectives quite appropriate to
Kindy students age-level. Obviously, the topics will excite students. We are teaching so we
understand our students through lesson plan. All based on students’ interests and ability. We
mixed up music, cartoon… to excite them as they are children. Through those they learn.
(Participant VCM03)

The participants asserted that they not only tried to select various topics, but
they also employed different types of digital resources to promote young learners’
engagement with the video clips. Participant VCM01 claimed that:
Clips were produced during COVID-19 pandemic, we really focused on life skills and
integrate into clips. For examples: wash hands, exercise to improve their health, physical
activities, need-to-know numbers, helping parents at home. Those activities interest students
the most. Beside our resources, I found YouTube, Pinterest, 365 creative ideas books, what
have you done at home book. These are suitable for kindergarten level. (Participant VCM01)

The majority of the participants admitted that they are well aware of the limit of
pre-school learners’ attention span. Therefore, the appropriate length of the video
clips is also recognized by the participants as an essential factor to capture young
learners’ interest. As participant VCI05 stated:
Right. And also, uh, when I, uh, participate in, uh, making the videos, we, um, I always try
to create, uh, friendly and interesting atmospheres so that the children can get the spirits so
50 D.-B. Thai and N.-T. Huynh

that they, they can feel interested in the activities. And then, uh, they’ve got the inspiration
to do it at home also. Uh, I find it very important to, uh, deliver new knowledge as well as
language so that they can use, uh, the language at home. So probably so probably five to
10 minutes. Wow. Is appropriate, but maybe not to, not until 10, maybe just five to eight is
appropriate to a kit to focus. (Participant VCI05)

Another participant, Participant VCI02, also confirmed that relevant, engaging,

interesting and suitable with young learners are key elements of their school-made
video clips. This participant said:
The videos must, uh, be relatable. It must cater to the students needs course. Um, and the
videos must be, uh, engaging, you know, and, uh, entertaining for the kids because, uh, as
you know, um, kids easily get bored and they have very short attention span. And so, um,
we always have to keep in mind that the videos must be, you know, and, uh, not only that,
but it also targets on the learning goals. You know, it must be in line with, um, our principle,
I would say, and our core values, um, which is learn through play or creative curriculum.
(Participant VCI02)

The multidimensional aspects of usefulness when teaching young learners with

digital video clips was reflected in a summary of Participant VCT03.
There are 10 areas of learning development at our school: social-emotional, physical,
languages, cognitive, literacy, math, science, society, arts, English acquisition development.
During COVID-19 pandemic, our clips are made to ensure the physical, cognitive, languages,
emotion and society development. (Participant VCT03)

In sum, through our interpretations of responses from participants of this study,

the findings indicated that the school-made video clips and other digital resources
were successfully employed by the participants during the COVID-19 pandemic
to teach young learners at home. The participants repeatedly highlight the positive
outcomes of their applications of digital videos during the lockdown time. The find-
ings from our interpretations of interview data with the 17 participants of this study
also demonstrate that pedagogical use of school-made video clips significantly fits
with characteristics of meaningful learning frameworks [1, 33]. In particular, the
production and application of were active, constructive and individual, collaborative
and conversational, contextual, guided, and emotionally involving and motivating.

5 Discussion

The present study set out to explore the benefits of using teacher-made video clips
to teach young learners during the nation-wide lockdown period in Vietnam (due
to the COVID-19 pandemic). The participants in the study highlighted the various
ways in which video clips were used to engage and educate young students at home.
The teacher-video clips were carefully produced to cater to different age groups and
levels of knowledge, ensuring that the content was appropriate and challenging for
each student. Livestream activities and regular communication with parents were also
emphasized as important elements in maximizing student engagement and interaction
with the video clips.
Pedagogical Use of Video Clips During the COVID-19 Pandemic … 51

The participants reported positive feedback from parents, indicating that the
videos were helpful, useful, and practical for the children. The videos were found
to be engaging and motivating, sparking curiosity and encouraging students to ask
questions. The collaborative activities between teachers, children, and parents were
also mentioned as contributing to the success of using video clips for teaching young
learners during the lockdown.
Findings of the present study are aligned with previous research on the applications
of technology in teaching young learners. According to [27], parental interaction can
assist youngsters in interpreting information and connecting it to their everyday lives.
This finding aligns with the participants’ experiences in this study, where regular
communications with parents were reported as essential factors in successfully using
video clips for teaching young learners during school closures. Furthermore, [28]
reported that parent–child interaction can draw children’s attention to online video
clip content. Similarly, the participants in this study emphasized the importance of
maintaining both direct and indirect communications with young children through
technology.
In terms of benefits of using video clips to teach various life skills, the teacher-
made videos in the current study were designed to be contextually relevant and real-
istic to the pre-school children, addressing their developmental needs and providing
them with essential life skills. The participants emphasized the importance of consid-
ering students’ differences in ages, cognitive levels, and skills when creating the video
clips.
The videos were designed to not only provide information but also support
learning, provoke thinking, and encourage discussion. The participants also high-
lighted the role of parental support in engaging children with the video clips and
enhancing their learning experience. Heisler and Thousand [21] found that video-
based instructions are effective for teaching action-based tasks to children with devel-
opmental disabilities. This supports the participants’ observations in the present study
that video clips can be beneficial not only to children with normal cognitive develop-
ment but also to children with disabilities. Moreover, it was found that co-teachers
can take advantage of technology to share materials and collaborate on lesson plan-
ning [10]. This aligns with the participants’ experiences of using online video tools
for virtual planning and resource sharing.
As for language development, the investigators in [21] reported that using educa-
tional videos can facilitate young learners’ improvement in English language skills.
Similarly, the participants in this study mentioned the positive impact of video clips
on students’ language development and engagement.
In sum, the findings of the study indicate that the school-made video clips were
successful in meeting the requirements for maintaining young learners’ learning
rhythm, developing their knowledge and life skills, and supporting teacher profes-
sional development. The video clips were found to be highly suitable for young
learners, actively engaging them in guided learning activities.
52 D.-B. Thai and N.-T. Huynh

6 Conclusion

In conclusion, the implementation of school-made video clips for teaching young

learners during the COVID-19 pandemic proved to be highly relevant, contextual, and
realistic. The video clips were carefully designed to cater to different age groups and
levels of knowledge, ensuring that the content was appropriate and challenging for
each student. The videos were engaging, motivating, and practical, providing young
learners with essential life skills and knowledge while maintaining their learning
habits during the lockdown period in Vietnam.
The success of using video clips for teaching young learners during the lockdown
was attributed to the collaborative activities between teachers, children, and parents.
Regular communication with parents and the involvement of parents in watching and
discussing the video clips with their children enhanced the learning experience and
engagement of the students. The video clips were found to be emotionally involving
and motivating, sparking curiosity and encouraging students to ask questions.
Overall, the findings of the study highlight the effectiveness of using school-made
video clips for teaching young learners during challenging times. The video clips
not only maintained the learning rhythm of the students but also developed their
knowledge, life skills, and other essential skills. The successful implementation of
video clips was acknowledged by both teacher participants and parents, indicating
the positive impact of digital resources on young learners’ education.

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Duy-Bao Thai is a researcher at Australian National University. He holds a PhD in Language

Education. His research interests are mainly in second-language acquisition, contrastive linguis-
tics, cross-cultural negotiation, and issues of economic development. He is currently researching
the study design for Vietnamese as LOTE, Vietnamese Proficiency Rating Scale, language educa-
tion policy to overseas Vietnamese, and pragma-linguistic aspects of business communications.

Ngoc-Tai Huynh is the Dean at School of Foreign Languages, Tra Vinh University. He holds a
PhD in Language Education from University of Tasmania, Australia. His research and teaching
focus on Multimodal semiotics, Applied and Educational Linguistics, English, Bilingual and
cultural education. He has presented at various international conferences, contributed to two book
chapters published on IGI Global, Multilingual Matters, and Springer. He also published a number
of journal articles on Social Semiotics, Australian Journal of Teacher Education, and Journal of
Early Childhood Teacher Education.
The Role of Supportive Environments
in Shaping EFL Teachers’ Adoption
of ChatGPT

Nguyen Hoang Mai Tram and Vu Tran-Thanh

Abstract ChatGPT, as an advanced AI-powered chatbot, has great potential to

enhance teaching efficiency and quality in language education. Compared with other
users, teacher attitudes towards AI are pivotal as their acceptance or rejection will
determine the success of AI integration for teaching and learning. However, research
on EFL teachers’ specific acceptance of ChatGPT remains scarce. To address this gap,
this chapter aims to apply the technology acceptance model (TAM) to explain EFL
teachers’ intention to adopt ChatGPT for teaching activities. The results reveal that
teachers regularly used ChatGPT for various purposes, such as creating exercises and
questions, planning lessons, engaging in professional development, seeking teaching
materials, and addressing students’ issues. The research also highlights the impor-
tance of supportive environments in influencing teachers’ acceptance of ChatGPT.
While facilitating conditions only influenced perceived ease of use, social interaction
was strongly found to impact both perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness.
These findings can be valuable for educators and policymakers who are considering
integrating AI tools like ChatGPT into their classrooms and institutions. By under-
standing teachers’ perspectives and the factors that influence their acceptance, they
can create more effective implementation strategies and ensure smooth transitions
for both teachers and students.

Keywords Artificial intelligence · Chatbot · ChatGPT · EFL teachers ·

Technology acceptance model

N. H. M. Tram
Faculty of Business Administration, Ho Chi Minh City University of Foreign
Languages–Information Technology, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
e-mail: [email protected]
V. Tran-Thanh (B)
School of Education, Durham University, Durham City, UK
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 55

H. P. Bui and E. Namaziandost (eds.), Innovations in Technologies for Language
Teaching and Learning, Studies in Computational Intelligence 1159,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-63447-5_4
56 N. H. M. Tram and V. Tran-Thanh

1 Introduction

In recent times, Artificial Intelligence (AI) has witnessed growing applications across
various sectors, including education [1]. Notably, the adoption of chatbots as an AI-
supporting tool for learning and teaching has transformed education towards greater
personalization, broader accessibility, and more positive interaction. Chatbots are
software applications that use AI to mimic human dialogue [2]. Released by OpenAI
in November 2022, ChatGPT is an advanced AI-enabled chatbot that is powered by
a large language model (LLM) to interact with users in a natural, human-like manner
[3]. The ChatGPT chatbot can answer follow-up questions, admit its mistakes, chal-
lenge incorrect premises, and reject inappropriate requests [4]. Unlike conventional
chatbots that follow predefined paths or employ basic question-and-answer structures
[5], ChatGPT has the capability to provide contextually relevant responses, allowing
it to participate in conversations more closely resembling human–human interactions
compared to previous chatbot versions [6]. Moreover, trained on an extensive dataset
of human language, ChatGPT can engage in intelligent communication with users,
learn continuously from past interactions, enhance its performance over time, and
serve as a tireless assistant.
Given mentioned features, the benefits of adopting ChatGPT in the English
as a foreign language (EFL) context have been documented in recent literature.
Many studies have suggested that ChatGPT can effectively support EFL learners
in enhancing various aspects of language, such as writing, reading, vocabulary, and
grammar [7–10]. As for EFL teachers, ChatGPT has shown great potential to enhance
teaching efficiency and quality [5]. For example, ChatGPT can assist EFL teachers
in developing lesson plans, generating tasks and questions, or assessing student work
[11, 12]. In this way, teachers can reduce their workloads, enabling them to invest
more time in other essential teaching responsibilities. Taken together, ChatGPT
can allow educators to enhance learning experiences for students and revolutionize
traditional teaching that has been in use for centuries [13].
Adopting ChatGPT to support teaching activities has become increasingly essen-
tial, but this process is not always straightforward. Making full use of this inno-
vative technology often requires teachers to overcome barriers. Challenges that
hinder teachers from employing technologies in their classroom may include external
issues such as lack of material equipment, insufficient technical support [14], or they
can also be teachers’ own personal and professional beliefs, technological compe-
tence, agency and identity [15]. If teachers fail to utilize ChatGPT as intended, its
affordances cannot be maximized for effective teaching. Recognizing this, Darling–
Hammond et al. [16] underscored the significance of supportive environmental condi-
tions within the school system to enhance teachers’ technical skills. Other scholars
such as Kitade [17], Nguyen [18], and Njiku et al. [19] stressed on the importance
of understanding teachers’ factors of readiness such as their beliefs, perceptions, or
intentions.
Hence, it becomes essential to study EFL teachers’ acceptance of ChatGPT, and
external factors concerning supportive environments that may shape their decision
The Role of Supportive Environments in Shaping EFL Teachers’ … 57

to integrate ChatGPT into their teaching practices. Moreover, compared to the exten-
sive research directed at learners [9, 20, 21], very limited knowledge concerning EFL
teachers’ behavioral intention to adopt ChatGPT has been explored and confirmed
[22, 23], although their beliefs and attitudes are fundamental to the successful integra-
tion of technology [24]. In response to the mentioned research gap, the chapter aims
to investigate the role of supportive environments in impacting teachers’ intentions to
use ChatGPT in the EFL setting. Theoretically, this research extends the technology
acceptance model (TAM) proposed by Davis [25] to explain EFL teachers’ inten-
tion to use ChatGPT for supporting teaching-related tasks. The framework clarifies
the interplay among factors that influence EFL teachers’ adoption of ChatGPT by
including social influence and facilitating conditions together with four core TAM
constructs (i.e., perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, attitude, and usage inten-
tion). This chapter not only contributes to the theoretical model of AI-powered adop-
tion in EFL settings, but also offers practical implications for EFL instructors and
school administrators.
The book chapter includes sections as follows. Section 2 provides a literature
review of ChatGPT in language teaching, technological acceptance theories, and
hypothesis development. Section 3 explains the methodology of the study, while
Sect. 4 presents the findings. Section 5 includes discussion, implications, limitations,
and future research suggestions. Section 6 is the conclusion of the chapter.

2 Literature Review

2.1 Teachers’ Perception of Using AI

The rise of AI in education presents a fascinating opportunity, but its success hinges
on teacher adoption. Teachers who understand AI’s strengths can leverage its power to
enhance students’ motivation, engagement, or learning achievement [26]. Therefore,
understanding teacher perspectives on AI, from their attitudes to their willingness to
use it, is crucial because their acceptance or rejection will determine the success of
AI integration for teaching and learning [27]. In fact, teachers’ reactions to these AI
innovations are a complex issue. While foreign language teachers generally support
the use of innovative technology, numerous concerns weigh on teachers, both external
(e.g., lack of resources, inflexible curriculum, and time constraints) and internal
(e.g., knowledge gaps, conflicting beliefs, and fear of job displacement) [14]. In
contrast, An et al. [28] revealed that EFL teachers viewed AI technology as both
helpful to their teaching and easy to use. Notably, when EFL teachers are confident
to integrate AI with pedagogical knowledge and content knowledge, they are more
likely to use AI in their teaching. These findings imply that early-stage technical and
expert support can significantly boost teacher acceptance of new technologies [29].
It thus becomes essential to study teachers’ acceptance of AI, and external factors
58 N. H. M. Tram and V. Tran-Thanh

concerning supportive environments that may shape their decision to integrate AI

into their teaching practices.

2.2 ChatGPT in Language Teaching

As a powerful artificial intelligence (AI) language model, ChatGPT has been adopted
by more than 100 million people since its release in November 2022, surpassing
the figures of previous similar AI tools [30]. This is attributed to its capabilities
in performing various tasks, such as solving math problems, generating content
across various genres, translating, seeking information, and providing suggestions
[4]. Moreover, it can engage in human-like conversations, acknowledge mistakes,
challenge flawed assumptions, and decline inappropriate requests [31]. Importantly,
the self-learning feature enables ChatGPT to autonomously enhance itself and update
its knowledge through user interactions and real-world data it encounters [32].
The advent of ChatGPT has opened up numerous opportunities for teachers and
educational institutes to modernize the century-old teaching and learning methods
[7]. As per Rudolph et al. [12], ChatGPT supports teachers in all stages of the
teaching process, including lesson planning, task generation, and student assessment,
which demands significant time, effort, and skills. Regarding lesson planning, with
well-given prompts and ideas, ChatGPT can provide detailed lesson plans, work-
sheets, quizzes, and activities tailored to specific themes, learning outcomes, and
learners’ proficiency levels [33]. In addition, ChatGPT can be utilized in developing
educational materials to produce captivating and contextually relevant resources
customized to individual learners’ needs, ultimately enhancing teaching practices
[11, 34]. In the classroom, teachers can guide students in interacting with ChatGPT,
such as looking up vocabulary, finding example sentences, translating, and learning
specific grammar points [7]. Particularly, ChatGPT can effectively assist in various
writing tasks across genres [35], allowing teachers to save time on addressing
local-level errors and, as a result, concentrate more on global-level errors.
Some studies have pointed out the advantages of ChatGPT in evaluating students’
work [11] and supporting professional development for teachers [36]. Sims [37] indi-
cated that teachers can use ChatGPT to grade students’ assignments, emphasizing
their strong and weak points, leading to notable advancements in the assessment
process. Runyon et al. [38] also noted the integration of AI-powered scoring engines
into tests like TOEFL, indicating the increasing reliability and validity of AI-driven
assessment tools. This can free up a considerable amount of time for teachers, espe-
cially when providing personalized feedback to students. In terms of professional
development, ChatGPT can aid educators by offering resources and explanations of
emerging teaching methods, technologies, and materials [12]. This can enable educa-
tors to stay abreast of the most recent advancements and methodologies in education,
thereby enhancing the efficacy of their teaching.
The Role of Supportive Environments in Shaping EFL Teachers’ … 59

2.3 Theoretical Framework

Educational technology has become increasingly prevalent in recent years, and

adopting new technology has garnered more attention, especially in the AI-driven
world. Exploring technology acceptance aims to identify the factors that influence
the use of technology in teaching and learning activities. Many frameworks have
been established to explain this phenomenon, but the technology acceptance model
(TAM) is the most frequently used model. The TAM, derived from the theory of
reasoned action (TRA) of Fishbein and Ajzen [39], was first proposed by Davis
[25]. According to the TRA, an individual’s behaviour is guided by the intention
to undertake that specific behaviour. Thus, the purpose of the TAM was to explain
the potential user’s behavioral intention to use technologies [25]. TAM originally
involved four variables, namely perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, atti-
tude, and behavioral intention. In subsequent studies, additional external variables
were incorporated into the original TAM to form advanced models, such as TAM2
[40], the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology or UTAUT [41],
TAM3 [42]. Although TAM has undergone various iterations and updates, the core
constructs and their correlations in the TAM studies have stayed relatively consistent
[43], making it “a powerful and robust predictive model” [44, p. 751].
TAM has undergone empirical testing as a plausible explanation for teachers’
acceptance of various technologies in different educational contexts. For instance,
TAM has been applied to explore primary and secondary school teachers’ inten-
tion to use technology [45, 46]; university teachers’ use of e-learning environment
[47]; teachers’ adoption of learning management system in higher education [48,
49]; pre-service EFL teachers’ intention to adopt Web 2.0 technologies [50]; pre-
service teachers’ intention to use mobile learning [51, 52]; behavioral intention of
teachers to use e-learning during the COVID-19 [53, 54]; teachers’ behavioral inten-
tion to use AI-based applications [28, 55, 56]. Furthermore, TAM was also extended
to determine crucial factors explaining teachers’ technology adoption. Liu et al.
[24] conducted a study incorporating teachers’ pedagogical beliefs into the original
TAM and found that these factors also influence their acceptance of information
and communicational technology. A study by Liu et al. [57] suggested an extended
TAM model with facilitating conditions and subjective norms to predict teachers’
pedagogical use of technology. In the context of AI-based applications in education,
Wang et al. [58] considered factors such as technology anxiety and self-efficacy,
while Choi et al. [59] focused on perceived trust to predict in-service teachers’ inten-
tion to implement AI tools. In this study, besides the four original variables of TAM,
two external variables (e.g., social influence, facilitating condition) were included to
predict EFL teachers’ intention to use ChatGPT (see Fig. 1).
60 N. H. M. Tram and V. Tran-Thanh

Fig. 1 Research framework

2.4 Hypotheses Development

2.4.1 Attitude

Attitude (ATU) is expressed as an individual’s positive or negative evaluation of

performing a specific behavior [25]. Many studies concluded that people with a
positive attitude towards technology are more likely to use it frequently [60]. Strong
relationships between attitude and behavioral intention to use technology were also
found in various educational contexts, such as e-learning [53], m-learning [52], auto-
mated writing evaluation [61], and AI-based applications [21]. Furthermore, attitude
is a strong predictor of teachers’ use of technology [62]. Huang and Liaw [63]
emphasized that successful technology integration in education is contingent upon a
teacher’s attitude toward its use. In this study, attitude refers to EFL teachers’ positive
or negative feelings towards using ChatGPT in supporting teaching activities. Based
on the literature, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H1: Attitude will positively influence the continuance intention to use ChatGPT.

2.4.2 Perceived Usefulness

Perceived usefulness (PUF) is defined as “the degree to which a person believes

that using a particular system would enhance his/her job performance” [25, p. 320].
This factor proves to be the most critical when making decisions about adopting a
new technology [64]. A wealth of literature supports the relationship between PUF
and attitude towards technology adoption [52, 65]. This correlation holds true for
teachers utilizing ICT in their teaching activities, as indicated in studies on pre-service
teachers’ intention to use m-learning [51], behavioral intention of academicians to
use e-learning [53], and mobile adoption among secondary pre-service teachers [66].
The Role of Supportive Environments in Shaping EFL Teachers’ … 61

In this study, perceived usefulness represents the extent to which EFL teachers are
convinced that incorporating ChatGPT would enhance their effectiveness. The term
“performance” involves certain advantages of ChatGPT, such as its capabilities in
solving problems and offering real-time information [2]. Liu and Ma [21] have shown
that university students’ attitudes towards ChatGPT are positively affected by the
perceived usefulness of this chatbot. Therefore, EFL teachers are more likely to
show a positive attitude towards ChatGPT if they perceive it to be useful in their
teaching process.
H2: Perceived usefulness will positively influence attitude towards ChatGPT.

2.4.3 Perceived Ease of Use

Perceived ease of use (PEU) is defined as “the degree to which a person believes
that using a particular system would be free from effort” [25, p. 320]. In fact,
users are impressed by technology that is simple to use and requires minimal effort
in performing various tasks [67]. In contrast, individuals may feel frustrated and
avoid using technology when faced with complicated steps during usage [68]. In
the context of educational technology, PEU emerges as the cornerstone influencing
both perceived usefulness and the overall attitude towards the adoption of novel
technologies, such as m-learning management systems [52]; educational portal [69];
mobile adoption [66]. In the current study, PEU refers to the extent to which EFL
teachers believe that ChatGPT offers user-friendly configurations and a straightfor-
ward interface, saving users substantial time and effort in task completion. When
teachers perceive ChatGPT as easily navigable, they are more likely to view it as
advantageous, leading to a sustained positive attitude towards its use. Thus, H3 and
H4 are posited below:
H3: Perceived ease of use will positively influence perceived usefulness.
H4: Perceived ease of use will positively influence attitude towards ChatGPT.

2.4.4 Facilitating Conditions

Facilitating conditions (FAC) refers to “the degree to which an individual believes

that an organizational and technical infrastructure exists to support the use of the
system” [41, p. 453]. Implementing any technological tool requires the availability
of resources, knowledge, and infrastructure. To address the problem, Mukminin et al.
[52] highlighted various elements related to FAC, including material, infrastruc-
ture, technical support, professional development opportunities, and policies aimed
at encouraging technology adoption. FAC is considered as a factor that can offer
directions for training activities and programs. In this context, FAC refers to organi-
zational and technical infrastructure that assists EFL teachers in using ChatGPT for
their intended teaching tasks. Prior studies on innovative technologies have found
that facilitating factors positively influence teachers’ intention to use, primarily by
62 N. H. M. Tram and V. Tran-Thanh

impacting their perceived ease of use [50, 54] and perceived usefulness [70, 71].
Hence, the following hypotheses are formulated:
H5: Facilitating conditions will positively influence perceived usefulness.
H6: Facilitating conditions will positively influence perceived ease of use.

2.4.5 Social Influence

Social influence (SIN) is the extent to which a person seeks approval of their social
connections when performing a particular behavior [72]. The concept of subjective
norms is also used to express social influence. According to Fishbein and Ajzen [39,
p. 302], SIN is defined as “the person’s perception that most people who are important
to him or her think he or she should not perform the behaviour in question”. Users’
behavioral intentions are frequently shaped by societal factors, such as their peers,
teachers, friends, and family [73] since individuals are more likely to comply with
others, particularly in making short-term decisions such as technology acceptance
[74]. In this study, SIN refers to the extent to which EFL teachers are influenced
by their immediate environment in adopting the use of ChatGPT to support their
teaching tasks. Research has explored the impact of social influence on perceived
usefulness and perceived ease of use, but the findings are inconsistent. Moriuchi
[75] indicated that social influence significantly impacts the perceived usefulness
and ease of use in the context of AI-based voice assistants. In contrast, insignificant
correlations between social influence and individuals’ perceptions of the ease of use
and usefulness of technologies were documented [76].
H7: Social influence will positively influence perceived usefulness.
H8: Social influence will positively influence perceived ease of use.

3 Method

3.1 Sampling and Data Collection

Data was collected from June to July 2023 through an online questionnaire distributed
within discussion groups on some Vietnamese social media platforms. This study
used a non-probability purposive sampling technique to recruit participants and the
selection criteria included (1) participants should be EFL teachers; (2) they should
have used ChatGPT for supporting their teaching activities; (3) they should be willing
to participate in this study. Participants were provided with a thorough explanation
of the study’s objectives and informed about their right to withdraw participation
at any point. Initially, 192 individuals were involved in the survey. However, after
excluding incomplete or uniformly identical answers to questionnaire items, a valid
sample of 176 EFL teachers was analyzed. Our sample size (N = 176) is appropriate
The Role of Supportive Environments in Shaping EFL Teachers’ … 63

since Hair et al. [77] suggest approximately 30 participants per variable to enhance
statistical power. Hence, for the present study involving five predictor variables, the
recommended sample size is N = 150.

3.2 Instrument

The survey was presented in Vietnamese and consisted of two sections. The first
part focused on demographic details, such as gender, age, teaching experience,
educational level. The second part consisted of 21 items, which were measured
by a five-point Likert scale from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). All the
measurement items were adapted from prior studies (see Table 1). The constructs
are facilitating conditions (FAC)—3 items [78], social influence (SIN)—3 items
[45, 79], perceived ease of use (PEU)—3 items [80], perceived usefulness (PUF)—
4 items [28], attitude (ATT)—4 items [61], continuance intention (CIN)—4 items
[79]. The content validity was also examined to validate the instrument. To do this,
two experts in educational technology were invited to make essential adjustments,
including clarifying ambiguous items and simplifying the language.

3.3 Data Analysis

The data was analyzed using Partial Least Square Structural Equation Modeling
(PLS-SEM) with SmartPLS v3.2.9 software. A two-stage evaluation approach,
involving the structural model and measurement model, was applied [81]. PLS-
SEM was chosen in this study because it can investigate factors influencing the
adoption of ChatGPT and determine causal relationships among all latent variables
simultaneously [77]. Furthermore, PLS-SEM has become increasingly popular for
its capability in handling non-normal data and small to medium-sized samples [82].

4 Findings

4.1 Descriptive Statistics

Demographic information is presented in Table 2. There were 64 males and 112

females, with 80% falling between 18 and 30. The majority (62.5%) held a Bach-
elor’s degree and 37.5% held a Master’s degree or above. The largest percentage of
participants (41.5%) had 4–10 years of teaching experience, followed by the group
with 1–3 years (32.4%), and roughly 10% had more than 10 years of experience.
64 N. H. M. Tram and V. Tran-Thanh

Table 1 Measurement items

Construct Code Item Source
Facilitating FCO1 I can turn to someone for assistance with ChatGPT [78]
conditions difficulties
FCO2 Instructions in ChatGPT are always available to me
FCO3 There is always support when I need help using ChatGPT
Social SIN1 People who influence my behaviour think that I should use [45, 79]
influence SIN2 People important to me advise me to use ChatGPT to support
teaching
SIN3 My colleagues encourage me to use ChatGPT to support
teaching
Perceived PEU1 ChatGPT is easy to use [80]
ease of use PEU2 Functions of ChatGPT are clear and understandable
PEU3 Learning to use ChatGPT is easy for me
Perceived PUF1 ChatGPT can help me improve the quality of teaching [28]
usefulness PUF2 ChatGPT can help me improve the efficiency of teaching
PUF3 I believe ChatGPT is very useful in my job
PUF4 ChatGPT is very helpful for my teaching
Attitude ATT1 I like using ChatGPT to assist me in teaching [61]
ATT2 I think that using ChatGPT is a good idea
ATT3 I am satisfied with using ChatGPT to support teaching
ATT4 I think that using ChatGPT makes lessons more interesting
Continuance CIN1 I will use ChatGPT to support teaching English in the future [79]
intention CIN2 I want to recommend ChatGPT to others
CIN3 I intend to increase my use of ChatGPT in the future
CIN4 I am willing to learn the experience of ChatGPT application
from others

English levels of participants were as follows: 44.3% with IELTS 7.0–8.0, 34.7%
with IELTS 5.0–6.5, 21% with IELTS over 8.0.
Results in Table 3 indicated that while 41.5% of the surveyed teachers reported
the usual usage of ChatGPT for their work, 39.8% stated that they sometimes
employed this tool. Furthermore, EFL teachers utilized various functions of ChatGPT
to support teaching tasks. For instance, the primary purposes of using ChatGPT
among participants included creating exercises and questions (78.3%), lesson plan-
ning (61.6%), professional development (61.6%), suggesting teaching materials
(51.4%), and solving students’ problems (51.4%). Creating tests and grading were
less commonly used, accounting for around 30% each.
Table 4 showed mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis for 21 items.
All items had skewness values ranging from −1.530 and 0.285 (lower than the
threshold of |3.0|) and kurtosis values varying between −0.652 and 3.402 (lower
than the threshold of |8.0|), indicating a symmetrical and normal distribution of data
The Role of Supportive Environments in Shaping EFL Teachers’ … 65

Table 2 Demographic characteristics of EFL teachers (N = 176)

Measure Item Frequency Percentage (%)
Gender Male 64 36.4
Female 112 63.6
Age 18–24 57 32.4
25–30 85 48.3
31–40 26 14.8
>40 8 4.5
Education High school (or below) 0 0
University/College 110 62.5
Master’s degree (or above) 66 37.5
Teaching experience <1 year 27 15.3
1–3 years 57 32.4
4–10 years 73 41.5
11–15 years 10 5.7
>15 years 9 5.1
English level IELTS 5.0–6.5 61 34.7
IELTS 7.0–8.0 78 44.3
IELTS > 8.0 37 21.0

Table 3 EFL teachers’ use of ChatGPT

Measure Item Frequency (N = 176) Percentage (%)
Usage frequency Never 0 0
Seldom 5 2.8
Sometimes 70 39.8
Usually 73 41.5
Always 28 15.9
Function Lesson planning 108 61.6
Suggesting teaching materials 91 51.4
Creating exercises and questions 138 78.3
Creating quizzes and tests 65 37.0
Grading 48 27.5
Solving students’ problems 91 51.4
Professional development 108 61.6
66 N. H. M. Tram and V. Tran-Thanh

Table 4 Descriptive data of the constructs

Construct Item Mean SD Kurtosis Skewness
Attitude ATT1 3.868 0.881 1.017 −0.779
ATT2 4.162 0.815 3.363 −1.377
ATT3 3.838 0.885 0.953 −0.771
ATT4 3.676 0.882 0.439 −0.420
Facilitating conditions FCO1 2.816 0.987 −0.612 0.285
FCO2 2.875 1.003 −0.631 0.078
FCO3 2.721 0.960 −0.652 0.185
Perceived ease of use PEU1 3.757 1.074 0.671 −0.940
PEU2 3.713 1.014 0.576 −0.724
PEU3 3.787 1.067 0.436 −0.885
Perceived usefulness PUF1 3.596 0.835 1.236 −0.653
PUF2 3.566 1.020 0.049 −0.602
PUF3 3.912 0.951 2.349 −1.327
PUF4 3.699 0.965 0.799 −0.751
Social influence SIN1 3.331 0.963 0.036 −0.259
SIN2 3.199 1.035 −0.373 −0.005
SIN3 3.309 0.966 −0.308 −0.063
Continuance intention CIN1 4.103 0.851 2.593 −1.285
CIN2 3.963 0.878 1.493 −0.983
CIN3 4.213 0.780 2.895 −1.241
CIN4 4.382 0.786 3.402 −1.530

[83]. Participants showed positive perceptions towards social influence, perceived

ease of use, perceived usefulness, attitude, and continuance intention because of the
high mean values (greater than 3) and the low level of variability regarding these
items. However, participants perceived facilitating conditions as low, with the values
ranging between 2.721 and 2.875.

4.2 Common Method Variation

In terms of common method variance (CMV), Harman’s single-factor test is chosen

for its simplicity and popularity. In this study, Harman’s single-factor with six vari-
ables (social influence, facilitating conditions, perceived usefulness, perceived ease
of use, attitude, and continuance intention) was conducted. The six variables were
consolidated into a single variable. The results showed that the largest variance
explained by the single variable accounted for 31.35%, which is below the threshold
The Role of Supportive Environments in Shaping EFL Teachers’ … 67

Table 5 Validity and reliability analysis

Construct Item Factor Cronbach’s Composite Average variance
loading alpha reliability (CR) extracted (AVE)
Attitude ATT1 0.899 0.888 0.923 0.749
ATT2 0.895
ATT3 0.887
ATT4 0.775
Facilitating FCO1 0.920 0.891 0.931 0.819
conditions FCO2 0.933
FCO3 0.859
Perceived ease PEU1 0.936 0.917 0.948 0.858
of use PEU2 0.926
PEU3 0.918
Perceived PUF1 0.799 0.869 0.911 0.720
usefulness PUF2 0.787
PUF3 0.906
PUF4 0.897
Social SIN1 0.911 0.833 0.899 0.749
influence SIN2 0.878
SIN3 0.802
Continuance CIN1 0.854 0.905 0.933 0.777
intention CIN2 0.851
CIN3 0.926
CIN4 0.893

value of 50% [84]. This suggests that there are no CMV issues with the collected
data.

4.3 Measurement Model

This stage involved evaluating the reliability, convergent validity and discriminant
validity. Table 5 reveals that all constructs possess acceptable factor loading values
ranging from 0.775 to 0.936, greater than the recommended value of ≥0.7 [85].
Cronbach’s alpha and CR values are higher than 0.7, indicating fairly good internal
consistency and reliability [86]. AVE values of all constructs are also reported to
be higher than 0.5, producing the convergent validity of the scale [85]. In addi-
tion, discriminant validity was examined by comparing the square roots of the AVE
with the inter-construct correlations [87]. The diagonal elements were greater than
the correlations of the construct with other constructs in Table 6, confirming the
68 N. H. M. Tram and V. Tran-Thanh

Table 6 Discriminant validity (Fornell-Larcker)

Factors ATT FAC PEU PUF SIN CIN
ATT 0.866
FAC 0.081 0.905
PEU 0.523 0.191 0.926
PUF 0.691 0.085 0.550 0.849
SIN 0.418 -0.016 0.273 0.415 0.866
CIN 0.664 0.129 0.456 0.564 0.374 0.882
Note The values bolded on the diagonal are the square root of AVE

Table 7 Discriminant validity (HTMT)

Factors ATT FAC PEU PUF SIN CIN
ATT
FAC 0.109
PEU 0.576 0.204
PUF 0.782 0.144 0.611
SIN 0.475 0.072 0.303 0.478
CIN 0.725 0.154 0.497 0.628 0.421

discriminant validity of all constructs. HTMT values are also reported as one of
the modern tools for analyzing discriminant validity [88]. All values of the HTMT
are appropriately below 0.85, indicating that discriminant validity is satisfied in this
study (Table 7).

4.4 Structural Model

In this study, the path significance was assessed using bootstrapping with 5000 resam-
ples (see Table 8). Based on the PLS-SEM analysis, social influence is a significant
predictor of perceived usefulness (β = 0.285, p < 0.001) and perceived ease of use
(β = 0.280, p < 0.01), supporting H7 and H8. Facilitating conditions had positive
influences on perceived ease of use (β = 0.195, p < 0.05) but no significant relation-
ship is found between facilitating conditions and perceived usefulness (β = 0.001, p
= 0.994). Perceived ease of use significantly influences perceived usefulness (β =
0.470; p < 0.001) and attitude (β = 0.206; p < 0.05), supporting H3 and H4. Likewise,
H2 is significant as perceived usefulness significantly predicts attitude (β = 0.578;
p < 0.001). Attitude is a strong predictor of continuance intention (β = 0.664; p <
0.001).
In addition to the path analysis, the results of coefficient of determination (R2),
effect size (f2), and predictive relevance (Q2) are also reported. As shown in Fig. 2, the
The Role of Supportive Environments in Shaping EFL Teachers’ … 69

Table 8 Path analysis

Hypothesis Coefficient t values p-value f2 Decision
ATT→CIN 0.664 8.369*** 0.000 0.789a Accepted
FAC→PEU 0.195 2.263* 0.024 0.043c Accepted
FAC→PUF 0.001 0.008 0.994 0.000 Rejected
PEU→ATT 0.206 2.500* 0.012 0.060c Accepted
PEU→PUF 0.470 6.016*** 0.000 0.314b Accepted
PUF→ATT 0.578 8.871*** 0.000 0.473a Accepted
SIN→PEU 0.280 2.868** 0.004 0.089c Accepted
SIN→PUF 0.285 3.773*** 0.000 0.120c Accepted
p: * < 0.05; ** < 0.01; *** < 0.001
a Large effect size
b Medium effect size
c Small effect size

Fig. 2 Structural model (PLS-SEM results)

model has 44.1% explanatory power for continuance intention, 50.7% for attitude,
37.7% for perceived usefulness, and 11.5% for perceived ease of use, suggesting
a satisfactory and substantive model [89]. The effect sizes (f2) are measured to
understand a predictor’s effect on an endogenous construct. f2 values higher than
0.02, 0.15, 0.35 indicate small, medium, and large effects [90]. Table 8 illustrates that
the strongest effect size emerges on the relationship between attitude and continuance
intention (f2 = 0.789), while the weakest one is between facilitating conditions and
perceived ease of use (f2 = 0.043). However, facilitating conditions have no effect
size on perceived usefulness (f2 = 0.000). Regarding predictive relevance, Q2 values
exceeding 0 suggest that the exogenous constructs have predictive relevance for the
endogenous construct being examined [91]. The Q2 values of the structural model are
70 N. H. M. Tram and V. Tran-Thanh

0.311 for continuance intention, 0.346 for attitude, 0.253 for perceived usefulness,
and 0.091 for perceived ease of use. These results promote the predictive relevance
of the model for all four endogenous variables.

5 Discussion and Implications

This research aims to investigate the primary determinants affecting EFL teachers’
utilization of ChatGPT in educational settings. The research framework expands
upon the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) by incorporating external factors
such as supporting environments. The conceptual model validates seven out of eight
hypotheses, enhancing the TAM’s effectiveness in elucidating users’ acceptance of
emerging technologies. Noteworthy insights derived from descriptive statistics and
path analysis are elaborated upon in the subsequent discussion.
The results of the descriptive analysis contribute to our comprehension of the
diverse applications of ChatGPT in facilitating teaching-related activities. EFL
teachers employ ChatGPT for various purposes, including creating exercises and
questions, planning lessons, engaging in professional development, seeking teaching
materials, and addressing students’ issues. This aligns with findings from studies by
Farrokhnia et al. [33], Kohnke et al. [41], and Rudolph et al. [12], underscoring
ChatGPT’s effective support throughout most phases of the teaching process. Due to
the significant benefits offered by ChatGPT, EFL teachers make regular use of this
chatbot, as evidenced in the present study. Additionally, these teachers expressed
positive perceptions regarding its usefulness, ease of use, attitude, and intention to
continue use. This concurs with previous research conducted by Bin-Hady et al.
[20], Liu and Ma [21], and Mohamed [92], highlighting the satisfaction levels and
usage intentions across diverse user groups, including students, writers, and teachers.
This widespread acceptance is attributed to the capabilities of ChatGPT in the era of
artificial intelligence [93].
The findings also show that facilitating conditions strongly predict perceived ease
of use of ChatGPT, which is consistent with previous research [51, 70, 76]. This
suggests that instructors may find using ChatGPT less demanding than anticipated
when resources like technical assistance and training are available. However, the
study’s results did not support the relationship between facilitating conditions and
perceived usefulness, which is similar to studies such as Teo et al. [71] and Habibi
et al. [51]. At the time of this study, ChatGPT had not yet fully risen to prominence,
and thus its use in educational settings was still largely experimental and lacked clear
policy guidelines. This resulted in a basic level of support for ChatGPT functions,
leaving educators hesitant to fully embrace its potential and ultimately not perceiving
it as a significant benefit to their teaching. In addition, social influence strongly
influences perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use of ChatGPT, corroborated
by various studies underscoring social influence as a crucial factor in chatbot adoption
across diverse domains [94–96]. As per Fernandes and Oliveira [97], individuals are
The Role of Supportive Environments in Shaping EFL Teachers’ … 71

more inclined to embrace technology when they perceive the technology is widely
accepted by society and peers.
The current research has also validated that the acceptance of AI among EFL
teachers is significantly influenced by perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness.
Notably, the attitude towards usage is significantly affected by perceived usefulness
and perceived ease of use, which comes in line with previous studies [21, 52]. When
technology use is perceived as enhancing productivity with minimal effort [41],
teachers are inclined to develop a positive attitude towards its adoption [98]. The
findings reveal a significant positive impact of perceived ease of use on perceived
usefulness, consistent with earlier studies [21, 66]. This means that the greater the
ease of use of ChatGPT, the more teachers recognize its usefulness in supporting
their teaching activities. Furthermore, attitude plays a significant role in predicting
the intention to use, supporting prior research [53, 61]. The positive feelings toward
the use of ChatGPT among teachers reinforce their intentions to incorporate this
chatbot into their teaching practices.

5.1 Implications

To the best of our knowledge, this chapter is among the first to examine how EFL
teachers adopt ChatGPT to support teaching activities, particularly in the Vietnamese
context, paving the way for further explorations into ChatGPT usage and other
similar AI-based chatbots. This chapter introduces a theoretical model that expands
on the TAM by incorporating factors related to supportive environments, which is
believed to impact teachers’ integration of ChatGPT for their work-related tasks. This
enhances our understanding of the determinants influencing the use of AI-powered
chatbots in unexplored contexts, such as EFL. This study also contributes to the
existing literature on TAM, educational technology, and AI-powered chatbots. The
insights gained from this research could set the foundation for subsequent studies
aiming to understand user behaviors related to ChatGPT and other tools powered by
AI technology.
This chapter presents key relationships that serve as a vital reference point for
diverse stakeholders. Policymakers can inform more effective educational strategies,
while training program designers can tailor curricula to better prepare language
teachers for technology integration. Importantly, these insights can balance the
top-down nature of professional development by providing bottom-up data to
guide teacher education in technology use. For AI developers targeting education,
understanding these relationships paves the way for crafting products that better
address the language learning context. Finally, the identified relationships empower
language teachers seeking self-directed learning to develop personalized plans for
incorporating AI into their classrooms.
72 N. H. M. Tram and V. Tran-Thanh

5.2 Limitations and Future Research

The present research is not without limitations. First, only 176 observations were
collected from a group of Vietnamese EFL teachers. Further research is encouraged to
increase the sample size and cross-validate the generalizability of our findings in other
cultural contexts. Second, the conceptual model was confined to only two external
factors that may correlate directly with the TAM constructs, and did not consider
the role of moderating variables, such as demographic information, in examining
the use of ChatGPT. Accordingly, future studies may integrate other antecedents and
moderators that impact the willingness of teachers to use chatbots. Third, the present
study relied on self-report questionnaires for data collection, which may introduce
biases and reduce the validity of the findings. Subsequent research should collect
qualitative data, such as observations or interviews to offer a more comprehensive
picture of teachers’ adoption of ChatGPT for supporting teaching activities.

6 Conclusion

In the digital age, AI technologies powered by various advanced large language

models are increasingly reshaping the global landscape. With the growing integra-
tion of AI in education, it becomes imperative for educators, who are responsible
for future education, to familiarize themselves with this technology. Our chapter
aims to contribute to understanding EFL teachers’ acceptance of AI technology in
education by using TAM. The results reveal that EFL teachers make regular use
of ChatGPT for various purposes, such as creating exercises and questions, plan-
ning lessons, engaging in professional development, seeking teaching materials, and
addressing students’ issues. Another noteworthy finding is that supportive environ-
ments, including social influence and facilitating conditions, play a crucial role in
the acceptance to use AI-powered chatbots among EFL teachers. While facilitating
conditions only influence perceived ease of use, social influence strongly impacts
both perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness. Theoretically, the insights gained
in this study enhance our understanding of the determinants influencing the use of
AI-powered chatbots in EFL contexts. This study also contributes to the existing liter-
ature on TAM, educational technology, and AI-powered chatbots. Practically, this
study offers significant recommendations for educational institutions to cultivate
supportive environments for EFL teachers.
The Role of Supportive Environments in Shaping EFL Teachers’ … 73

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Nguyen Hoang Mai Tram is a lecturer at Ho Chi Minh City University of Foreign Languages–
Information Technology, Vietnam. She holds a Master’s degree in TESOL from Nottingham Trent
University and another Master’s degree in Economics from the University of Huddersfield, United
Kingdom. Her research interests include AI in language education, technology-enhanced language
learning, and teacher education.

Vu Tran-Thanh is a doctoral candidate at Durham University, United Kingdom. His doctoral

project is funded by the Economic and Social Research Council of the United Kingdom. Vu
founded and runs TESOL Research Collaboration Network, a professional learning community
for early-career researchers in Vietnam. Besides, he serves on the Steering Committee of the
Teacher Educator Interest Section of TESOL International. Vu’s research interests include teacher
education and professional development and queer inquiry in language education.
EFL Writing Teachers’ Agency
in Response to AI Emergence
from an Ecological Perspective

Hoang Le-Khanh, Khoa Do, and Vu Tran-Thanh

Abstract This chapter reports a qualitative study on the agency formation of English
as a Foreign Language (EFL) writing teachers amidst the rise of Artificial Intelli-
gence (AI). Teacher agency holds significance in educational discourse as agency
supports educators’ professional growth and enables them to adeptly navigate the
dynamics of educational environments and enhance student outcomes. Data were
collected from computer-assisted live personal interviews with seven Vietnamese
experienced teachers. Using the ecological model framework (Priestley et al. in
Teacher agency: an ecological approach, 1st edn. Bloomsbury Academic [1]) and
a thematic analysis process (Braun and Clarke in Qual Res Psychol 3:77–101 [2]),
the study uncovered a complex relationship between EFL teachers and AI tools like
ChatGPT. Results show the teachers’ reluctance to accept AI due to adherence to
traditional pedagogies, lack of clear AI integration guidelines, and concerns over AI’s
accuracy and potential misuse. The findings suggest that, in AI’s early integration
stage, teachers’ professional agency evolves independently of AI influences, viewing
AI as a supplementary, non-disruptive tool in language education. Implications for
teacher education and training are discussed.

Keywords AI · Ecological perspective · EFL writing · Language education ·

Teacher agency and AI

H. Le-Khanh
Independent Researcher, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
K. Do
The National College of Education Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
V. Tran-Thanh (B)
Durham University, Durham DH1 3LE, UK
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 79

H. P. Bui and E. Namaziandost (eds.), Innovations in Technologies for Language
Teaching and Learning, Studies in Computational Intelligence 1159,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-63447-5_5
80 H. Le-Khanh et al.

1 Introduction

The advent of artificial intelligence (AI) has ushered in a new era of innovation across
diverse sectors, with industries globally harnessing its potential to drive efficiency and
performance [3]. Within the realm of education, AI’s prowess is evident, with many
tools being developed to aid and revolutionise traditional teaching practices, from
tracking student progress to tailoring learning trajectories and automating evaluation
processes [4–6].
Zooming in on the domain of English as a foreign language (EFL) writing
instruction, the influence of AI is particularly profound. AI-powered tools such as
ChatGPT have emerged as indispensable assets for EFL writing educators, assisting
in providing precise feedback, clarifying ambiguities, and introducing novel tech-
niques for assessing written work in teachers’ stead [4, 7]. Nevertheless, given the
wide range of forms of digital competence required to utilise AI effectively [8],
the extent to which EFL writing teachers can exercise their agency in integrating
these tools into their instructional practices remains uncertain and in fact largely
unexplored.
The discussion of teacher agency in this context holds significance in educa-
tional discourse as agency supports educators’ professional growth and enables
them to adeptly navigate the dynamics of educational environments and enhance
student outcomes [9, 10]. Moreover, as the educational landscape continually evolves
and new AI technologies become more prevalent therein, the enduring, temporally
constructed nature of teacher agency ensures educators remain adept and relevant
throughout their professional trajectory [11]. Thus, a comprehensive understanding
of teacher agency and its formation as AI emerges and develops is crucial for the
ongoing betterment and resilience of the educational sector, which is what this chapter
aims to contribute to.
Considering these circumstances and drawing from the current literature and
understanding of EFL teacher agency, this paper aims to explore what the emer-
gence of AI means to the formation of EFL writing teachers’ agency, particularly in
the Vietnamese EFL teaching context. Specifically, it aims to address this research
question: How do EFL writing teachers form their agency in response to the rise of
AI as a writing assistant?
Based in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, this research offers a qualitative exploration
into the perspectives of seasoned EFL educators. Employing online semi-structured
interviews for data collection, we then applied a six-step thematic analysis model
proposed by Braun and Clarke [2] to interpret the insights gathered. This chapter
commences with a literature review, setting the stage for a delineation of the research
design, participant criteria, and data collection method. Finally, it highlights the
profound implications at the juncture of education and AI, offering valuable insights
for educators, policymakers, and academic researchers in the field.
EFL Writing Teachers’ Agency in Response to AI Emergence … 81

2 Literature Review

2.1 Language Teacher Agency

Language teacher agency is commonly conceptualised as a language teacher’s

capacity to navigate, make informed decisions, and execute actions within their
professional environment, thereby influencing their roles and countering feelings of
negativity and powerlessness [10, 12–14]
Considered indispensable for effective and meaningful professional learning [15],
this concept has gained prominence in recent times [16], with its definition reflecting
perspectives that mirror the multifaceted nature of educational research. It entails a
teacher’s ability to proactively shape their pedagogical approaches and professional
trajectory [17–20] while also emerging from the interaction between an individual
and their contextual factors, such as discourses and power dynamics [21, 22]
The formation and understanding of language teacher agency have been explored
through various theoretical lenses. The paradigm derived from social cognitive theory
underscores individuals as active agents, highlighting components like perceived
effectiveness, purposeful intent, and introspection, and categorises human agency
into personal, proxy, and collective forms [23]. Meanwhile, positioning theory
provides a lens to understand behaviour and interactions within educational settings,
focusing on components like storyline, speech acts, and positions, and has been
pivotal in exploring classroom dynamics and identity formation [24–27]
However, the ecological model developed by Priestley and colleagues [1] is
perhaps one of the most widely acknowledged and adopted [20, 22]. It presents
teacher agency as a temporally and contextually grounded achievement shaped by
the interaction of the iterational, practical-evaluative, and projective dimensions, with
time playing a considerable role in the interplay between them [28]. According to
Kayi-Aydar and colleagues [22], this ecological model is the most thorough approach
to conceptualising the agency of language teachers. This may be due to the fact that
language teacher agency is developed over time rather than being merely a singular
event [11], and also because of the ongoing changes in their professional lives, such
as the emergence of AI, which necessitates their active response using their agency
[29].
Regardless of the lens through which it is interpreted, this concept is pivotal in
shaping language teachers’ perceptions and responses to dynamic changes within
their teaching contexts and has a profound impact on how educators practise their
profession amidst school agendas and policies [30–32].
82 H. Le-Khanh et al.

2.2 Language Teacher Agency in the Context of Emerging AI

The recent emergence of advanced artificial intelligence tools such as ChatGPT, while
signifying a potential pedagogical paradigm shift [4, 33, 34], poses critical questions
concerning the roles and positions of language teachers in their own classrooms.
From curriculum formulation to feedback provision and quiz generation, AI has
been instrumental in augmenting the efficiency of instructional processes, and within
the EFL writing domain, it has the potential to support teachers, for example by
automatically providing immediate feedback and explanations [7] and creating novel
techniques for evaluating written work [4]. Despite this, AI models like ChatGPT
may still struggle with learning new information, can be overconfident in incorrect
responses, and may produce inconsistent or biassed content, even with programming
interventions [35]. If teachers become too dependent on AI language models such as
ChatGPT, they may fail to utilise the creativity and thinking skills naturally in their
possession [36], and the increasing indistinguishability between machine and human-
created content can make it more and more challenging to deal with plagiarism
[37].
Besides that, there is a gap between between basic digital proficiency and AI-
specific competencies among educators [38], and that many educational stakeholders,
be it individual teachers or institutions, are facing challenges in effectively incorpo-
rating these advanced technologies into their teaching practices [8, 39]. This, coupled
with students’ increasing preference and favourable perception of AI models such as
ChatGPT for language learning [40–42], can give AI the potential to replace language
teachers in the very tasks where it currently holds a supporting role.
This discussion is critical in the sense that sound pedagogical decisions in the
EFL writing classroom can be arguably partly or primarily, if not entirely be made
by AI models. Such a scenario positions language writing teachers at an identity
crisis of what roles to take and consequently what authority to possess in their own
professional space. Without a robust sense of agency when acting as change agents
in their teaching contexts, language teachers may fail to successfully respond to the
diverse challenges that AI presents. It remains largely uncertain whether language
teacher agency would be enhanced or diminished as artificial intelligence emerges
and develops, leading to the need for more research to be conducted.

3 The Present Study

3.1 Context

This study focused on English as a Foreign Language (EFL), specifically on Viet-

namese teachers specialising in writing. Participants were selected based on these
criteria:
EFL Writing Teachers’ Agency in Response to AI Emergence … 83

• Teaching experience: All participants had a minimum of five years of experience

in teaching EFL writing, surpassing the novice teacher stage as defined by Gordon
and colleagues [43]. This group presents a significant interest for research, given
their noted resistance to change [44].
• Language proficiency: Each achieved a minimum C1 level according to CEFR,
indicating advanced English proficiency, and this also corresponds with Vietnam’s
national standard for English teachers at high school and university levels [45].
• Educational background: All held at least a Bachelor’s degree in TESOL or
English Linguistics or higher, which serves as an indicator of their content and
pedagogical knowledge.

3.2 The Framework

Our study employed a qualitative approach to explore the intersection of Artifi-

cial Intelligence (AI) and teacher agency in EFL writing instruction. Grounded on
Priestley et al.‘s [1] theoretical framework of teacher agency, our primary aim was
to uncover how AI technologies as a contextual factor influenced teacher agency
and shaped EFL writing instruction dynamics. This qualitative design provided
deep insights into the lived experiences and perspectives of EFL writing teachers,
contributing to a nuanced understanding of the phenomena under investigation.
Priestley’s [1] ecological model stands as the most comprehensive and widely
adopted framework for conceptualising teacher agency [22]. In this paradigm, teacher
agency is conceived as the educator’s capacity to critically shape their responses to
challenging situations, viewed as a temporal and contextually grounded achieve-
ment resulting from the interaction of three dimensions: (1) iterational dimension,
which encompasses a teacher’s life history and professional biographies, reflecting
their accumulated experiences and background; (2) practical-evaluative dimension,
which includes cultural, structural, and material features; and (3) projective dimen-
sion, which involves the long- and short-term orientations of a teacher’s actions
as well as their aspirations. In this model, professional experiences, present posi-
tions, relationships, impacts, and future possibilities all contribute to shaping teacher
agency, with time playing a considerable role in the interplay between the dimensions
[28]
Due to the nature of their area of work, there are additional, unique factors that can
influence language teachers’ sense of agency, especially their anxiety over linguistic
abilities [22]. In addition, while having a different mother tongue than English, EFL
teachers in the context of this study often work in the face of the prevailing native-
speakerism ideology and the resulting discrimination concerning their legitimacy
to teach English [46, 47]. Compounding this issue, comparisons could be made
between their linguistic skills and the capabilities of generative AI, which can produce
language akin to that of a native speaker. A sense of agency, therefore, plays a
vital role, particularly in guiding language teachers’ professional development and
contributing to their ability to draw on linguistic concepts such as multi-competence,
84 H. Le-Khanh et al.

Table 1 Participants’ profiles

Participant Gender Language proficiency Teaching Qualifications
(based on CEFR) experience
(years)
Ken Male C1 6 BA in English Linguistics +
TESOL course
May Female C1 5 MA in TESOL
Laura Female C1 5 MA in TESOL + CELTA
Harry Female C1 6 MA in TESOL + CELTA
Summer Female C1 6 BA in English Linguistics
Titania Male C1 6 BA in English Linguistics, MA
in TESOL (in progress)
Kayla Female C1 10 MA in TESOL

multilingualism, and translingual competence to navigate and reshape the discourse

surrounding their roles and gain recognition as competent English educators [29].
Finally, in line with the view that tools and social interactions influence agency [48–
50], the emergence of AI, along with interaction with students and fellow teachers
who use it, can be another crucial contextual factor influencing language teacher
agency.

3.3 Participant Recruitment

The recruitment process began with a researcher-designed form outlining partici-

pation criteria, ethics, and study objectives. This ensured transparency and clarified
rights and data confidentiality for potential participants. In a month, 12 Vietnamese
teachers completed the form. After review, seven teachers were selected, and the
Table 1 presents the profile of the participants.

3.4 Data Collection

To collect data, we conducted several semi-structured interviews. This approach

enabled us to gather rich and detailed data while maintaining a structured yet adapt-
able framework for dialogue. Our interviews took place online via Google Meet,
aligning with contemporary remote interaction norms and ensuring accessibility and
convenience for both the researchers and participants. All interviews were audio-
recorded with the participants’ consent to ensure accuracy in data transcription and
to facilitate a rigorous analysis process. After data collection, the recordings were
meticulously transcribed by the researchers. This process involved converting the
EFL Writing Teachers’ Agency in Response to AI Emergence … 85

audio recordings into written text, followed by repeated reviews of the recordings to
ensure accuracy in the transcription.

3.5 Data Analysis

Our study’s data analysis was conducted following the six-phase process of thematic
analysis recommended by Braun and Clarke [2], which involves familiarisation with
the data, generating initial codes, identifying themes, reviewing these themes, and
defining and naming them.
Initially, the first transcription was co-analysed by all three researchers where
issues were addressed and agreements were reached. All other transcriptions were
analysed by at least two researchers. We did not calculate inter-rater reliability but
rather had multiple discussions to reach an analysis consensus.

4 Findings

4.1 AI as Useful Resources and a Helpful Assistant,

but not a Complete Replacement

One theme that arises from the data is that AI tools were generally considered as useful
resources that helped them handle a great variety of tasks, some of which were previ-
ously very difficult or technically impossible. The participants first acknowledged the
usefulness of AI, which assisted them in various aspects of teaching writing. Those
include correcting students’ essays, generating ideas, generating useful lexical items,
providing samples of different levels, providing personalised improved versions and
instant feedback, and, albeit to a limited extent, letting the students use the tools
themselves. A commonality which all of the participants agreed on was that they all
consider AI tools as a useful assistant, calling them ‘super convenient’, ‘time-saving’
and ‘surprisingly quick’. Below are May and Harry’s accounts of the ‘ChatGPT
hype’.
Well, ChatGPT is like my assistant. [..]. Whenever I teach a new writing topic, for example,
I ask ChatGPT to generate ideas and it does the job pretty quick. (May)
Initially I was awe-struck—it enabled me to achieve what writing teachers have always
aspired to do: offer students personalised enhancements to their essays. The students’ original
ideas are maintained, but expressed in a more concise and professional way. (Harry)

Amazed as they were initially, the participants also shared that they considered
ChatGPT as additional resources rather than important enablers that heavily influ-
enced their pedagogical decision making process. AI tools were generally considered
‘nice to have but not that necessary’ by all participants, and after the initial phase of
86 H. Le-Khanh et al.

excitement waned, the participants began to decrease their usage. Five participants
reported that they either reduced their usage or stopped using ChatGPT entirely after
about a month. For instance,
Initially, when ChatGPT emerged and gained popularity, especially for its potential in lesson
planning, I was intrigued and decided to give it a try. However, after experimenting with it a
few times, I gradually stopped using it. In fact, it’s been almost two months now since I last
accessed ChatGPT. (Harry)

The decline or complete cessation in the participants’ usage of AI tools can be

attributed to three main factors. Firstly, teachers’ confidence in their well-established
lesson plans and materials plays a significant role. All participants expressed that they
have not yet explored ChatGPT for creating new content and lesson plans (some of
them think that it sounds feasible, but they ended up not using them), as they were
satisfied with their existing resources.
(When asked about why she had not used ChatGPT in making lesson plans) There’s actually
no specific reason at all to be honest. It’s just that I feel comfortable with my current way
of preparing lessons. Adding anything more would be tiring, especially as I’m still figuring
out how my students are doing and where I need to improve. (Kayla)

The second factor is the teachers’ concerns over the quality and accuracy of the
contents and suggestions generated by ChatGPT, and the possibility of AI tools being
used as a ‘cheating’ tool. May said that ChatGPT was ‘not as effective as expected’
as they tended to provide feedback that was either unhelpful or too general. Harry
also agreed to this, saying that it was ‘pretty bad in spotting errors’ and its grading
according to the IELTS band descriptor was flawed most of the time. Laura expressed
her concerns about the possibility of ChatGPT being used as a cheating tool, and
Harry also responded to this matter, remarking that he would not be able to know
whether the students cheated or not as AI-detection tools appeared ‘ineffective’ and
that he awaited ‘further instructions’ from the institutions on the matter. Harry and
Kayla felt that ChatGPT were noticeably flawed when marking essays and they did
not highly regard ChatGPT as a replacement for teachers in marking essays. As
Kayla remarked,
I am the one who needs to take the main role of correcting essays. ChatGPT is just assisting.
I can’t use all of the feedback the tool is giving; there is always a situation when I need to
add more details to their general feedback (Kayla).

The final factor entails the fact that in the institutions they were working at,
AI-related professional development opportunities, regulations and guidelines were
scarce. The participants expressed that there was a notable absence of well-defined
policies and guidance concerning the integration of AI in teaching and learning.
Harry pointed out that the training offerings were primarily confined to occasional
workshops, while Titania underscored the fact that their school had yet to take any
substantial steps in the direction of AI integration:
There isn’t even the faintest indication of the school taking any action on this matter [i.e.
providing guidance and training related to AI]. You see, I’m employed at a public university,
and any sort of change can take a lot of time (Titania).
EFL Writing Teachers’ Agency in Response to AI Emergence … 87

In addition to the lack of institutional guidance, the participants also did not
face collegial pressure; the shared consensus among the participants was that their
colleagues did not use AI tools a lot either. Kayla remarked that they ‘all heard about
it but did not even know how to use them’, and Summer noted that even when the boss
did a training session on how to use ChatGPT, her colleagues appeared unaffected.
They (Summer’s colleagues) said learning how to use ChatGPT is too much work. Google,
coupled with their own materials and handouts, is all they need. (Summer)

4.2 Independent Formation of Agency

Overall, the data reveals that the formation of teachers’ agency developed indepen-
dently of most influences from ChatGPT. The overall response of the participants to
AI in their professional environment was marked by a sense of normalcy: they viewed
the emergence of AI into their work environment as something normal and not out
of the ordinary. They adapted to it as a regular part of their job without significant
disruption. Their minimal engagement with AI technologies was evidenced through
their professional competence and their projective professional purposes.
Regarding professional competence, their technological pedagogical content
knowledge, especially the AI-related domain, was either experience-based and/or
from a community of practice. They emphasised the fact that their introduction to
AI, particularly chatbots like ChatGPT, marked their very first encounter with such an
advanced technology in their teaching practice, and they described their experiences
as ‘largely trial-based’ (Harry), ‘fragmented’ (Ken) and ‘filled with uncertainties’
(May). For example, Titania described her close-to-zero knowledge of ChatGPT:
I heard a lot about ChatGPT and stuff. I was bombarded with posts from Teacher Alan about
ChatGPT and I read all of them, but still I haven’t ‘downloaded’ the app. (Titania)

Unlike Titania, Ken and Summer were more frequent users, but they admitted
that they were not professionally trained on how to use it and most of what they had
known about AI tools came from posts of an online-based teacher community of
practice, which Ken cited the fear of missing out (‘FOMO’) as his main source of
motivation.
My AI knowledge mainly comes from Teacher Alan’s group, a great resource for learning and
skill enhancement through experimenting with prompts, despite my lack of formal training
in AI. (Summer)
Yes, I do feel FOMO. It is undeniable. it would be a missed opportunity if I didn’t begin
using it myself. (Ken)

Overall, their knowledge regarding the employment of AI as a pedagogical instru-

ment was relatively limited and was primarily obtained through actual usage and
communities of practice rather than formal or systematic learning.
With regard to the professional purposes, the teachers’ future goals centred around
two interconnected, overlapping domains: developing themselves professionally in
88 H. Le-Khanh et al.

general and improving the way they teach writing in particular. A notable recurring
theme is the limited or almost absent mention of AI in the long-term professional
goals of the participants. Four over seven participants did not include AI in their long-
term professional plans, and two mentioned them very briefly, with May remarking:
(when asked about AI-related long term plans) long term goals? (10 seconds of pauses) No,
no, there is no such a thing. I think I’ll probably just learn from other teachers by reading
posts about AI tools, but no long term goal is formed just yet. (May)

Ken was the only participant that included AI as a direct factor shaping his
future goals. He remarked that ChatGPT is ‘part of the reason’ why he decided
to pursue a Master’s degree next year. He mistakenly harboured an expectation that
a Master’s degree would enable him to effectively understand and utilise ChatGPT,
which indicates a misunderstanding of what a Master’s in TESOL might entail.

5 Discussion

Despite the well-expected potential to ‘revolutionise’ language education [51, 52], it

appears from our analysis that AI only had a slight impact on the teacher-participants’
agency formation. Considering AI as a form of assistance or resources rather than a
threat, the participants exhibited a kind of agency significantly characterised by their
pedagogical competence as well as a low degree of contextual influence.
The insights gained from how the participants did not treat AI as a threatening
opponent to their teaching position offered a variety of understandings on the relation-
ship between their personal beliefs about technologies, professional background and
AI-related competence. The teachers’ initial amazement at AI in the classroom gave
way to a belief in language education’s stability, mirroring Tran-Thanh et al.‘s [53]
discussion of personal technology beliefs and Walker and Whitney’s [54] description
of teachers’ reactions to new technologies.
It is worth noting that the emergence of AI chatbots has stirred up many aspects of
life, including education, and the teachers, therefore, approached them as both regular
persons (with a good educational background) and teaching professionals. While the
participants confirmed their curiosity, interest and fascination in AI chatbots due to
the unprecedented “marvels” they could perform, their influence was halted at the
level of acceptance - similar to what Jangjarat and colleagues [55] have founded.
Comparably, AI chatbots’ abilities were perceived with eventual moderate interest
in the language classroom. That the teachers did not believe that AI could replace
them was supported by their critics of AI’s inabilities in many tasks as well as their
confidence in teachers’ human traits.
Such a combination of personal and professional beliefs, coloured by their
minimal involvement and competence of AI usage, resulted in an independent forma-
tion of agency. It is relatively interesting to argue that a low level of knowledge and
competence also gets teachers rid of the feelings of being professionally threatened.
EFL Writing Teachers’ Agency in Response to AI Emergence … 89

In addition, the formation of the participants’ agency developed in a unique

approach of minimal to virtually no contextual pressure. Without any institutional
AI-related policy, the teachers enjoyed the freedom to either employ AI in various
methods and degrees or to reject AI tools after a period of experimentation. Their
pedagogical practices, therefore, were only slightly affected by AI emergence. This
behaviour is reflective of the concept proposed by Holland et al. [56] and later by
Hsieh [57], which suggests that individual agency and identity are shaped through
either resistance or creative improvisation in response to authoritative discourses.
In this context, the teachers’ choices represent a form of ‘internally persuasive
discourse’ as described by Holland [56, p.182], where the ‘self’ engages with external
power sources not necessarily through confrontation, but through personal adaptation
and selective adoption of tools and practices. Such an argument has been advanced
by Tran-Thanh et al. [51] when they mentioned how various contextual degrees may
have different effects on the formation of identity and agency.
On a collegial level, it is evident from the study that the participants experienced
minimal pressure from their peers. One possible form of collegial influence coming
out of this study is from an online-based community of practice. Interestingly, the
study reveals that these teachers did not perceive the fact that other teachers were
beginning to use AI as a significant threat, aside from some initial fear of missing out
during the early weeks, which gradually diminished over time. As more and more
EFL teachers in Vietnam started to take interest in AI-assisted teaching, the online
community gradually became a source of professional learning. Duncan-Howell [58]
argued that online communities can effectively service as a self-directed learning
platform given that it has no time constraint, free choice of learning materials, need-
based support and guidance. Growing within such a context, the participants, in
combination with the abovementioned minimal institutional pressure, formed a kind
of agency that was professionally autonomous. This knowledge has been furthered by
Brodie [59] and Li and Craig [60] who stated that learning communities beyond the
power of their own institutions significantly enhanced teachers’ agency development.
Overall, it appears that while contextual influences from both the administrative
and collegial levels do exist, they tend to be rather limited due to a lack of awareness
and knowledge at both levels. These influences have not been significant enough to
initiate any observable transformation in teacher agency.
In acknowledging the limitations of this research, it is important to note that our
study is qualitative in nature, which means that the findings are not generalizable
across different contexts [61]. Additionally, the research was conducted during the
early stages of AI emergence in language teaching and learning, indicating that results
may vary as AI technology continues to evolve and affect education in general as well
as language education in particular. Furthermore, the study’s focus was exclusively
on English language teachers in private language centres, excluding those in public
schools and universities. Readers, therefore, are encouraged to make appropriate
comparisons as needed.
Given these limitations, we recommend that more quantitative research is needed
to enable generalizable knowledge of this issue. There is also a need for ongoing
research to keep pace with the development of AI and its evolving impact on language
90 H. Le-Khanh et al.

education. Finally, expanding the research to include teachers in public schools

and universities would provide a more comprehensive understanding of AI’s role
in diverse educational settings.

6 Conclusion

With this research on AI and EFL writing teachers’ agency, we have observed a
complex, multifaceted relationship between these educators and AI technologies such
as ChatGPT. While AI, including tools like ChatGPT, is seen as a useful resource and
a helpful assistant in specific tasks such as providing essay corrections and feedback,
it is not viewed as a replacement for language teachers.
Initially enthusiastic about AI’s potential, the teachers gradually became less
interested therein due to multiple factors. Their reliance on conventional pedagog-
ical practices deters them from using AI for new content creation, and the absence of
clear policies and guidelines on AI integration in educational settings hinders its prac-
tical application [62]. Concerns about AI’s quality, accuracy, and potential misuse as
a ‘cheating’ tool also reduce its attractiveness, leading the teachers to limit its use by
students in the classroom. Together, all of these factors contribute to maintaining the
roles of teachers and emphasise the fact that AI only plays a supplementary role in
language education. Complementing this finding is the teachers’ future professional
goals, which did not prominently feature AI integration. This observation under-
scores a gap between the potential applications of AI in education and its actual
utilisation by teachers. The limited mention of AI in long-term professional plans
also reaffirms that, for many educators, AI does not play a noticeable role in their
agentic pedagogical development.
Based on these findings, it can be learned that language teacher agency develops
independently of AI influences during the early phase of AI emergence in language
education. Due to the low intensity of contextual factors such as AI adoption in
society, institutional policies, and AI use among their students and colleagues,
language teachers’ agency remained largely unaffected. They generally viewed the
introduction of AI in their professional environment as a normal, non-disruptive
addition, regarding it only as a supplementary tool rather than a central element of
their professional practice. As AI continues to evolve, however, the degree of its
influence reported in this study is subject to change [63], and it will be essential to
continue monitoring how AI is integrated into educational settings and its potential
impact on language teacher agency and professional development.

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10.1002/tesq.3253

Hoang Le-Khanh is an experienced English language educator with a diverse teaching back-
ground, encompassing university lecturing, private language center instruction, and corporate
language training. Hoang graduated at the top of his class, earning the distinction of valedic-
torian for his Master of Arts in Applied Linguistics from Curtin University, Australia. He is
actively involved in several international conferences, either as a presenter or moderator. His
current research interests include teacher education and applications of artificial intelligence in
language teaching.

Khoa Do is a lecturer at the National College of Education, Ho Chi Minh city (Vietnam). He
is the founder of ‘People of TESOL’, an online-based community of practice in Vietnam. As
a core member of VietTESOL and a Hornby scholar, he is also involved in various profes-
sional development initiatives, with a highlight being the ‘Non-judgmental Dialogues’ project.
His research interests include the dialogic dimension of reflective practice (dialogic reflection),
computer-mediated communication, and conversation analysis.

Vu Tran-Thanh is a doctoral candidate at Durham University, United Kingdom. His doctoral

project is funded by the Economic and Social Research Council of the United Kingdom. Vu
founded and runs TESOL Research Collaboration Network, a professional learning community
for early-career researchers in Vietnam. Besides, he serves on the Steering Committee of the
Teacher Educator Interest Section of TESOL International. Vu’s research interests include teacher
education and professional development and queer inquiry in language education.
EFL Learners’ Perceptions
of Pronunciation Corrective Feedback:
Insights from Synchronous High
Variability Phonetic Training

Rizgar Qasim Mahmood and Hung Phu Bui

Abstract This chapter reports a study on English as a foreign language (EFL)

students’ perceptions of pronunciation corrective feedback (PCF) in the Zoom-
assisted classroom. Data were collected through a questionnaire administered to
40 EFL learners and in-depth interviews with a subset of 15 students after a 10-h
virtual pronunciation teaching using High Variability Phonetic Training (HVPT). The
findings revealed that the learners generally exhibited statistically significant positive
perceptions of PCF. However, some participants reported some challenges, including
a lack of confidence to engage in synchronous online discussions after receiving
PCF from the teacher, inconvenience of the session time, and low student–student
interaction. The study underscored the theoretical and pedagogical implications of
incorporating synchronous online PCF into EFL instruction. That is, the findings
elicited the need for a learner-centred approach in online EFL instruction, empha-
sizing the importance of addressing challenges, such as confidence issues, session
timing, and learner interaction to enhance the overall effectiveness of pronunciation
corrective feedback.

Keywords EFL context · High Variability Phonetic Training · Online oral

corrective feedback · Praat · Pronunciation · Technology

R. Q. Mahmood
The University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
e-mail: [email protected]
H. P. Bui (B)
University of Economics Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 95

H. P. Bui and E. Namaziandost (eds.), Innovations in Technologies for Language
Teaching and Learning, Studies in Computational Intelligence 1159,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-63447-5_6
96 R. Q. Mahmood and H. P. Bui

1 Introduction

Pronunciation is well-documented to be a strong predictor of successful communi-

cation, as it greatly impacts speech intelligibility, influencing a language learner’s
capacity to express themselves clearly and comprehend the speech of others [1–
4]. Jenkins [5] similarly underscores the significance of pronunciation not only
in facilitating interactions between native and non-native speakers but also as the
primary factor determining the comprehensibility of communication among non-
native speakers. As further noted by Jenkins [5], achieving comprehensibility in
English as a Lingua Franca requires learners to acquire a specific set of phonetic
preference. In the same vein, Levis [1] asserts that pronunciation is unavoidable,
essential, and integral to teaching speaking and listening, as these skills cannot be
taught effectively excluding pronunciation. Despite students frequently expressing a
desire to enhance their pronunciation, some teachers overlook pronunciation teaching
due to inadequacy of training they have received in teaching pronunciation [6].
Effective L2 pronunciation teaching has been attracting the attention of teachers
and researchers to conduct more research on L2 pronunciation teaching in the last four
decades [1, 2, 5–15]. However, they have reported mixed results regarding the effec-
tiveness of oral corrective feedback (henceforth OCF), and some of them reported
that OCF can serve as an effective tool in the L2 teaching process. In that sense, OCF
refers to the guidance offered by teachers or conversational partners when language
learners produce erroneous, nontarget-like, or inappropriate/ambiguous language
output. This type of feedback, conveyed orally, either implicitly or explicitly, signals
to learners that there are inaccuracies in their utterances. This information is often
categorized as negative evidence, as it informs learners about what is deemed unac-
ceptable in the target language [16, 17]. OCF encompasses a spectrum ranging from
implicit forms [17] or indirect forms [18] to explicit or direct forms. However, most
previous studies were conducted in ESL contexts, and they mainly focused on the
impact of OCF on pronunciation. Nonetheless, corrective feedback (CF) remains
one of the most contentious topics in second language acquisition (SLA) research.
Hence, it is imperative to investigate it within the context of antecedent divergent
findings and the array of arguments.
The landscape of language education has undergone a transformative shift, partic-
ularly accelerated by the impact of COVID-19. This global event catalysed a profound
integration of technology, significantly altering traditional paradigms. Initially, the
absence of Internet access and limited technology literacy led to educational disrup-
tions in some ESL/EFL contexts, especially among a sizable population of learners
[19, 20]. This technological evolution birthed innovative approaches to language
learning, specifically targeting the intricate challenge of attaining proficiency in
pronunciation and providing corrective feedback. Previous research thoroughly
investigated the effectiveness of pronunciation corrective feedback (PCF) or OCF;
however, most of these inquiries were conducted in conventional face-to-face class-
room settings. Studies on second language acquisition (SLA), conducted in both
traditional classrooms and laboratory environments, underscore the pivotal role of
EFL Learners’ Perceptions of Pronunciation Corrective Feedback … 97

pronunciation-based CF in developing second language speaking skills [10, 21, 22].

This form of feedback has been shown to contribute to improvements in percep-
tion [23], as well as enhancing accuracy, comprehensibility, and intelligibility [24,
25]. Nevertheless, extant research in ESL/EFL settings, notably in well-examined
contexts like Canada, the USA, and Japan, has addressed this matter. However, there
exists a need for further explorations into learners’ perceptions of OCF used in online
classrooms in less-researched contexts, such as the Kurdish EFL context.
Therefore, this study seeks to explore the EFL learners’ perceptions of OCF used
in online classrooms. Specifically, it aims to bridge existing gaps by examining how
Kurdish EFL learners perceive the use of OCF in online classrooms, leveraging
technology and computer programs like High Variability Phonetic Training (HVPT)
(i.e., a method where learners are exposed to many different speech samples produced
by different speakers in various phonetic contexts) [21, 26], YouGlish, and Praat. To
comprehensively explore these aspects, this study seeks to address the following
research questions.
RQ1 What are Kurdish EFL learners’ perceptions of pronunciation corrective
feedback in online platforms?
RQ2 What opportunities and challenges do Kurdish EFL learners experience when
using online platforms for pronunciation corrective feedback?

2 Literature Review

2.1 Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework underpinning this study is rooted in sociocultural theory,

providing a view of the intricate relationship between pronunciation, OCF, tech-
nology, online resources, and language learning in a social and cultural context.
Sociocultural theory, developed by [27], emphasizes the role of social interactions,
cultural influences, and collaborative learning experiences in shaping an individual’s
cognitive development and language acquisition.
Regarding pronunciation and OCF, sociocultural theory posits that it is not solely
an individual cognitive process but is deeply intertwined with social, and cultural
factors, and the learner’s identity [28]. The theory suggests that learners not only
acquire linguistic knowledge but also develop their pronunciation skills through
social interactions, feedback from peers and instructors, and exposure to diverse
language use within their community. Pronunciation, a key aspect of language profi-
ciency, is influenced by the sociocultural environment in which learners engage in
communicative activities [29].
The integration of technology and online resources in pronunciation teaching
further aligns with sociocultural theory because Vygotsky’s notion of the Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD) (i.e., the range of tasks that a learner can perform with
the help of a more knowledgeable person, representing the gap between the learner’s
98 R. Q. Mahmood and H. P. Bui

current abilities and their potential development) highlights the significance of tools
and resources in facilitating learning beyond individual capabilities [30–32].
In the context of this study, technology serves as a mediating tool that extends
learners’ pronunciation capabilities by providing access to online resources and
CF. The utilization of online resources, such as YouGlish, Praat, and HVPT highly
aligns with the sociocultural perspective by emphasizing collaborative and interac-
tive learning experiences. These platforms create opportunities for learners to engage
in authentic language use, receive OCF, and practice pronunciation within a sociocul-
tural context. Overall, this study is framed within the sociocultural theory to highlight
the interconnectedness of pronunciation, OCF, and technology. By exploring these
elements through a sociocultural lens, the study seeks to uncover how the sociocul-
tural environment influences learners’ perceptions and experiences in the realm of
online OCF.

2.2 Corrective Feedback

A crucial aspect of an L2 is CF and its reactive nature, primarily occurring in response

to learners’ language output during conversations. Sheen and Ellis [33] stated that CF
refers “to the feedback that learners receive on the linguistic errors they make in their
oral or written production in a second language (L2)”. In the course of a conversation,
a learner might articulate something that deviates from native-speaker expectations,
thereby prompting what researchers used as "triggering" feedback from teachers or
other interlocutors [34]. As feedback is always a response to learners’ efforts, it is
recognized by educational scholars as a learner-centred form of instruction [35].
CF is commonly classified into two primary types: Written Corrective Feedback
(WCF) and Oral Corrective Feedback (OCF), and both types can be explicit (i.e.,
Explicit correction also provides the correct form) or implicit (i.e., the correct form
is not provided directly, rather it is provided in the form of recasts or prompts)
[36]. Both explicit and implicit types of CF have been researched extensively. The
interpretation of explicit feedback has sparked debate due to its diverse operational-
izations. Carroll and Swain [37] conducted a study examining explicit and implicit
CF with ESL learners. Following a training period, the participants underwent testing
on both familiar and novel items. The results demonstrated positive effects of CF
across all tested groups compared to the comparison group. The findings suggested
that both explicit and implicit CF were effective in facilitating learning. Despite
implicit feedback not directly pinpointing specific issues, it proved beneficial in this
context. Notably, one group receiving explicit CF performed significantly better than
other feedback groups. Aljaafreh and Lantolf [15] argue that while explicit CF has
traditionally been considered more advantageous than implicit feedback, it is not an
absolute rule. They propose that both forms of feedback are pertinent to L2 develop-
ment, and the extent of their relevance should be negotiated between less experienced
and more experienced learners. In terms of types of CF, the present study exclusively
concentrates on OCF.
EFL Learners’ Perceptions of Pronunciation Corrective Feedback … 99

2.3 Oral Corrective Feedback

OCF has been defined as the guidance provided by teachers or conversational partners
to language learners when they produce incorrect language output, are not aligned
with the target, or are unclear/ambiguous [16, 17]. OCF encompasses a spectrum
ranging from implicit forms [17] or indirect forms [18] to explicit or direct forms.
In the context of this study, explicit OCF has been the focal point and utilized.
Explicit CF is defined as a type in which a teacher or another interlocutor explicitly
communicates to learners that there is an issue with what they have said [38].
Previous studies have reported the importance of OCF during L2 learning pronun-
ciation. For example, numerous empirical studies and meta-analyses have demon-
strated that OCF actively facilitates L2 pronunciation development [36, 39–41]. The
effectiveness of OCF is rooted in its responsiveness, delivered as a direct response
to learners’ immediate language development needs [7]. This aligns with the core
principles of learner-centred teaching in general education literature, emphasizing
feedback tailored to what the learner genuinely requires rather than presumed needs
[35].
According to Lyster, Saito [42], OCF serves as a tool for the re-presentation of
the target language, assisting learners in forming a “network of associations” (p. 13).
They also propose that it contributes to the development of “self-regulation” in the
use of the target language, particularly when the feedback involves negotiation of
meaning or form. Aljaafreh and Lantolf [15] discovered that when feedback was
negotiated in interaction to align with a student’s ZPD, synonymous with learner
developmental readiness in other studies [43], students exhibited increased control
over the production of target forms. Confirming this, [44] conducted a study where
feedback matched the student’s emergent knowledge of form, and they found that
students who received negotiated feedback were progressively able to manage the use
of the targeted form. Additionally, [45] observed that training learners to negotiate
feedback with one another heightened their language awareness of their pronunci-
ation skills. In the same manner, Baker and Burri [24] concluded that a systematic
approach to teaching pronunciation, coupled with targeted explicit feedback, can
effectively assist students in speaking English clearly and achieving comprehensi-
bility. Furthermore, Lee [46] explored the distinct impacts of explicit and implicit CF,
specifically in the form of recasts, on Chinese learners who were randomly assigned to
two proficiency-level groups. The participants received either explicit OCF, involving
metalinguistic information and the correct form provision, or implicit CF in the form
of recasts for errors related to Chinese classifiers in communication tasks. The study
revealed that OCF played a role in enhancing L2 proficiency.
Similarly, Renner [47] investigated the provision of OCF in a Chinese foreign
language classroom. The study indicated a predominant use of explicit feedback to
address pronunciation errors. Key findings demonstrated that pronunciation errors
were explicitly corrected through methods such as explication, comparison, and
reduction. The explicit nature of these techniques was reinforced through paralin-
guistic cues like stress and speech rate modifications, visual aids including gestures,
100 R. Q. Mahmood and H. P. Bui

and additional verbal explanations. Similarly, recent studies [48–55] have also
focused on the types of CF and their impacts on second language (L2) pronunci-
ation development. The findings have shown mixed results. Therefore, by its nature,
this topic needs more exploration from various perspectives and contexts, as it might
be more context-specific. Other factors must be considered, such as learners’ first
language (L1), social context, and teaching pronunciation techniques.

2.4 Learners’ Perceptions of Pronunciation Corrective

Feedback

Studies on learner preferences and perceptions of CF have been conducted for two
primary reasons. Firstly, learner preferences can significantly influence learning
behaviours, as noted by Borg [56]. Secondly, discrepancies between teachers’ inten-
tions and learners’ interpretations of those intentions may have adverse effects on
learning, as highlighted by Nunan [57]. Research on CF preferences is crucial because
it provides insights into learners’ perspectives. This information, when combined
with results from CF effectiveness research, can inform practitioners and contribute
to more effective teaching practices. This emphasis on learner preferences aligns
with the broader goal of enhancing the impact of CF in language learning [58].
In a study conducted by Mackey, Gass [59], interactions between second language
(L2) learners and native speakers were videotaped, and learners were subsequently
asked to provide comments on their perceptions of the CF received while watching
the video clips. The study revealed that the accuracy of learners’ perceptions varied
depending on the linguistic nature of the errors targeted, with morphosyntactic errors
being the least accurately perceived. Furthermore, Calsiyao [60] conducted a survey
aimed at exploring students’ attitudes regarding CF in the classroom, particularly
for pronunciation errors. The primary data collection instrument utilized in the study
was a questionnaire. The sample comprised 365 students from Kalinga-Apayao State
College. The survey findings revealed positive attitudes among the learners towards
the importance of receiving corrections for their oral errors. Specifically, they indi-
cated a preference for corrections that enhance communication, self-correction, and
immediate CF. Additionally, the students expressed support for the effectiveness
of explicit explanations for their errors. Furthermore, a majority of the participants
conveyed their interest in acquiring correct pronunciation, accent, and intonation.
In a recent study, Nguyen and Hung Luu [61] discovered that students held positive
perceptions regarding the impact of teachers’ CF on their pronunciation development,
yet, the study was conducted in a traditional setting. Conversely, Almusharraf [53]
revealed that the role of learners in pronunciation acquisition holds greater signifi-
cance than that of their instructors in pronunciation instruction. Consequently, it calls
for further research to delve deeper into this matter because research shows e.g. [62]
that it is crucial to explore the factors which lead to pronunciation development. This
also has been confirmed by the findings in several previous studies [50, 54, 63, 64].
EFL Learners’ Perceptions of Pronunciation Corrective Feedback … 101

2.5 Pronunciation Teaching, Feedback, and Technology

In L2 language instruction, the intersection of pronunciation teaching, CF, and tech-

nology forms a dynamic and evolving landscape. As educators and teachers strive
to enhance learners’ oral communication skills, the integration of technology into
pronunciation teaching becomes a focal point for exploration. Therefore, it is essen-
tial to delve into the multifaceted relationship between pronunciation pedagogy, the
provision of CF, and the innovative applications of technology.
Technology has been utilized in various ways to support pronunciation learning.
An early example involves enabling students to practice recognizing and producing
L2 phonological properties, encompassing both segmental and suprasegmental
elements [6]. Numerous researchers, [65–69], have underscored the pivotal role
of technology and Computer-Assisted Pronunciation Training (CAPT) programs
in the instruction and acquisition of second language (L2) pronunciation. Studies
conducted by [70] and O’Brien, Derwing [71] posit that technology is anticipated to
exert a substantial influence on the enhancement of pronunciation skills, augmenting
conventional teaching methodologies. This enhancement is envisioned through the
provision of personalized feedback and training.
During online teaching and utilizing technology to teach L2 pronunciation, it is
important to consider the challenges which learners might face, especially during the
provision of accurate feedback [65]. Previous studies have used various techniques
to improve pronunciation teaching through technology such as using more visualized
methods. The efficacy of visual displays extends beyond facilitating input, encom-
passing the monitoring of pronunciation output and the augmentation of feedback for
students. Empirical evidence suggests that these displays can aid learners in distin-
guishing their phoneme production [65]. For instance, in a study by Olson [72], L2
learners of Spanish reported that spectrograms were instrumental in differentiating
their production of stop consonants from the target forms. Similarly, Badin, Tarabalka
[73] demonstrated the favourable outcomes of training various vowels and conso-
nants through the utilization of visual displays. However, their findings indicated that
a frontal view of the face was perceived more effectively than a cutaway view of the
head. In another study, Chen [66] conducted a study to examine the impact of digital
visual and audio feedback on learners’ perception and production of lexical tones in
Chinese as a foreign language. Forty-four beginners underwent a four-week training
program focusing on Mandarin Chinese tone pronunciation at the word level. One
group received digital feedback through Praat [74], a phonetic research software, that
displays tone contours and provides corrected tones in their voices. The other group
received visual and audio feedback from the researcher. Both groups demonstrated
improvement in tone perception and production skills, but the Praat-aided group
exhibited significantly greater progress than the control group. Post-training surveys
revealed a preference among the participants for imitating corrected tones in their
voices and directly comparing their tone contours with corrected tones. These find-
ings underscore the significance of computer-assisted multimedia learning in foreign
102 R. Q. Mahmood and H. P. Bui

language pedagogy, with implications for incorporating research-oriented technolo-

gies and automated tonal feedback. Similar results on the effectiveness of online and
mobile applications and computer programs have been reported in previous studies
[75, 76].
In L2 pronunciation teaching through online training courses and computer
programs, Praat and High-Variability Phonetic Training (HVPT), [21, 26], have been
applied more extensively compared to other available resources. HVPT has emerged
as a notable and impactful approach in the field of second language (L2) learning.
This pedagogical method involves exposing learners to a diverse range of phonetic
variations within the target language, to enhance their pronunciation skills and overall
phonological competence [8, 67, 69, 77]. Furthermore, HVPT stands out as the most
widely employed training method for enhancing the perception of speech sounds in
a second language (L2) [78]. Research indicates that learners exhibited increased
accuracy in both tasks—namely, word recognition and the perception of English
word-initial /h/—following HVPT. Notably, these improvements were sustained four
months after the post-test [79]. Furthermore, in a study, Lima [80] investigated the
efficacy of several models using Praat and Audacity. The findings indicated that the
participants who successfully engaged in all perception and production activities
and received both audio and visual feedback demonstrated notable enhancements
in their comprehensibility ratings. Based on the reviewed literature, online sources
and computer programs have been reported as effective techniques for pronunciation
improvement. However, these studies primarily utilized a traditional methodology by
applying these tools in a classroom setting. Nevertheless, the efficacy of these tools
needs further investigation with diverse methodologies, such as online pronunciation
training courses.
In addition to the experimental findings on the efficacy of CF in oral contexts and
technological pronunciation teaching tools, it is imperative to underscore the signif-
icance of learners’ perceptions within the learning process. These perceptions play
a crucial role in shaping the perspectives of educators, stakeholders, teachers, and
the learners themselves regarding their experiences with pronunciation corrective
feedback. Various factors, including contextual elements, provision methods and
techniques, and social considerations, can significantly impact these perceptions.
Therefore, it is essential to recognize the multifaceted nature of learners’ experi-
ences with CF, acknowledging the nuanced interplay of contextual, instructional,
and sociocultural factors.
Moreover, it is noteworthy that exploring learners’ perceptions becomes particu-
larly salient when considering less-researched contexts, such as the Kurdish English
as a Foreign Language (EFL) context. The uniqueness of this study lies in its focus on
a context that has received comparatively limited attention in the existing literature.
The outcomes of such an investigation can yield valuable theoretical and pedagogical
implications, shedding light on the intricacies of pronunciation corrective feedback
in a previously unexplored linguistic and cultural setting. Consequently, the study
contributes to the broader body of knowledge in the field and has the potential to
inform and enhance pedagogical practices in diverse educational contexts. Hence,
this study aims to explore the perceptions of EFL Kurdish learners regarding online
EFL Learners’ Perceptions of Pronunciation Corrective Feedback … 103

OCF in pronunciation. The study utilizes three unique instructional approaches:

explicit OCF, Praat, and High-Variability Phonetic Training (HVPT), incorporating
YouGlish as an additional source of input during the feedback provision.

3 Methodology

3.1 Participants

The participants in this study comprised 40 Kurdish English as a Foreign Language

(EFL) college learners, ranging in age from 18 to 25 years, with a mean age (M 19).
The participants were purposively divided into two groups based on their English
proficiency levels. One group represented pre-intermediate proficiency, while the
other represented upper-intermediate proficiency. English proficiency levels were
assessed using the Cambridge English Placement Test (CEPT). The participants
were enrolled in an English language program as part of their bachelor’s degree
curriculum, having devoted four years to their academic pursuits. Specifically, one
group was in their third year of study, while the other group was in their second year.
All participants voluntarily agreed to take part in the study, providing informed
consent for the use of collected data for the specified research purposes. The study
design adhered to ethical guidelines, and the participants were assured of confi-
dentiality and anonymity throughout the research process. The willingness of the
participants to contribute to the study reflects their dedication to advancing the
understanding of English language learning processes in the Kurdish context.

3.2 Instruction Procedure

The instructional component of this study involved a meticulously designed online

program encompassing 10 h of pronunciation teaching. Zoom served as the online
platform for instructional purposes, and the sessions were conducted in real time, indi-
cating synchronous teaching with the provision of explicit pronunciation feedback.
During the initial session, the participants were introduced to and synchronously
instructed in the application of HVPT through platforms such as YouGlish and Praat.
The training encompassed practical exercises involving the recording of vowels,
consonants, and words to refine pronunciation, and how to measure and the accuracy
of their production compared to fluent speakers of English.
Subsequent sessions were dedicated to targeted English vowel sounds, specifi-
cally /iː, ɪ, ɑː, ʌ, θ, ð/, and /t, d, ɪd, or əd/ spelt “-ed” denoting the past tense or past
participle of regular verbs, with additional attention given to aspects of connected
speech. Throughout the intervention, the participants actively engaged in a diverse
104 R. Q. Mahmood and H. P. Bui

range of exercises, including word reading, sentence readings, and picture descrip-
tions, aimed at solidifying their understanding of the instructed phonetic elements.
The sessions were conducted twice a week, each spanning one hour, aiming to foster
an interactive environment during the sessions. The participants were encouraged
to pose questions, seek clarifications, and request repetitions freely. The facilitator
ensured that ample examples were provided to enhance comprehension. Following
explicit feedback, the instructor employed Praat to illustrate the precise differences
between the participants’ current sound production and the native speaker’s rendi-
tion. Supplementary videos from YouGlish were utilized to further reinforce these
distinctions, creating a comprehensive learning experience for the participants.

3.3 Data Collection Procedure

To gather essential data for this study, an online survey questionnaire was employed
as the primary instrument. The questionnaire was meticulously crafted to examine
the participants’ perceptions of explicit online OCF. Distribution of the question-
naire occurred after the last session of the training course. The survey consisted of
a series of closed-ended questions, designed to gauge the participants’ beliefs, with
responses recorded on a Likert scale (1 Strongly Disagree to 5 Strongly Agree).
This method provided a quantifiable representation of the participants’ perceptions.
The online survey questionnaire was administered through a user-friendly online
platform, ensuring accessibility and convenience for all participants. Clear instruc-
tions were provided, and the participants were allotted an appropriate timeframe to
complete the survey.
To enhance the depth of information gathered, a subsequent online interview was
conducted with 15 participants. This interview aimed to delve further into the partici-
pants’ perspectives on the advantages and potential challenges associated with online
pronunciation training sessions. Follow-up questions were posed to garner qualita-
tive insights, enriching the overall understanding of the participants’ experiences and
perceptions.

3.4 Data Analysis Procedure

The analysis of the collected data employed a mixed-methods approach, combining

both descriptive statistics and thematic analysis to provide a comprehensive under-
standing of the participants’ perceptions of explicit online OCF. Descriptive analysis
was conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics 27 after coding and entering the collected
data from the survey questionnaire.
For the quantitative data derived from closed-ended Likert scale items, a system-
atic statistical analysis was conducted. Descriptive statistics, including frequencies,
EFL Learners’ Perceptions of Pronunciation Corrective Feedback … 105

means, and standard deviations, were calculated to concisely summarize the partic-
ipants’ ratings and perceptions of explicit online OCF. This quantitative analysis
yielded a numerical overview, facilitating a clear and succinct presentation of the
participants’ perspectives. Conversely, the qualitative data gathered from interviews
underwent a rigorous thematic analysis. This analytical method was selected to
uncover and comprehend the intricate nuances of how learners perceive explicit
online OCF. The thematic analysis enabled a detailed exploration of the qual-
itative dimensions embedded in the participants’ narratives, providing a deeper
understanding of their subjective experiences and perspectives.
To integrate both forms of analysis in this mixed-methods approach, the study
aimed for a more holistic perspective. Statistical summaries were juxtaposed with
thematic insights, ensuring a comprehensive evaluation of the participants’ engage-
ment with explicit online OCF. However, it is crucial to note that while this approach
enriches the overall findings, it also poses challenges.
The mixing of data sources presented certain challenges. Managing the integra-
tion of quantitative and qualitative data requires careful consideration. For example,
the researcher attempted to keep a balance between the survey questionnaire state-
ments and the interview questions to obtain valid and reliable data from both data
collection tools on the same topic of the study. The potential risk of oversimpli-
fication or misinterpretation was addressed through meticulous attention to main-
taining the integrity of each form of data. Regarding participant anonymity and
quote presentation, a robust anonymization process was implemented. The partici-
pants were assigned pseudonyms or alphanumeric codes to protect their identities. In
presenting quotes, identifiers were removed, ensuring confidentiality. Ethical consid-
erations were paramount in handling participant data, and steps were taken to uphold
the highest standards of research integrity throughout the analysis process.

4 Results

4.1 Perceptions and Impact of Online Oral Corrective

Feedback on Kurdish EFL Learners’ Self-Monitoring
and Oral Production in English

As we delved into the results section, a pivotal inquiry emerges: How do Kurdish
EFL learners perceive the effectiveness of online OCF? Based on the analysed
data in Table 1, the results revealed an overall positive consensus, with some vari-
ability in specific aspects such as the learner’s individual overall learning experience.
On average, the participants moderately agreed that the frequency of online OCF
enhances their learning experience (M = 3.80, SD = 0.648). The relatively low stan-
dard deviation indicated a consistent, albeit moderate, level of agreement among the
participants regarding the positive impact of feedback frequency. Yet, these findings
should not be easily ignored if compared to other items as the learners were more
106 R. Q. Mahmood and H. P. Bui

consistent and showed higher values in terms of using feedback to monitor learners’
development. Regarding the effectiveness of feedback in identifying specific areas
for improvement, the participants, on average, found the feedback helpful (M =
3.93, SD = 0.730). Despite a moderate standard deviation, indicating variability in
responses, the overall finding suggested a consensus on the efficacy of feedback in
pinpointing areas for pronunciation improvement.
The perceived specificity and actionability of feedback yielded an average score of
3.85 (SD = 0.834). While the participants, on average, found the feedback specific
and actionable, the higher standard deviation suggested a more diverse range of
opinions. Some participants expressed stronger agreement with the specificity and
actionability of feedback than others. The participants in general strongly agreed that
online pronunciation teaching facilitates the correction of errors through timely and
targeted feedback (M = 4.15, SD = 0.662). The low standard deviation indicated
a more consistent level of agreement among the participants, emphasizing a shared
perception of the effectiveness of feedback in error correction.
In terms of motivation, the participants, on average, strongly agreed that feedback
in online pronunciation teaching motivated them to actively work on improving their
pronunciation skills (M = 4.20, SD = 0.791). The standard deviation suggested
variability in the strength of agreement, reflecting differing intensities of motiva-
tion among the participants. Finally, the average score for the role of feedback in
monitoring progress and tracking improvements over time was 4.23 (SD = 0.768).
The moderate standard deviation indicated a shared perception that feedback in

Table 1 Perceived impact of feedback

N Maximum Mean Std.
deviation
The frequency of online pronunciation feedback I receive 40 5 3.80 0.648
enhances my overall learning experience
The feedback provided during online pronunciation 40 5 3.93 0.730
teaching has helped me identify specific areas for
improvement in my pronunciation
I find the feedback received through online pronunciation 40 5 3.85 0.834
teaching to be specific and actionable
Online pronunciation teaching and instruction have 40 5 4.15 0.662
facilitated the correction of pronunciation errors through
timely and targeted feedback
The feedback provided during online pronunciation 40 5 4.20 0.791
teaching and instruction has motivated me to actively work
on improving my pronunciation skills
The feedback provided during online pronunciation 40 5 4.23 0.768
teaching and instruction has helped me monitor my
progress and track improvements over time
Valid N (listwise) 40
EFL Learners’ Perceptions of Pronunciation Corrective Feedback … 107

online pronunciation teaching supports progress monitoring, with some variability

in responses.
Teaching L2 pronunciation and oral corrective feedback cannot be fully under-
stood and considered effective if it only captures how learners perceive it. Instead, it
is crucial to report learners’ perceptions of the second construct: Learning Experi-
ence Engagement, and elicit responses for one of the research questions, that is, the
extent to which OCF on online platforms impact self-monitoring and oral production
improvement in English.
As presented in Table 2, in our examination of the participants’ insights into
the learning experience and engagement with online pronunciation feedback, the
frequency of such feedback occurred. The participants, on average, expressed a
moderate agreement (M = 3.80) regarding the enhancement of their overall learning
experience through the frequency of online pronunciation feedback. The relatively
low standard deviation (SD = 0.648) indicated a cohesive perception among respon-
dents, suggesting a shared acknowledgement of the positive impact of feedback
frequency on their learning experience.
Moving on to the user-friendliness of online tools and resources for pronuncia-
tion correction, participants, on average, demonstrated agreement (M = 4.05). The
standard deviation of 0.749 suggested a moderate level of variability in responses,
indicating that while there was consensus on user-friendliness, there existed some
diversity in the participants’ opinions regarding the effectiveness of these tools
and resources. In terms of feedback delivery preferences, the participants generally
expressed a preference for real-time feedback during live sessions over asynchronous
feedback (M = 4.17, SD = 0.712) This finding implies a consistent yet varied
preference among the participants, highlighting the nuanced nature of individual
preferences in the mode of feedback delivery.

Table 2 Learning experience and engagement

N Maximum Mean Std.
deviation
The frequency of online pronunciation feedback I receive 40 5 3.80 0.648
enhances my overall learning experience
The online tools and resources provided for pronunciation 40 5 4.05 0.749
correction are user-friendly and enhance my learning
experience
I prefer receiving online pronunciation feedback in 40 5 4.17 0.712
real-time during live sessions as opposed to asynchronous
feedback
The clarity of online pronunciation feedback plays a 40 5 4.05 0.749
crucial role in my understanding of the corrections
suggested
Online pronunciation feedback has positively impacted my 40 5 4.30 0.687
ability to self-correct pronunciation errors independently
Valid N (listwise) 40
108 R. Q. Mahmood and H. P. Bui

The clarity of online pronunciation feedback and its role in understanding

suggested that corrections were also examined, with the participants, on average,
agreeing that clarity plays a crucial role (M = 4.05). The standard deviation (SD) of
0.749 indicated moderate variability in responses, suggesting diverse perspectives
on the significance of feedback clarity for understanding corrections. Finally, the
participants strongly agreed, on average, that online pronunciation feedback posi-
tively impacted their ability to self-correct pronunciation errors independently (Mean
= 4.30, SD = 0.687). Therefore, the findings suggest a more consistent and shared
perspective among the participants regarding the positive impact of feedback on their
ability to self-correct.
Based on the analysed data in Table 3, regarding the relationship between online
OCF and learners’ personal language learning goals, the participants, on average,
demonstrated agreement (Mean = 3.98, SD = 0.733) that the feedback aligned with
their learning objectives. That is, through online OCF, learners were able to meet
their pronunciation development needs. Furthermore, the learners stated that (Mean
= 3.35, SD = 0.802) that online OCF has positively influenced their confidence
in spoken English. Hence, the findings suggest that learners’ confidence is not a
merit that can only be built in face-to-face classes, rather, online teaching and OCF
provision methods can also play an important role in this respect.
In delving more into the foundations of L2 pronunciation, such as segmental
features and the improvement of the ability to articulate sounds accurately, the partic-
ipants strongly agreed (M = 4.20, SD = 1.018) that online OCF was effective in
this aspect. That is, the participants were greatly benefited from explicit OCF using
computer programs such as Praat and HVPT as they meticulously helped learners
distinguish and notice the differences between their production and fluent English
speakers’ sound productions. This could be also viewed from the finding that the
participants overwhelmingly agreed (M = 4.30, SD = 0.687) that online OCF helped
them overcome specific pronunciation challenges. Lastly, the participants moderately

Table 3 Confidence, personal growth, and individual learning needs

N Maximum Mean Std.
deviation
The online pronunciation feedback I receive aligns with 40 5 3.98 0.733
my personal language learning goals
Online pronunciation feedback has positively influenced 40 5 3.35 0.802
my confidence in spoken English
The online pronunciation feedback has improved my 40 5 4.20 1.018
ability to articulate sounds accurately
The online pronunciation feedback has helped me 40 5 4.30 0.687
overcome specific pronunciation challenges that I faced
I feel comfortable seeking clarification or further 40 5 3.72 0.599
explanation when I receive online pronunciation feedback
Valid N (listwise) 40
EFL Learners’ Perceptions of Pronunciation Corrective Feedback … 109

agreed (M = 3.72, SD = 0.599) that they felt comfortable seeking clarification or

further explanation when receiving online OCF.

4.2 Exploring Opportunities and Challenges: Online Oral

Corrective Feedback in Kurdish EFL Learners’
Language Learning Experience

Throughout the interviews, the participants offered rich insights into their experiences
with online OCF and engaged in discussions about the challenges faced during the
online training, and how these challenges affected their language learning experi-
ence. Thematic coding and subsequent analysis revealed compelling patterns deeply
embedded within their narratives, supported by the participants’ own words.
A recurring theme centred around the alignment of online OCF with the partici-
pants’ individualized learning objectives. For instance, Participant 1’s affirmation, “I
liked how the online OCF matched what I wanted to learn.“ underscored the person-
alized nature of the feedback, revealing a keen awareness of the participants’ specific
needs. Participant 7 further illuminated this aspect, emphasizing the impact of person-
alized feedback on their learning journey. The resonance continued as Participant 8
articulated, “The online feedback was great for my learning goals,” providing clear
evidence of the alignment between the online OCF and the diverse aspirations of the
learners.
A distinct facet emerged from participants’ narratives, detailing the transformative
influence of online feedback on confidence and overall growth. For example, Partici-
pant 2’s candid admission.“ At first, I wasn’t very confident even after getting OCF,”
conveyed the initial challenges. The subsequent revelation of increased confidence
underscored the transformative nature of the online learning format. Participants 9
and 10 echoed this sentiment, painting a collective picture of metamorphosis, wherein
regular feedback and positive reinforcement became catalysts for a profound shift in
their language learning approaches.
The theme of articulation improvement through online feedback took centre stage,
supported by the participants’ firsthand experiences. Participant 3’s expression, “I
really liked how the online feedback helped me say sounds better,” pointed towards
the tangible impact of corrections and exercises on pronunciation enhancement.
Participants 11 and 12 further corroborated this, highlighting the instrumental role
of specific tools like Praat in refining articulation, thereby contributing to a more
effective and rewarding learning experience.
Within the realm of the online learning environment, the participants elucidated a
theme centred around their comfort in seeking clarification. Participant 4’s assertion,
“What I liked was that it was easy to ask questions and get more help on the online
platform,” painted a picture of a supportive and accessible learning space. However,
110 R. Q. Mahmood and H. P. Bui

Participant 13 introduced a nuanced perspective, noting that despite the encourage-

ment to ask questions, the online setup could sometimes be noisy and challenging to
fully comprehend.
The theme of challenges and adaptation surfaced prominently in the participants’
narratives, unveiling the intricacies of transitioning to online learning. Participant
5’s acknowledgement, “While the online feedback was really helpful, I faced some
challenges,” served as a candid admission of the hurdles faced during adaptation.
Participants 15 and 16 further elaborated on challenges related to the lack of inter-
action, inflexible course timings, and impediments arising from internet quality and
device accessibility.

5 Discussion

The primary focus of this study was to explore the perceptions of Kurdish EFL
learners regarding online OCF and to explore the challenges and opportunities they
encountered in this context. The results showed that a positive consensus exists among
Kurdish EFL learners regarding the impact of online OCF on the learning experience,
and this is consistent with prior research emphasizing the significance of feedback in
language acquisition. This study extended the literature on L2 learners’ perceptions
of online OCF in some previous studies. This finding is aligned with results from
previous studies [36, 41, 42, 45, 81]. Therefore, it can be inferred that CF on L2
pronunciation can also be used as an effective teaching technique in EFL contexts.
Although some previous studies [82–86] found that CF might be more harmful than
effective, they focused on writing skills, thus, this study adds more solid evidence
to the effectiveness of CK on pronunciation and speaking skills. Furthermore, the
results revealed that the provided OCF helped learners to be more aware of their
errors and notice the differences between their sound production and native speakers’
production, hence, this shows the importance of learning the accurate production of
the target language [78, 87]. However, previous studies reported that when those types
of OCF (e.g., repletion, clarification request) withhold the correct form and require
learners to self-correct [88], this study found that explicit OCF can also invite L2
learners to self-correct. Furthermore, this finding provides more evidence to support
Flege’s model (i.e., Speech Learning Model (SLM)) [6, 89, 90], that is, learners need
to perceive L2 sounds and then try to master them by creating different or similar
categories to the sound system of their first language.
In terms of the effectiveness of OCF, the participants, on average, agreed that
the feedback they received was specific, actionable, and motivating, aligning with
studies advocating for feedback’s role in enhancing learner motivation and engage-
ment [91]. These findings support previous findings which have stated that feedback
can be used as an effective learning tool, and learners feel motivated when they see
their progress throughout the learning process [29, 48, 92]. Surprisingly, this finding
is in line with the results of a study by Martin [93] who reported that merely adhering
to the standard curriculum was insufficient to bring about substantial improvement in
EFL Learners’ Perceptions of Pronunciation Corrective Feedback … 111

learners’ pronunciation abilities. These findings confirm that teaching online pronun-
ciation requires more than just teaching what is in the textbooks, that is, apart from
including the target features, innovative techniques should be incorporated such as
computer programs and technology.
In terms of learners’ engagement, the participants’ preferences for real-time feed-
back during live sessions and the positive impact of feedback on their pronunciation
development align with studies emphasizing the importance of interactive and timely
feedback in online language learning. This confirms previous findings that OCF can
be interactive [23, 48, 54]. This finding is also grounded in sociocultural theory, as it
states that interactions between learners, teachers, and peers are some social factors
that pave the way for pronunciation improvement [27, 31, 94–98]. The nuanced vari-
ations in responses regarding the user-friendliness of tools and the role of feedback
clarity resonate with findings by Warschauer and Healey [99], who noted the diverse
preferences and needs of language learners in technology-enhanced environments.
In addition to that, this study contributes to the literature on remote teaching environ-
ments, particularly in domains where instructors may not consistently be available
within the traditional face-to-face classroom setting [100]. This study recommends
stakeholders solve the issues of L2 teaching in remote areas and make education
more inclusive.
In addition to investigating learners’ perceptions of OCF, this study aimed to
explore the opportunities learners can seize and the challenges they face during online
pronunciation training and OCF. The study found that learners’ language learning
goals were effectively met, particularly in terms of the effectiveness of personal-
ized feedback [57]. However, the moderate agreement on the positive influence of
feedback on confidence suggests a more complex relationship, with individual differ-
ences playing a crucial role [48, 53]. The strong agreement on the improvement of
articulation and overcoming specific pronunciation challenges aligns with research
highlighting feedback’s role in skill development [50, 51, 54, 101, 102]. Thus, it can
be inferred that noticing learners’ needs and their psychological states is essential to
providing an effective online learning process [103–105].
On the other hand, several challenges were reported by the participants during the
online training, such as adapting to the online format issues with internet quality, and
lack of technology literacy, resonating with the broader literature on the challenges
of online language learning [106]. These challenges underscore the need for peda-
gogical strategies and technical support to enhance the online learning experience.
Furthermore, these results underscore the need for authorities to offer additional
training in digital skills for both teachers and learners, particularly those engaged
in remote teaching and learning. Moreover, there is a call to furnish schools with
adequate infrastructure and a minimum of digital learning devices for students to
address the requirements of language education. These needs were also emphasized
by Chau and Bui [100].
Including all the opportunities and challenges discussed above, in terms of pronun-
ciation training and CF, one of the main features of this study that distinguishes
it from previous research is the unique applied methodology [107]. It integrates
explicit oral corrective feedback [108] with Praat and High Variability Phonetic
112 R. Q. Mahmood and H. P. Bui

Training (HVPT) through the use of YouGlish. Despite some challenges, the find-
ings revealed that learners warmly welcomed the use of technology in pronunciation
training courses as a source for providing accurate pronunciation feedback. These
findings provide concrete evidence of the effectiveness of integrating technology into
L2 pronunciation classes, whether in traditional or online modes [26, 65–67, 69, 75].

6 Conclusion

In conclusion, this study extensively examined the nuanced landscape of Kurdish

EFL learners’ perceptions of online pronunciation corrective feedback. The find-
ings indicate a positive consensus among learners regarding the effectiveness of
online feedback in enhancing their learning experience, promoting self-correction,
and addressing specific pronunciation challenges. Aligned with sociocultural theory,
the social nature of language learning is emphasized, with interactive and timely
feedback fostering engagement and improvement. The unique methodology utilizing
Praat, HVPT, and YouGlish represents a distinctive contribution to the field. Despite
encountering challenges, such as adapting to the online format and internet issues,
the participants demonstrated a keen acceptance of technology in pronunciation
training. This study advances our understanding of the effectiveness of online feed-
back and underscores the significance of personalized, interactive, and technologi-
cally enhanced approaches in language education. Holistically examining learners’
perceptions of online pronunciation feedback, incorporating both quantitative and
qualitative data, further enhances the study’s applicability and provides practical
insights for educators in online language teaching contexts.
This groundbreaking study, the first of its kind in the Kurdish EFL context,
significantly enriches the L2 language literature by providing unique insights into
the effectiveness of OCF for pronunciation improvement. The positive consensus
among Kurdish EFL learners reaffirms the potential of OCF as a powerful tool
in enhancing pronunciation skills, reinforcing its applicability beyond traditional
language learning contexts. As the study highlights the pivotal role of technology,
particularly computer programs like Praat and YouGlish, in facilitating pronuncia-
tion training, L2 pronunciation teachers are encouraged to embrace these tools. The
integration of technology not only fosters learner engagement but also caters to the
diverse learning preferences and needs of students in the digital age.
Moreover, the study serves as a call to action for curriculum designers to craft
teaching materials aligned with the findings, ensuring they are tailored to meet
learners’ specific needs. Designing materials that integrate the identified tools and
methodologies can enhance the effectiveness of pronunciation training. Additionally,
the study advocates for a paradigm shift in CF provision, emphasizing its integration
as an inseparable part of language skills development, particularly in pronunciation.
Drawing on sociocultural theory, which underscores language learning as a social
activity, this pedagogical shift recognizes the collaborative and interactive nature of
language acquisition. Therefore, L2 instructors are encouraged to embed CF into the
EFL Learners’ Perceptions of Pronunciation Corrective Feedback … 113

broader language learning experience, fostering a sociocultural-rich environment

that promotes effective pronunciation development. This holistic approach aligns
with contemporary pedagogical practices and acknowledges the interconnectedness
of technology, sociocultural theory, and individualized learning needs in language
education.
Despite the valuable insights provided, this study has limitations that warrant
acknowledgement. The sample size, consisting of Kurdish EFL learners, may limit
the generalizability of findings to other linguistic and cultural contexts. Future
research could expand the participant pool to include a more diverse range of language
learners. Additionally, the study focused on perceived effectiveness, and future inves-
tigations could incorporate objective measures of pronunciation improvement. The
challenges identified, such as internet issues, point to the need for ongoing exploration
of technical solutions and infrastructure development in online language education.
Furthermore, longitudinal studies could provide insights into the sustainability of the
observed improvements over time. Overall, the limitations underscore the evolving
nature of technology-enhanced language learning, warranting continuous research
to adapt pedagogical practices to the evolving landscape.

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10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07550

Rizgar Qasim Mahmood earned a master’s degree in linguistics and TESL at California State
University, Northridge, USA. After graduating in 2019, he devoted himself to teaching as an assis-
tant lecturer at Salahaddin University, Erbil in Iraqi Kurdistan until 2022. Currently, he is pursuing
his PhD in applied linguistics and second language acquisition at the University of Wollongong,
Australia, exploring the effectiveness of pronunciation instruction and corrective feedback on the
development of L2 learners’ pronunciation. His research includes the areas of corrective feedback,
pronunciation, speaking skills, native and non-native English teachers, and teacher development
and cognition.

Hung Phu Bui works as a lecturer and researcher at School of Foreign Languages, Univer-
sity of Economics Ho Chi Minh City (UEH University), Vietnam. He holds a PhD in Language
Education. His research interests span across different aspects of applied linguistics and language
education. His publications mainly center around applications of cognitive linguistics and socio-
cultural theory in L2 acquisition, teacher and student cognition, social interaction in L2 class-
rooms, L2 classroom assessment, teaching English for specific purposes, and computer-assisted
language teaching and learning. Influenced by educational, linguistic, and psychological perspec-
tives, his endeavors, mainly published in leading journals in the fields of language education,
applied linguistics, and educational psychology, have been stimulating interesting discussions.
Serving as the keynote and plenary speaker in many national and international conferences in
the world, Hung has had opportunities to spread his knowledge and research interests to students,
colleagues, and novice researchers.
Mobile-Assisted Language Learning
(MALL): A Socioculturual Theory (SCT)
Perspective

Le Pham Hoai Huong and Tran Thi Thanh Thuong

Abstract This paper reports a critical review of mobile language learning (MALL).
It adopts the review principles suggested by Kraus et al. (RMS 16:2577–2595 [1]),
Lim et al. (The Serv Ind J 7–8:481–513 [2]), and Page et al. (Int J Surg 88:105906
[3]) to analyze ten searched articles on MALL of which the findings are discussed
from a perspective of sociocultural theory (SCT). With an evaluation of knowledge
progression in the combined domains of MALL and SCT, two themes emerge from
these ten research articles: perceptions of MALL via descriptive research and the
effects of a certain application or a digital/cultural rool on language learning via
experimental investigation. From a SCT perspective, mediation in these studies sheds
light on two topics, namely mobile devices as mediating tools and mediated learning
through social interaction. The review suggests directions for further studies to adopt
other research methods than experimental or descriptive ones to gain more insights
in the process of mediation by tools in language learning.

Keywords Language learning · Mediation · Mobile assisted language learning ·

Social interaction · Sociocultural theory

1 Introduction

This paper adopts the frameworks by [1–3] which define a systematic review paper
as “a review that uses explicit, systematic methods to collate and synthesize findings
of studies that address a clearly formulated question” [3, p. 88]. Systematic review is
considered to provide understanding and analyze the status quo and overall research

L. P. H. Huong (B)
English Department, University of Foreign Languages and International Studies, Hue University,
Hue City, Vietnam
e-mail: [email protected]
T. T. T. Thuong
Ho Chi Minh College of Foreign Economic Relations, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 121
H. P. Bui and E. Namaziandost (eds.), Innovations in Technologies for Language
Teaching and Learning, Studies in Computational Intelligence 1159,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-63447-5_7
122 L. P. H. Huong and T. T. T. Thuong

approaches related to a certain research topic in different time periods. In the case
reported in this paper, the topic is MALL research in the theoretical framework of
SCT.
In recent years, the advancement of mobile devices and applications to meet the
needs of online learning and self-studying language have led to ubiquitious studies
in MALL. The reason for this expansion of MALL studies could be explained, “ In
the context of MALL, evolving technology necessitates a continuing examination
of how these technologies, material tools, influence mediation both in terms of the
direct use of the technology and in terms of social interaction [4, p. 6].
Given that the use of mobile devices allows language learning to take place at any
time and any place, MALL studies have been carried out and a systematic review
of the related studies that address clearly formulated questions to investigate the
emerging themes from these studies is needed. On this ground, the current study
was set out to explore what aspects of MALL have been researched and the learning
outcomes that were associated with the use of MALL.

2 Literature Review

2.1 Mobile Learning

Mobile learning diverges from traditional learning because of its mobile features
of learning which are free from the constraints of place and time. Other features
of mobile learning include the comfort, ease to use, and excitement that it brings
to learners. Besides, thanks to a variety of multimedia tools in the current time
has enabled learners to personalize their learning and at the same time to interact
with other learners worldwide. For example, learners can practise their language
skills by interacting with text, images, audio, and video created using multimedia
tools. Besides, they can easily share the learning contents that they create with peers.
Learners can also reflect, discuss or collaborate with others via social media platforms
[5].
In the last ten years, the dominant mobile devices that have been used in language
education range from mobile, portable, wireless, handheld, mobile/smart phones,
tablets personal computers, laptops, iPads, e-books, pocket e-dictionaries to class-
room response systems. With the popularity of these devices, studies on MALL in the
recent years have tried to explore the effects of MALL. Others have touched on the
theme of teachers’ and students’ perceptions of using MALL in language education.
Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL): A Socioculturual … 123

2.2 Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL)

Mobile assisted language learning (MALL) emphasizes the assistance of mobile

devices in the process of language learning of learners. MALL has put mobile learning
into use, especially in the field of language education. MALL can be impletmented
across different settings, via social and content exchanges, and through the use of
personal electronic devices. Chen et al. [6] described MALL to be both technological
and learnered center. The former characteristic indicates “the mobility of mobile
devices and the flexible access to instructional materials afforded by mobile learning”
(p. 1770) while the latter refers to the mobility of learners in interaction, collaboration
and conversation with other learners to construct or exchange knowledge. Miangah
and Nezarat [7] considered MALL to be able to reduce the restrictions of foreign
language learning in geographical term. The use of MALL however may lead to
some problems, for examples, learning distraction or technical issues [8].
In short, MALL refers to students’ language learning, making use of mobile
devices and technology to increase the opportunities to learn in different contexts
and time frames. In most situations, such learning can be done by students themselves
or facilitated by their teachers. The use of different kinds of mobile devices, however,
depends on language users’ purposes and varies in context.

2.3 Previous Studies on MALL

The literature has documented studies showing students’ agreeable attitudes toward
MALL [9] and that the use of MALL was able to foster students’ second language
learning [10]. In their study, Burston [11] found that MALL could develop learners’
reading, listening and speaking skills. The studies by Fouz-Gonzalez [12] and Liakin
et al. [13] described successful use of mobile applications for pronunciation. The
study by Blake [14] reports positive outcomes in speaking fluency due to computer-
mediated communication, and the one by Kitade [15] reveals that learners could
widen their knowledge of the target language after engaging in electronic chats.

2.4 Sociocultural Theory

Sociocultural theory (SCT) developed by Vygotsky and his colleagues emphasizes

mediation via human interaction and the use of tools or artifacts [16]. The use of
SCT as a theoretical framework has been found in a number of studies on language
learning in general and in MALL ones in particuluar. In the digial era, sociocultural
aspects of mobile learning lie in the concept of interaction and mediation since
language learners interact on mobile devices and with peers and resources anytime
and anywhere. It is also argued that mobile devices could serve as the medium to
124 L. P. H. Huong and T. T. T. Thuong

connect learners with others, enabling knowledge sharing and construction through
conversation [17]. From the sociocultural perspective, mediation through the use of
tools or artifacts such as smartphones, other smart devices and social interaction in
the forms of messages and chats via online allow for mediation, leading to learning
to occur [18].
The key concept of mediation in SCT could be explained as the process in which
individuals’ understanding is refracted through the use of languages of both spoken
and written forms. Medication can also take place via the use of cultural tools such
as books and digital devices. “Mediated learning thus takes place when learners’
psychological processes, including reasoning, strategic orientation, and problem-
solving, are generated through interaction with others (e.g. teachers, peers) and the
use of tools” [16, p. 514]. Le [16] also pointed out that originally Vygotsky [19]
borrowed the concept of tools from Hegel and Marx to relate to human labour activ-
ities. Generally, a tool is a material object for labour or working purposes. In educa-
tion, it is understood as a technological device, for example, a computer or an online
platform for language teaching and learning [16].

2.5 MALL in SCT Perspectives

SCT was proposed by Vygotksy and his colleagues, centering on the development
of cognition that comes from social interaction [20]. As a result, human cognitive
development depends critically on interpersonal interaction and use of culturally
generated media [21]. To foster learning, it is thus necessary that learners continue to
engage with the cultural and historical environments and other individuals. language
and technology are forms of cultural artifacts that can mediate all human interactions
with others and with the world [21, 22].
To analyse language learning in the digital direction, Koole [23] proposed the
Framework for the Rational Analysis of Mobile Education (FRAME) which explores
the mobile learning process which is a result of blending of mobile technology, human
learning and social interaction. This model takes into consideration the technical
characteristics of mobile devices as well as social and personal aspects of learning
[23]. The theory underlying FRAME echoes [19] the concept of mediation and
the zone of proximal development. In other words, FRAME emphasizes the role
of technology and constructivism. In FRAME, students can use various physical
and virtual situations to interact with other people as well as information systems
across time and place. Learning experiences manifest in an information setting where
interaction is mediated through technology.
Despite the increasing popularity of MALL in the current time, its use in language
education needs to be scrutinized from the perspective of SCT to see how the previous
studies have explored the learning of language is mediated when learners interact
with online tools or applications. On this ground, the current paper was set out to
asnwer the following questions:
Research questions:
Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL): A Socioculturual … 125

1. What are the research aims, research methods, and findings of the studies on
MALL in the last 10 years?
2. How does SCT shed light on the findings of these these studies?

3 Research Methodology

The current paper reviews the refereed articles in the last 10 years. The review was
carried out taking the suggested principles by Kraus et al. [1]. For the search database,
the current paper searched two major databases: Google scholar and ERIC which are
the two largest scientific databases of scholarly articles [1]. Keyword searching was
performed to determine relevant articles. The two key phrases that were used to filter
the research were mobile assited language learning (also MALL) and sociocultural
theory (also SCT). Finally, content analysis was carried out since such an approaches
enables the analysis of a small to medium corpus of articles using quantitative and
qualitative techniques. From a quantitative perspective, researchers can objectively
implement a content analysis by quantifying a specific unit of analysis. From a
qualitative perspective, a thematic analysis can be subjectively carried out to organize
the content into themes [1].

4 Findings

4.1 The Design of the Ten Studies on MALL

With the research methodology described above, the ten studies satisfying the selec-
tive criteria and on the topics of MALL in SCT were compiled to see the research
aims, research methods and contexts within two main topics. The review indicates
that these ten research articles followed two designs. The first one was to examine
the impact of a certain digital device or a mobile application on language learning.
The articles in the first direction aimed to explore the effects or impact of MALL on
English language skills; thus, the studies were carried out through the use of exper-
imental or quasi-experiemental studies with control and experimental groups. The
findings of the studies by [24–28] generally found that with the use of MALL and
the applications such as WhatsApp, Duolingo, Telgram, ACO (an interactive mobile-
assisted application), language users were able to gain improvement in language test
scores and language skills.
The second direction includes the studies focusing on participants including
teachers’ and students’ perceptions of the use of MALL in language education [4,
29–32]. These studies used questionnaire, self-reported questionnaire [29–31] or a
combination of questionnaire and interview [4] and diary and interview [31]. The
reported perceptions revealed that that the incorporation of creative and challenging
126 L. P. H. Huong and T. T. T. Thuong

MALL tasks raised students’ overall satisfaction associated with mobile learning
[29] and general benefits of MALL in the process of language learning.
In these ten studies, the participants comprised the students who were English
language learners in educational contexts at tertiary levels in various countries
including China, Hong Kong, Iran, Korea, Iran, Spain, Sweden, Taiwan and the
US.

4.2 Findings on the Effects of MALL on Language Learning

The first theme emerged from the findings from the articles was the effects of MALL
on language learning. They were from the experimental and quasi-experimental
studies by [24–28]. Overall, these studies have reported the positive effects o MALL.
To be more specific, it was found that the use of MALL assisted the experimental
groups to improve their scores in the speaking skill thanks to the use of WhatsApp
and vocabulary knowledge thanks to Duolingo [25]. The use of ACO, an application
for speaking English on mobile phones, brought positive effects because learners
were more active and participated in the learning through the use of the ACO apps
outside the classroom which fostered their narration skills [28]. The use of Telegram,
an application on mobile phones or laptops in language learning in the experimental
group receiving the writing topics and contributing to the writing tasks was found
to improve the writing skills of the users. To be more specific, writing fluency and
complexity of experimental learners flourished in comparison to their control peers.
However, the accuracy of the participants’ writing revealed a reverse pattern in the
control group [24].
The second theme emerged from the 10 studies was the documented perceptions
of MALL with data collected from the use of questionnaire, self-reported question-
naire [29, 30, 33] or a combination of questionnaire and interview [4], diary and
interview [31]. The findings revealed diverse perceptions, for examples, the benefits
of abundant electronic materials with MALL, learning other skills related to tech-
nology together with language learning and collaborating with other participants and
agents in mobile language learning [30, 34]; mobile-assisted tasks assisting learners
to improve language skills, keeping positive attitudes as well as developing inter-
personal skills and teamwork [29]. For example, Viberg and Grönlund [32] found
respondents’ positive attitudes toward MALL because of the features of MALL as
individualization (83%), the opportunities for collaboration via MALL (74%), and
authentic materials for learning (73%). Other perceived perceptions included better
engagement into the lessons, more understanding and relationships with peers, and
being able to express oneselves in the Multimedia Messaging Systems (MMS), and
more discussions more than in traditional classes [4, 35]. Wrigglesworth [4] also
found that when learning via MALL, the participants had to type and compose texts,
this form of learning led to a recursive process of messaging which enabled the
receiver to read and reread for understanding. Besides, the asynchronous nature
of the discussions made the participants confident to manage their participation
Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL): A Socioculturual … 127

with comments at any time during the interaction. The participants in this study
also perceived that their learning was facilitated thanks to the abundant sources of
enhanced English input via MALL. Other perceived benefits of MALL were reported
to include being able to overcome difficulties related to pragmatic competence and
discovery skills and enhanced interpreting and sociolinguistic competences [31].

4.3 Studies on MALL in SCT Perspective

The systematic review of the ten studies incidiates two themes from SCT perspective
in those studies. One theme is related to mediation via learning tools which are
mobile devices or applications. The other focuses on mediated learning via social
interaction.

4.3.1 Mediated Learning via Learning Tools

In SCT perspecitive, digital devices are considered to be cultural tools which can
provide foundations to understand how these culturally produced artifacts including
language and technology (e.g. smart phones, laptops, educational applications)
mediate the thinking process and interactions among users in the digital platforms
as well as interactions with ideas embedded in the applications on the devices. The
study by Ahmed [25], for example, found that human cognition depends heavily on
interpersonal communication and cultural artifacts or media. The study reported that
two experimental groups had better outcomes than the control groups on the speaking
posttest. However, what specific aspects of SCT whether artifact mediation, language
mediation, scaffolding from teachers or guiding features from Duolingo and What-
sApp applications that contributed to the increase in the scores of the speaking skills
of the experimental groups were not identified.
In the same vein, Viberg and Grönlund [32] regarded mobile devices as learning
tools which could provide affordances and modify language learning. Additionally,
they may be transformed by the ways they are used for learning. Besides, learning
is mediated by the use of tools through social exchanges between people. In case of
mobile learning, learning is promoted in virtual learning environments with digital
tools that are created for mobile devices.
Focusing on a specific digital tool, Wrigglesworth [4] explored how communica-
tion mediated through a multimedia messaging systems platform on a smartphone
worked in the lense of SCT. It was pointed out that this tool has three general qualities
impacting participants’ engagement in the Kakao Talk discussions. The reason for
the change in the qualities of talks by students is due to the introduction of smart
phones that changed the flow and structure of mental functions in users. According to
the author, the affordances made available by different technologies foster new forms
of social interaction. Mediation through the use of smartphones and social interaction
via text messaging facilities unique forms of mediation fostering language learning.
128 L. P. H. Huong and T. T. T. Thuong

The tool in Moayeri and Khodareza’s [28] study served as a communication means
for a community of practice with speakers from various geographical areas including
native and non-native language users, who were able to answer back and forth on
social media. It was an ACO apps for speaking English which was found to foster
learners’ activeness and participation in learning outside the classroom and develop
their narration skills.
Mobile devices were also described as physical mediational tools [31] of which
mediation could lead to foster the cognitive process and strengthen the user’s cogni-
tive power for knowledge acquisition thinking ability development, and decision-
making acceleration. In the sudy by Yang [31], the mobile tools assisted students
with the problem solving and learning process thanks to communication, self-effort,
finding references and critical thinking.

4.3.2 Mediated Learning via Interacion

Mediation in SCT is considered to occur via social interaction. This principle of

mediation of SCT was emphasized in the study by Ahmadpour and Yousefi [24].
The authors argued that innovative learning tool from MALL, for example, the prac-
tices of technologically-enhanced writing via the Telegram application provided the
mediation to enable the interlocutors to interact with one another despite distances.
To be more specific, learners benefited from real-time exchanges to deliver their ideas
and interact with others to complete their learning activities. In the study by Ahmad-
pour and Yousefi [24], writing fluency and complexity of learners in the experimental
group achieved higher outcomes in comparison to those in the control group. The
improvement was claimed to be mediated by interaction with peers via Telegram.
Besides, mediation occurs through technological devices between language
learners and other agents including teachers and peers. Ma [30] for instance found
that L2 learners used the psychological tools including language and cognitive activi-
ties in their language learning. The material tools from mobile technologies and apps
support their language learning and the assistance from teachers, peers, or friends
contributes to L2 learners’ progress in language learning. When language learners
employed some common cognitive processing or thinking via the use of technological
devives, it results in mental or physical activities, leading to language learning. The
mediation via these learning activities, according to Ma [30], involved meta-cognition
such as planning and goal setting for L2. The mediation also takes the form of cogni-
tion through reading e-news, checking dictionary apps or practising speaking and
listening via mobile apps. Mediation also is realized through self-regulation when
the L2 learners created a vocabulary learning record, self-evaluation via mobile apps,
and interaction with friends or peers via Facebook or WhatsApp. Ma [30] concluded
that Hong Kong university students made use of varied e-resources and tools for
learning their L2 and these tools mediated their L2 learning through agency. All
the participants in Ma’s [30] study approached language similarly. They employed
various online resources and e-tools; they often combined language learning with
personal entertainment; they showed a habit of learning collaboratively and were
Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL): A Socioculturual … 129

mediated by other agents; and use of mobile technologies bridged between formal
and informal learning. Personalized learning is also a result of technology-mediated
learning. Mobile technologies serve a catalyst to give affordances to the participants
to further develop their personal learning habits and interests and to improve their
English at the same time.
Andujar [26] referred to the zone of proximal development by Vygotsky [19] to
stress the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of human cogni-
tion. According to the author, individuals’ cognitive development should be under-
stood with reference to the social and cultural context within which it is embedded.
The tool under investigation by Andujar [26] was WhatsApp. The tool was found
to promote second language interaction among participants and to activate students’
engagement in interaction on mobile phones. As a result, their writing was trans-
formed thanks to the mediation from interaction and using mobile phones, leading
to more syntactic and lexical diversity in their writing.
Interaction in SCT is seen to lead to individual development because when learners
encounter problems and attempt to solve them, dialogues between peers mediate the
second language learning process [27]. The mobile photo-taking activity embedded
in the language learning process faciliated language learning because during the
process of learners’ taking photos, they must engage in an activity. The activity was
implemented based on an instructional objective which requested them to take rele-
vant photos with peers and then make sentences based on the photos. In other words,
profound learning occurs when learners are engaged in interaction and productive
learning activities.

5 Discussion and Conclusion

The aim of this paper is to provide a systematic review of current knowledge in the
domains of MALL and SCT. For that purpose, it has documented the ten studies
in the domains to examine their research design and theoretical framework. The
analysis provides an evaluation of knowledge progression in the domain of MALL
which is found to focus on users’ perceptions of MALL with data collected from
questionnaire, interview or a combination of both. Another finding is that the effects
of a certain application or a digital/cultural rool used on a mobile device mediated the
learning process of tool users, leading to improvement in language use or thinking.
The two main themes of mediation of SCT, namely, mobile devices as mediating
tools and mediated learning through interaction were referred to in these ten studies.
Originally, the concept of tool use in labour is considered to be able to transform
the consciousness of those who use it and the society where it is utilized [33]. The
concept of tool use has been adopted in SCT to refer to common tool use, e.g. a
spear, a computer or a pen in the process of working on an activity by humans.
The concept taken into education and language learning has been interpreted with
the use of classroom materials or artifacts [33] such as textbooks, audio visuals aid.
SCT thus is often retracted to see how tools or artifacts mediate the learning process
130 L. P. H. Huong and T. T. T. Thuong

of language users. Since the explosion of the mobile devices and the development
of mobile learning, MALL has become ubiquitous and studies on this domain has
employed SCT to explore mediated learning and mediation via digital tools. The
two emerged themes from the ten studies reviewed in this paper indicates the useful
mediating roles of the digital tools, for example, scaffolding role from Duolingo and
WhatsApp applications. Besides, the review indicates that when learning with digital
tools and applications, learners were mediated in the learning process, leading to gains
in the scores of the speaking skills [25]. Mediation through the use of smartphones
and social interaction via text messaging was also found to allow for certain unique
forms of mediation which facilitate language learning [4].
Interaction is part of the process of teaching and learning in language education.
Viewed from SCT, interaction is a catalyst for mediation to take place. All the studies
reviewed in this paper have documented the mediating role of interaction, identified
as a means to assist students to make planning and goal setting for students to learn
with mobile devices via self-regulation and learning personalization [30]. Interaction
with other participants online via an application, for example, WhatsApp, was found
to give affordances to learners to generate ideas in the discussion via the tool [26]
and complete learning activies set out by teachers [27].
The review of the 10 studies in this paper indicates that using SCT in general
and the concept of medication in specific to explore how learning tools either in the
forms of classroom artifacts or digital tools has been proved to be a good match.
The combination of the two domains is able to provide insight into how learners’
thinking is transformed via learning with digital tools or how tools can change the
culture of learning in the classroom or online. In addition, the specific patterns of
language use of learners are also mediated by interaction with digital tools or with
other peers. Documenting the changes in the ways learners use digital tools and
their language use behaviours can provide implications for designing applications
for language learning as well as lessons that can respond to learners’ personalized
needs.
The systemtatic review of the 10 studies has provided a proposal for potential
pathways for advancing knowledge in MALL. With more studies on MALL, it is
anticipated that future studies adopting other research methods than experimental or
descriptive approaches, for example, longitudinal or phenomenontal research will be
able to document growth and development in language learners via interaction with
digial tools, mobile devices and online applications to be reviewed. Such a synthesis
would yield more insights in the process of mediation by tools and language in a
period of time long enough to document the changes in the thinking and language
use of learners.
It is also antiticipated that a systematic review of studies on MALL viewed from
other theories or language models, for examples, comprehensible input and tech-
nology acceptance model would give more undertanding of how learners make use of
mobile devices and digital tools in the perspectives of technology-centered education
and second language aquisition [36]. Comparing the outcomes of studies on MALL in
different theoretical frameworks would enrich understanding of the learning process
and how digital and mobile tools contribute to language learning. Thus, implications
Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL): A Socioculturual … 131

drawn from such a comparison can provide practical suggestions to more effective
MALL.

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Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL): A Socioculturual … 133

Le Pham Hoai Huong is an associate professor in the English department at Hue University of
Foreign Languages and International Studies. Her research interests include sociocultural theory,
classroom interaction, and teacher education.

Tran Thi Thanh Thương holds a PhD in TESOL. She is now an English lecturer at Ho Chi
Minh College of Foreign Economic Relations, Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam. Her research interests
include sociocultural theory, English for specific purposes, and classroom interaction.
Teachers’ Experiences with Generative
AI as Co-Pilots in High School L2
Writing Instruction: A Case in Vietnam

Nghi Tin Tran

Abstract The rapid incorporation of generative AI tools in second language (L2)

instruction, particularly in writing, is reshaping the landscape of second language
education. This study focuses on the experiences and viewpoints of high school L2
writing teachers regarding the use of AI Chatbots in the writing classroom. The
study employed semi-structured interviews with 12 teachers using AI tools, such as
ChatGPT and Google Bard, in their classrooms for at least a semester. The analysis
of the interview transcripts revealed teachers’ perceptions about changing roles of
authorship and their evolving responsibilities in AI-assisted writing. Other significant
themes included the need for ensuring academic integrity, making pedagogical adjust-
ments, addressing ethical issues related to bias and plagiarism risks, and engaging
in continuous professional development for AI literacy. While acknowledging the
potential of AI to enhance engagement and offer personalized support, teachers also
stressed the significance of critical thinking and human creativity. The study provides
useful insights into the effective blending of AI capabilities with traditional writing
pedagogy. As L2 writing instruction continues to advance with technology, research
focusing on teachers’ experiences will be vital in guiding responsible integration in
educational environments.

Keywords Academic integrity · English language education · Ethics · Generative

AI · Writing

1 Introduction

The digital transformation in the educational sector has led to significant changes
in teaching and learning methodologies, particularly with the advent of advanced
technological tools like generative artificial intelligence (AI). Large language models

N. T. Tran (B)
Faculty of Foreign Languages, Ho Chi Minh City University of Industry and Trade, Ho Chi Minh
City, Vietnam
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 135
H. P. Bui and E. Namaziandost (eds.), Innovations in Technologies for Language
Teaching and Learning, Studies in Computational Intelligence 1159,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-63447-5_8
136 N. T. Tran

such as ChatGPT or Google Bard are at the forefront of this transformation, offering
promising potentials in automating text generation and aiding in various stages of
the writing process [1]. This is especially pertinent in second language (L2) writing
classrooms, where students often require extensive practice, personalized feedback,
and opportunities for revision to hone their skills.
Generative AI tools have the capability to assist teachers and learners in drafting,
revising, and providing immediate, formative feedback, creating avenues for person-
alized learning and addressing diverse learner needs [2]. However, the integration
of these tools in educational settings is not straightforward and brings forth chal-
lenges related to ethical use, plagiarism, potential biases, and the risk of overreliance
on technology. Addressing these challenges requires careful consideration and an
understanding of the implications of AI integration in L2 writing classrooms.
While there is a growing body of research exploring how students interact with
generative AI for writing, the perspectives of teachers, who are crucial in facilitating
the integration of these tools in classrooms, have not been adequately explored.
Teachers’ beliefs, experiences, and attitudes play a significant role in determining
how technology is adopted and utilized in educational settings, influencing the
learning environment and potential outcomes [3]. In the context of L2 writing, where
the teacher’s role is central in providing nuanced feedback and fostering a supportive
language learning environment, understanding the implications of AI integration is
crucial [4].
The integration of generative AI technologies, particularly in L2 writing instruc-
tion, is bringing about a transformative shift in the digital landscape of education. This
change is primarily driven by the use of large language models such as ChatGPT or
Google Bard, which are revolutionizing the perception and utilization of text genera-
tion and writing assistance in educational settings. To understand this new paradigm,
a phenomenological study was conducted in a K12 school affiliated with a university
in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. This phenomenological study aims to address the
gap in research by exploring the experiences and perspectives of high school L2
writing teachers regarding the integration of generative AI tools in their classrooms.
The study seeks to understand how these teachers perceive the use of AI tools, how
it impacts their roles and responsibilities as teachers, and their beliefs and concerns
regarding the ethical use of AI in writing instruction. The study will answer the
following research questions:
(1) How do L2 writing teachers in high school perceive the integration of generative
AI tools in their teaching practices, and how do they believe it affects their roles
and responsibilities?
(2) What are the beliefs and concerns of these teachers regarding the ethical and
responsible use of generative AI in L2 writing instruction?
(3) How do these teachers believe generative AI influences their students’ develop-
ment of writing skills in a second language?
By providing detailed accounts of the experiences of L2 writing teachers with
generative AI, this study aims to provide valuable insights into the complexities of
AI integration in education. These insights will contribute to the development of
Teachers’ Experiences with Generative AI as Co-Pilots in High School … 137

effective professional development programs and inform responsible AI integration

models, ensuring that the adoption of these tools enhances learning experiences and
outcomes in L2 writing classrooms. The significance of this study lies in its ability to
inform the responsible integration of generative AI in education, providing teachers,
policymakers, and researchers with a deeper understanding of the implications of AI
tools in L2 writing instruction. As generative AI becomes increasingly prevalent in
educational settings, research like this becomes essential in guiding the educational
community towards the ethical and effective use of these advanced technologies.

2 Literature Review

The integration of technology in education, particularly artificial intelligence (AI),

has been the subject of extensive research, with studies exploring its applications,
impacts, and implications across various educational contexts [5]. The advent of
generative AI tools, exemplified by large language models such as ChatGPT or
Google Bard, has sparked considerable interest in understanding how these tech-
nologies can be utilized to enhance teaching and learning experiences, especially in
L2 writing classrooms.

2.1 The Integration of AI in Education

The potential of AI to transform educational practices has been widely recognized,

with studies highlighting its capacity to provide personalized learning experiences,
automate assessment, and offer instant feedback [6, 7]. AI’s ability to analyze large
datasets and identify patterns has also been leveraged to gain insights into students’
learning processes, aiding teachers in making informed instructional decisions[8].
Despite these promising potentials, the integration of AI in education also raises
concerns related to ethical considerations, data privacy, and the potential for bias
[9–11]

2.2 Generative AI in L2 Writing Instruction

Specifically in L2 writing instruction, generative AI tools have been employed to

assist students in the writing process, offering suggestions, generating text, and
providing corrective feedback [12–14]. Research has demonstrated the potential of
these tools to enhance students’ writing skills, increase engagement, and foster a
positive attitude towards writing [15]. However, the literature also underscores the
importance of proper integration and the role of the teacher in mediating the use of
these tools to maximize their benefits [16, 17].
138 N. T. Tran

2.3 Teachers’ Role and Perspectives

The role of the teacher is central in the integration of technology in classrooms.

Teachers’ beliefs, attitudes, and experiences significantly influence the adoption and
use of technology, shaping the learning environment and outcomes [3]. In the context
of L2 writing, the teacher’s role extends beyond providing linguistic knowledge to
include offering guidance, feedback, and support throughout the writing process. The
integration of generative AI in this context introduces new dynamics, necessitating
a reexamination of the teacher’s role and the potential impacts on authorship and
agency in the writing classroom [18].
A growing body of literature has started to explore teachers’ perspectives on
the integration of AI in education. Studies have highlighted the need for profes-
sional development and support in navigating the ethical and pedagogical challenges
associated with AI integration [19]. Teachers’ concerns regarding the potential for
AI to diminish their role, the reliability of AI-generated feedback, and the ethical
considerations surrounding data use have also been noted [20, 21].

2.4 Ethical Considerations

The ethical dimensions of AI integration in education, particularly in L2 writing,

are complex and multifaceted. Concerns related to data privacy, bias in AI-generated
content, and the potential for plagiarism need to be addressed to ensure respon-
sible use [22, 23]. The literature calls for transparent policies, clear guidelines,
and ongoing dialogue among stakeholders to navigate these ethical challenges and
promote responsible AI integration [24].

2.5 Impacts on Learning

Regarding the impact of generative AI on student learning in L2 writing, the literature

presents a mixed picture. On the one hand, studies have reported positive outcomes,
including improved writing skills, increased motivation, and enhanced engagement
[17, 25]. On the other hand, concerns have been raised about students’ overreliance
on AI tools, the potential for shallow learning, and the need for critical evaluation of
AI-generated feedback [26, 27].
Teachers’ Experiences with Generative AI as Co-Pilots in High School … 139

2.6 Gaps in the Literature and Future Directions

Despite the growing body of research on AI in L2 writing, there remains a gap

in understanding teachers’ experiences and perspectives, particularly in the context
of generative AI as “co-pilots” in the writing classroom. Future research should
aim to fill this gap, providing insights into how teachers navigate the integration of
these tools, perceive their evolving roles, and address the ethical and pedagogical
challenges associated with AI use in L2 writing instruction. Such research is crucial in
guiding the responsible adoption of AI in education and ensuring that its integration
leads to enhanced learning experiences and outcomes.
The integration of generative AI in L2 writing classrooms represents a significant
shift in educational practices, offering numerous benefits but also posing challenges
and ethical considerations that need to be carefully navigated. Teachers play a central
role in this integration, and understanding their experiences and perspectives is vital
in maximizing the benefits and mitigating the risks of AI use in education. This
literature review sets the stage for the phenomenological study that follows, aiming
to explore high school L2 writing teachers’ experiences and beliefs surrounding the
use of generative AI in their classrooms.

3 Methodology

The methodology of this study is grounded in the phenomenological research tradi-

tion, aiming to gain a deep understanding of high school L2 writing teachers’ expe-
riences and perceptions regarding the integration of generative AI tools in their
classrooms. The emphasis is on capturing the richness of their lived experiences,
providing insights into their beliefs, challenges, and practices related to the use of
these tools.

3.1 Participants

The study included approximately 12 high school L2 (English) teacher participants

who had experience using generative AI tools such as ChatGPT or Google Bard in
their teaching practices. They were recruited through purposive sampling, ensuring a
diverse representation in terms of teaching experience, educational background, and
school settings (see Table 1). The sample selection was based on the three criteria as
follows:

1. Being a high school teacher with at least one year of experience in teaching L2
writing.
2. Having used generative AI tools in L2 writing instruction for at least one academic
semester.
140 N. T. Tran

Table 1 Participant demographics

Participant Gender Years of experience School setting
Teacher 1 Female 5 Urban public high school
Teacher 2 Male 10 Suburban private high school
Teacher 3 Female 8 Rural public high school
Teacher 4 Female 3 Urban public high school
Teacher 5 Male 12 Suburban private high school
Teacher 6 Female 6 Urban public high school
Teacher 7 Male 7 Rural public high school
Teacher 8 Female 9 Suburban private high school
Teacher 9 Male 11 Urban public high school
Teacher 10 Male 4 Suburban private high school
Teacher 11 Female 8 Rural public high school
Teacher 12 Female 10 Urban public high school

3. Willingness to participate in an in-depth interview and possibly a follow-up

interview.

3.2 Rationale for Choosing Phenomenology

Phenomenology was selected as the methodological approach for this study as it

aligned with the objective of eliciting a comprehensive understanding of teachers’
experiences with integrating generative AI tools into their classrooms. This approach
was rooted in the desire to provide richly detailed and nuanced descriptions of how
teachers perceived and made sense of this phenomenon in their professional lives. The
selection of this methodology was driven by the intention to encapsulate the essence
of teachers’ firsthand experiences with AI integration. This included their beliefs,
challenges, emotions, and practices related to the use of AI tools in their teaching
environment. Phenomenology, as a method, offered the researcher an opportunity to
deeply explore the teachers’ perspectives on their roles and responsibilities within
an AI-facilitated classroom. This approach was instrumental in enabling a level of
qualitative insight that traditional surveys or quantitative methods may have failed
to offer. Considering the exploratory nature of research on AI integration in educa-
tion, phenomenology offered an ideal starting point to shed light on this evolving
phenomenon from the perspective of the teachers. The descriptive findings generated
from this research can potentially inform future research, practice, and policy-making
in the field of education. These insights can guide the development of strategies and
interventions to support teachers as they navigate the challenges and opportunities
presented by the integration of AI in education.
In conclusion, phenomenology served as a valuable tool in comprehending the
multifaceted experiences of teachers as they adopted and integrated AI tools into
Teachers’ Experiences with Generative AI as Co-Pilots in High School … 141

their classrooms. The findings from this study added a qualitative depth to our under-
standing of this phenomenon, contributing to the broader discourse on the role of AI
in education.

3.3 Data Collection

Data was collected primarily through semi-structured interviews, allowing for flexi-
bility in exploring participants’ experiences and perceptions while ensuring consis-
tency across interviews. The interview guide included open-ended questions aligned
with the research questions, prompting teachers to reflect on their experiences, chal-
lenges, beliefs, and practices related to the integration of generative AI in L2 writing
instruction. Interviews lasted between 45 and 75 min and were conducted virtually
or in person, depending on participants’ preferences and availability. All interviews
were audio-recorded with participants’ consent and later transcribed verbatim for
analysis. To complement the interview data and provide additional context, partic-
ipants were also asked to share relevant teaching materials, such as lesson plans,
assignment prompts, and examples of student work (with identifying information
removed). To ensure the credibility and reliability of the data, participants were
provided with the opportunity to review and comment on the transcription of their
interview, allowing them to clarify, expand upon, or revise their responses.

3.4 Data Analysis

The transcribed interviews underwent thematic analysis, following the six-phase

process outlined by Clarke and Braun [28]. This involved:
1. Familiarizing oneself with the data: Reading through the transcripts multiple
times to gain an in-depth understanding of the content.
2. Generating initial codes: Systematically coding the entire data set to identify
features pertinent to the research questions.
3. Searching for themes: Collating codes into potential themes and gathering all
data relevant to each theme.
4. Reviewing themes: Checking if the themes work in relation to both the coded
data and the entire data set, generating a thematic map of the analysis.
5. Defining and naming themes: Further refining the themes and generating clear
definitions and names for each theme.
6. Writing the report: Relating the analysis back to the research questions and the
existing literature, producing a scholarly report of the findings.
The analysis aimed to identify commonalities and variations in participants’ expe-
riences and perceptions, providing rich descriptions of their lived experiences and
142 N. T. Tran

highlighting the implications for the integration of generative AI in L2 writing

instruction.

4 Findings

This section presents the findings from semi-structured interviews with 12 high
school L2 writing teachers who have incorporated generative AI tools into their
teaching practices. The analysis revealed insights into teachers’ perceptions of
AI integration, ethical and responsible use concerns, and the perceived impact on
students’ development of writing skills in a second language.

4.1 How Do L2 Writing Teachers in High School Perceive

the Integration of Generative AI Tools in their Teaching
Practices, and How Do They Believe it Affects their Roles
and Responsibilities?

The integration of generative AI tools in L2 writing instruction had led to a nuanced

perception of teachers’ roles and responsibilities. Approximately 83% of partici-
pants had reported a shift towards becoming more of a facilitator in the learning
process, guiding students through AI-generated suggestions and fostering a more
explorative learning environment. The integration of generative AI tools had signif-
icantly influenced teachers’ perceptions of their roles and teaching practices. While
the initial findings had highlighted a general trend towards becoming facilitators,
further analysis revealed a more complex picture of this transition (see Table 2).
From the data provided during the interview, it was observed that all teachers
(100%) mentioned ‘Facilitation of Personalized Feedback’ as having a positive
perception towards AI integration in teaching (see Table 3). This was closely followed
by the ‘Increased Efficiency in Teaching Practices’ category where 91.7% shared a
positive perception. This percentage indicated that teachers appreciated the use of AI
to create personalized student feedback and enhance the efficiency of their teaching

Table 2 Teachers’ Perceptions of AI Integration

Perception categories Number of teachers mentioning Percentage (%)
Positive impact on student engagement 10 83.3
Improvement in writing skills 9 75
Enhancement of creative writing 8 66.7
Facilitation of personalized feedback 12 100
Increased efficiency in teaching practices 11 91.7
Teachers’ Experiences with Generative AI as Co-Pilots in High School … 143

methodologies. Meanwhile, the aspect of AI integration that seemed to be least appre-

ciated or noticed was the ‘Enhancement of Creative Writing’ with 66.7% teachers
identifying it as a positive impact. Notably, ‘student engagement’ and ‘writing skills
improvement’ also received high percentages of positive feedback (83.3% and 75%
respectively) among teachers. This result suggested that, according to teachers, AI
offered multiple appreciated advantages in teaching practices, with personalized
feedback and improved efficiency being at the forefront.
The data from Table 2 suggested that AI significantly impacted teaching roles,
with all teachers transitioning to more facilitative roles due to AI integration. Approx-
imately 91.7% noted an increased need for student-AI mediation, indicating teachers’
crucial role in guiding AI usage. About 83.3% found that AI enhanced classroom
collaboration, and all highlighted the necessity for ongoing professional develop-
ment to keep pace with AI’s incorporation. The data also emphasized the promotion
of ethical usage and originality, suggesting AI’s role in encouraging responsible tech
use. Overall, AI had not only transformed traditional teaching but highlighted new
considerations, such as student-AI interaction, continuous teacher development, and
ethical tech use. This changing landscape called for skill upgrading, role evolution,
and ethical tech use, providing critical insights for stakeholders integrating AI into
education.
From these viewpoints, it could be deduced that the adoption of AI was trans-
forming the teaching profession. There was a unanimous agreement on the need
for skill upgrading, role-evolution, and ethical use of these new technologies. This
data served a critical purpose for education policymakers and stakeholders as they
attempted to integrate AI into the education sector.
Figure 1 data point revealed a substantial consensus on AI’s role in enhancing
student engagement. The fact that 83.3% of teachers had observed this benefit
suggested that AI tools likely introduced interactive and engaging elements into
the learning environment that resonated with students’ interests and learning styles.
This could have been through gamified learning experiences, interactive simulations,
or by providing instant feedback, which were known to increase student motivation

Table 3 Impact of AI on teaching roles and responsibilities

Impact categories Number of teachers mentioning Percentage (%)
Shift from traditional to facilitative 12 100
roles
Increased mediation between 11 91.7
students and AI
Enhanced collaboration in the 10 83.3
classroom
Need for continuous professional 12 100
development
Promotion of ethical use and 12 100
originality
144 N. T. Tran

and participation. 75% of teachers noted an improvement in writing skills, providing

clear evidence that AI-driven tools made a significant contribution to developing
students’ writing abilities. This enhancement might have resulted from AI’s capa-
bility to provide immediate, actionable feedback on grammar, structure, and content,
allowing students to iteratively refine their writing. This real-time feedback mech-
anism was a critical component in the learning process, enabling students to learn
from their mistakes and improve their skills more rapidly than traditional methods
might have allowed.
There was unanimous acknowledgment (100%) of AI’s role in facilitating person-
alized feedback, underscoring its perceived value in addressing individual student
needs. This indicated that AI tools were particularly effective in analyzing student
submissions to deliver customized feedback, a task that would have been time-
consuming and challenging for teachers to perform manually for each student.
Personalized feedback was pivotal in educational settings as it helped tailor the
learning experience to the individual learner, potentially leading to improved learning
outcomes.
The observation by 91.7% of teachers that AI tools increased efficiency spoke
to AI’s impact beyond just student learning outcomes. By automating certain tasks,
such as grading and feedback provision, AI could save teachers significant amounts
of time. This efficiency gain allowed teachers to allocate more time to other critical
aspects of their role, including lesson planning, one-on-one student interactions, and
professional development.
The fact that two-thirds of the teachers (66.7%) observed an enhancement in
creative writing suggested that AI tools could inspire creativity among students.
This might have been facilitated through AI’s ability to offer diverse writing prompts,

Fig. 1 Teachers’ views on the benefits of AI integration

Teachers’ Experiences with Generative AI as Co-Pilots in High School … 145

expose students to a variety of writing styles, and suggest creative improvements in

their writing. Encouraging creative thinking was crucial for student development, as
it fostered critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
The analysis of data from Fig. 1 solidified the argument that AI integration in
educational settings offered multifaceted benefits, from enhancing student engage-
ment and writing skills to improving instructional efficiency and supporting collab-
orative learning environments. The high percentage of teachers recognizing these
benefits illustrated a strong endorsement of AI’s potential to positively transform
teaching and learning practices. However, leveraging these benefits to their fullest
potential required careful integration of AI tools into the curriculum, along with
ongoing support and training for teachers to navigate the challenges associated with
their effective use.
The adoption of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in educational contexts had offered
promising avenues for enhancing teaching and learning. Despite the potential bene-
fits, such as individualized feedback and improved student engagement, teachers
had faced significant challenges that hindered the seamless integration of AI tools.
Based on teacher feedback categorized in Fig. 2, these obstacles had included Tech-
nical Glitches, Ethical Concerns, Need for Professional Development, and Student
Resistance.
Technical glitches represented 22.9% of the identified challenges. They high-
lighted the practical difficulties teachers encountered when integrating AI tools.
These issues could disrupt the learning process and deter both teachers and students
from using technology. For the consistent delivery of AI’s benefits, such as increased

Fig. 2 Challenges in integrating AI into teaching practices

146 N. T. Tran

efficiency and support for collaborative writing, technical reliability was crucial.
Addressing technical issues was paramount to ensuring that AI tools were accessible
and dependable for educational purposes.
Ethical concerns accounted for 31.4% of the challenges. They emphasized the
complexities surrounding the use of AI, including data privacy, plagiarism, and the
integrity of student work. Ethical use of AI was foundational to leveraging AI for
personalized feedback and enhancing student engagement. Developing clear guide-
lines and ethical standards was essential for integrating AI responsibly in educational
contexts.
The need for professional development had the highest mentions (34.3%). It under-
scored the gap between the availability of AI tools and the ability of teachers to
implement them effectively. Professional development was critical for teachers to
understand how to utilize AI to its full potential, including enhancing writing skills
and fostering student engagement. Investment in training could equip teachers with
the skills needed to navigate AI tools successfully.
Student resistance comprised 11.4% of the challenges. It pointed to the hesitancy
or reluctance among students to embrace AI-facilitated learning, possibly due to
unfamiliarity or skepticism about its effectiveness. Overcoming student resistance
was key to realizing the benefits of AI, such as improvement in student engagement
and support for collaborative writing. Efforts to familiarize students with AI and
demonstrate its value in enhancing learning could mitigate this challenge.
The integration of AI in education presented a transformative opportunity to
enhance teaching and learning experiences. However, the realization of this potential
was contingent upon addressing the identified challenges comprehensively. Recom-
mendations included enhancing technical support, establishing ethical guidelines,
investing in professional development, and engaging students. By addressing these
challenges, teachers could leverage AI to its fullest potential, maximizing the bene-
fits of AI integration in education and paving the way for a more engaging, efficient,
and personalized learning environment.
Teacher 4 stated that “AI tools have shifted my role from being the sole source of
knowledge to a facilitator of learning where students explore AI-generated sugges-
tions”, while Techer 8 expressed concern about students becoming too dependent on
AI, which could undermine their learning process.
Based on the provided insights, it was clear that AI tools were having a transfor-
mative effect on the educational sector. However, this transformation was nuanced,
with both positive and potentially negative impacts highlighted by the respondents.
AI tools had a positive influence on making instruction more interactive and engaging.
They were enabling instructors to serve more as guides along the learning journey,
leveraging AI-generated suggestions to enhance students’ exploration and under-
standing. There was also concern about dependency on AI tools. Overdependence
on AI could destabilize the learning process rather than enhance it. Balancing the
use of technology with other instructive methods that improve student engagement
and comprehension was an important point to address.
Teachers’ Experiences with Generative AI as Co-Pilots in High School … 147

4.2 What Are the Beliefs and Concerns of These Teachers

Regarding the Ethical and Responsible Use of Generative
AI in L2 Writing Instruction?

Teachers expressed a nuanced understanding of the ethical dimensions associated

with the use of generative AI in L2 writing instruction. The analysis revealed a
consensus on the importance of fostering ethical awareness among students, the
need for transparency in AI’s educational applications, and concerns over academic
integrity and data privacy [22, 23].
All participating teachers (100%) had emphasized the necessity of instilling
ethical awareness in students, highlighting it as a fundamental aspect of integrating AI
in education. This included guiding students on how to use AI responsibly and recog-
nizing the limitations and potential biases of AI-generated content. The concern for
transparency in how AI tools were utilized and how they influenced student learning
outcomes was raised by 83.3% of teachers. They had advocated for clear explanations
to students about how AI feedback was generated and the criteria it used, fostering
a deeper understanding of the technology’s role in their learning process.
The integrity of academic work emerged as a critical concern, with 91.7% of
teachers stressing the importance of teaching students to use AI as a tool for learning
enhancement rather than a means to bypass the learning process. This encompassed
discussions on plagiarism and the value of original thought in academic writing.
Data privacy concerns were noted by 75% of the teachers, reflecting apprehen-
sion about how student data was collected, used, and stored by AI applications.
Teachers called for stringent safeguards to protect student information and ensure
that educational use of AI respected privacy norms.

Fig. 3 Summary of teachers’ ethical beliefs and concerns

148 N. T. Tran

The findings indicated that while teachers recognized the potential of generative
AI to transform L2 writing instruction, they were acutely aware of the ethical chal-
lenges it presented. teachers were navigating these challenges by fostering an envi-
ronment of ethical awareness, ensuring transparency, promoting academic integrity,
and advocating for the protection of student data.
“It is crucial we teach our students the ethical use of AI... they need to understand the
line between assistance and cheating,” reflected Teacher 7, underscoring the importance of
ethical guidance. Teacher 2 noted, “Transparency about how AI works is key to building
trust and understanding among students.”

Concerning academic integrity, one Teacaher 11 stated, “AI can be a double-edged

sword. It’s vital we emphasize the importance of originality and personal effort in
their writing tasks.“
Teacher 9 emphasized the importance of imparting ethical AI usage to students,
stating, “Understanding the difference between utilizing AI as an aid and using it
to cheat is a critical lesson for our students.“ Teacher 6 highlighted the necessity
for honesty about the functionality of AI, stating, “To foster trust and understanding
in students, it’s essential to be transparent about how AI operates.“ Regarding the
concern of academic honesty, Teacher 6 also shared her opinions, “AI has its pros
and cons. It’s important to stress the significance of individual creativity and effort
in their writing assignments.”
This study illuminated the complex ethical landscape high school L2 writing
teachers navigated as they integrated generative AI tools into their instruction. The
unanimous emphasis on ethical awareness, combined with significant concerns about
transparency, academic integrity, and data privacy, underscored the need for compre-
hensive ethical guidelines and education in AI’s application in teaching practices.
Future research should delve into developing frameworks and strategies that address
these ethical considerations, ensuring that the integration of AI in education aligns
with principles of responsible and ethical use.

4.3 How Do These Teachers Believe Generative AI

Influences Their Students’ Development of Writing Skills
in a Second Language?

The integration of generative AI tools into L2 writing instruction was perceived

by teachers as a pivotal factor in enhancing students’ writing skills. Teachers
reported observing improvements in various aspects of writing, including grammar,
vocabulary, structure, and creative expression (see Table 4).
Teachers unanimously agreed (100%) that vocabulary enhancement was the most
significant benefit observed, attributing this to AI’s capability to provide diverse
language inputs and contextual usage examples. Grammar improvement was also
highly noted (91.7%), with teachers highlighting AI’s feedback mechanisms as
Teachers’ Experiences with Generative AI as Co-Pilots in High School … 149

Table 4 Perceived impacts of generative AI on L2 writing skills

Writing skill aspect Number of teachers mentioning Percentage (%)
Grammar improvement 11 91.7
Vocabulary enhancement 12 100
Structural coherence 10 83.3
Creative expression 8 66.7

instrumental in correcting and explaining grammatical errors in real-time. Struc-

tural coherence in writing had seen improvement in the eyes of 83.3% of teachers,
who believed that AI tools helped students understand the organization of texts and
the logical flow of ideas. However, the influence on creative expression was less
pronounced (66.7%), suggesting that while AI aided in the mechanical aspects of
writing, its role in fostering creativity might have been more complex and nuanced.
Teacher 9 had shared, “AI had revolutionized the way we approached vocabulary
teaching. My students were exposed to a wider range of words and contexts than ever
before,” highlighting the transformative impact of AI on language learning.
Reflecting on grammar, Teacher 12 noted, “The immediate feedback on grammar
had been a game changer. Students corrected their mistakes on the spot, leading to
faster improvement.“
On the topic of creative writing, Teacher 4 remarked, “While AI helped with
the basics, I found it didn’t quite spark creativity the way traditional prompts and
discussions could.“
The findings had indicated that generative AI tools were a valuable asset in
L2 writing instruction, particularly in enhancing mechanical writing skills such as
grammar and vocabulary. Teachers appreciated AI’s instant feedback and personal-
ized learning opportunities, which contributed to a more interactive and engaging
learning environment. However, the relatively lower emphasis on creative expression
had raised questions about AI’s capacity to inspire original thought and creativity
in writing. This result suggested a potential area for further exploration, focusing
on how AI tools could be designed or utilized to better support creative aspects
of writing in addition to mechanical proficiency. This investigation into the role of
generative AI in L2 writing instruction had revealed a positive outlook among high
school teachers regarding the technology’s impact on student writing skills. While
AI’s contributions to vocabulary and grammar were highly valued, its influence on
creative writing remained an area for further development.
The insights provided by this study had underscored the need for balanced AI
integration strategies that supported both mechanical proficiency and creative skill
development in L2 writing education. Building on the initial findings, this extended
analysis had further explored high school teachers’ perspectives on the use of gener-
ative AI in enhancing L2 writing skills. The nuanced feedback from teachers had
revealed both the strengths and limitations of AI in the context of language learning,
offering a more comprehensive understanding of its pedagogical implications.
150 N. T. Tran

Table 5 provided a comprehensive overview of the extended influence of Genera-

tive AI on the development of L2 writing skills. This section delved into the specifics
of each aspect covered in the table and expounded upon the insights derived from
the data. In Table 4, it was evident that all 12 teachers (100%) mentioned the signifi-
cance of enhanced feedback mechanisms facilitated by Generative AI. These mecha-
nisms, as emphasized by educators, went beyond mere error correction. They offered
detailed explanations and valuable suggestions for improvement. The immediate
feedback provided by AI was deemed crucial for enhancing writing proficiency. It
allowed students to swiftly rectify their errors and gain a deeper understanding of
their mistakes. The personalized nature of AI feedback was highly appreciated, as it
catered to individual students’ needs and addressed their specific weaknesses.
The data presented in Table 5 highlight that 11 teachers (91.7%) observed a
boost in student motivation and engagement as a direct consequence of incorpo-
rating Generative AI into the classroom. This increased enthusiasm was attributed
to the interactive nature of AI feedback and the novelty of utilizing advanced tech-
nology in the learning process. The allure of AI tools stimulated students’ interest
and encouraged them to invest more effort in their writing tasks. This heightened
engagement was believed to be a significant contributor to the observable enhance-
ments in writing skills, as students were more inclined to practice and experiment
with the language.
Additionally, the data in Table 4 revealed that 9 teachers (75%) identified the
potential of Generative AI to indirectly foster critical thinking and analytical skills
among students. By prompting learners to assess AI-generated feedback and sugges-
tions critically, educators encouraged them to make informed decisions about their
writing. This process required students to evaluate the relevance and accuracy of AI
input, thereby enhancing their analytical capabilities and deepening their language
comprehension.
As Teacher 5 aptly put it, “The AI feedback had been invaluable, but it was just
one part of the puzzle. Encouraging students to think critically about that feedback
was where the real learning happened.”
Teacher 11 concurred, stating, “Seeing students more engaged and willing to write
was wonderful. It was clear that AI had a role in sparking that interest.”
However, it was worth noting that teacher 1 expressed a valid concern: “We had to
be cautious not to let AI do all the work. It was important for students to still engage
deeply with the material and not just rely on technology.”
In conclusion, this study underscored the nuanced perspectives of high school
L2 writing teachers regarding the integration of Generative AI tools. The findings

Table 5 Extended impact of generative AI on L2 writing skills development

Aspect Teachers mentioning Percentage (%)
Enhanced feedback mechanisms 12 100
Motivation and engagement 11 91.7
Critical thinking skills 9 75
Teachers’ Experiences with Generative AI as Co-Pilots in High School … 151

suggested that AI had a significant and positive impact on students’ development of

writing skills in a second language, particularly in the domains of vocabulary and
grammar. Nevertheless, the role of AI in enhancing creative expression and the need
to strike a balance between AI assistance and traditional teaching methods emerged
as critical considerations. As the educational landscape continued to evolve with the
integration of AI technologies, these insights offered valuable guidance for educators,
curriculum developers, and policymakers seeking to optimize the benefits of AI for
language learning while addressing its associated challenges.

5 Discussion

The evolution of teacher roles from input provider to facilitators of learning in an

AI-enhanced classroom is a prominent theme in both the study findings and existing
literature [1, 2]. This transition is reflective of the broader shift towards student-
centered learning environments, where teachers guide, mentor, and scaffold learning
experiences in collaboration with AI tools [3, 4, 16, 28]. However, this shift also
raises questions about teacher agency and the potential dilution of the teacher’s role
in the learning process. It is essential to consider how AI integration can complement
rather than supplant the teacher’s role, ensuring that technology serves as a tool for
enhancing pedagogical practices rather than replacing the nuanced, context-sensitive
guidance that teachers provide [5, 24, 26].
The ethical considerations associated with the deployment of Generative AI tools
in educational settings, particularly around academic integrity and data privacy, are
critical areas of concern [6, 7, 9–13]. The unanimous emphasis by participating
teachers on the importance of fostering ethical awareness among students under-
scores the need for a nuanced approach to integrating these technologies [8, 9, 13].
Developing comprehensive ethical guidelines and transparent policies is crucial to
navigating these challenges effectively. Moreover, engaging students in discussions
about the ethical use of AI, including issues of plagiarism and the value of orig-
inal thought, is paramount in cultivating a responsible and critically engaged learner
population [9, 10, 29].
The reported improvements in student writing skills, particularly in grammar,
vocabulary, and structural coherence, highlight the potential of Generative AI tools
to enhance L2 writing instruction [11, 12]. These findings align with research demon-
strating the benefits of AI-driven feedback and personalized learning experiences in
fostering language acquisition and writing proficiency [13, 14]. However, the less
pronounced influence on creative expression raises important questions about the
capacity of AI tools to support the development of critical thinking and creativity
[15, 16]. It suggests a need for balanced integration strategies that leverage AI for its
strengths in providing immediate, personalized feedback while also creating space
for human-led pedagogical approaches that nurture creativity and critical analysis.
The challenges identified in integrating AI into teaching practices, such as
technical glitches, ethical concerns, and the need for professional development,
152 N. T. Tran

reflect the multifaceted nature of technology adoption in educational contexts

[17, 18]. Addressing these challenges requires a comprehensive approach, empha-
sizing ongoing support and training for teachers, robust technical infrastructure,
and clear ethical guidelines [10, 11, 21]. Moreover, engaging students in the process,
addressing their resistance or skepticism towards AI tools, is essential for maximizing
the potential benefits of these technologies [5, 7, 9, 14, 15].
The integration of Generative AI in L2 writing instruction presents a rich tapestry
of opportunities, challenges, and ethical considerations. As this discussion has high-
lighted, leveraging the potential of AI to enhance educational outcomes requires a
thoughtful, nuanced approach that considers the pedagogical, ethical, and technical
dimensions of technology integration. Future research should continue to explore
the evolving role of teachers in AI-enhanced classrooms, the impact of AI on student
learning outcomes, and the ethical considerations associated with these technolo-
gies. Additionally, investigating the long-term effects of AI integration on educa-
tional equity, access, and quality will be crucial in ensuring that the benefits of these
technologies are realized across diverse learning contexts and populations.
In conclusion, the responsible integration of Generative AI tools in education
offers a pathway to enriching and enhancing the learning experience. By navigating
the challenges and opportunities presented by these technologies with care, educators
can foster environments that not only improve student learning outcomes but also
prepare learners to navigate the complexities of an increasingly digital world.

6 Conclusion

This study of the integration of Generative AI tools in high school L2 writing

instruction provides an exhaustive study of how these technologies are reforming
educational landscapes, particularly in the realm of language teaching.
The primary contribution of this study is in its detailed examination of teachers’
experiences with Generative AI tools like ChatGPT and Google Bard. By focusing on
the pedagogical, ethical, and practical implications of these technologies, the study
uncovers the transforming roles of teachers, the impact on student learning outcomes,
and the challenges of incorporating AI into educational practices. It provides a
nuanced comprehension of how AI can act as a co-pilot in the educational journey,
enhancing personalized learning experiences, and providing immediate, actionable
feedback to students. Moreover, this study adds to the ongoing dialogue about the
ethical use of AI in education, emphasizing the need for cultivating digital literacy
and ethical awareness among both teachers and students.
The findings suggest several strategies to maximize the benefits of Generative AI
in L2 writing instruction. Firstly, educational institutions should consider providing
focused professional development opportunities for teachers, concentrating on the
effective use of AI tools in pedagogy. Secondly, the development of clear guide-
lines and frameworks for the ethical use of AI can help address concerns related
to academic integrity and data privacy. Moreover, incorporating AI tools into the
Teachers’ Experiences with Generative AI as Co-Pilots in High School … 153

curriculum should be done in a way that complements traditional teaching methods,

leveraging AI for its strengths while ensuring that the development of critical thinking
and creativity remains a central focus of educational endeavors.
While this study provides valuable insights, it is not without limitations. The
research is based on a relatively small sample of teachers within a specific educa-
tional context, which may limit the applicability of the findings. Additionally,
the swift evolution of AI technology means that the landscape is continuously
changing, requiring persistent study to stay updated with new developments and
their implications for education.
Future research should aim to broaden the scope of investigation, incorporating a
more extensive range of educational contexts and exploring the perspectives of other
stakeholders, such as students and administrators. Longitudinal studies could offer
deeper insights into the long-term effects of AI integration on teaching and learning
outcomes. Additionally, research into the development of pedagogical models that
effectively balance AI and human instruction could further inform best practices in
the field.
In conclusion, the integration of Generative AI tools in L2 writing instruction
presents promising prospects for enhancing educational experiences. By skillfully
navigating the challenges and opportunities presented by these technologies, educa-
tors can enrich the learning environment, fostering a generation of learners well-
equipped to flourish in an increasingly digital world. This study underscores the
importance of ongoing research, professional development, and ethical consideration
in harnessing the full potential of AI in education.

Appendix

A. Interview Scheme
1. Introduction and Consent:
• The interviewer briefly explains the purpose of the interview.
• The interviewer asks to confirm consent to participate and record the
interview.
2. Background Information:
• Can you briefly describe your experience and background in teaching L2
writing?
• How long have you been using generative AI tools in your classroom?
3. Perceptions of Evolving Roles:
• How do you perceive your role as a teacher when integrating generative
AI tools in writing instruction?
• In what ways do you think your authorship role has evolved with the use
of these tools?
154 N. T. Tran

4. Beliefs and Concerns about Ethical and Responsible Use:

• Can you share your beliefs and concerns regarding the ethical use of
generative AI in L2 writing?
• How do you address these ethical considerations in your classroom?
5. Contextual Factors Influencing Integration Decisions:
• What contextual factors influence your decisions to integrate or not
integrate AI tools in your writing instruction?
• How do these factors affect your teaching practices and your students’
learning experiences?
6. Perceived Impact on Student Writing Abilities:
• In your opinion, how do generative AI tools impact students’ writing
abilities?
• Can you provide specific examples or experiences that highlight these
impacts?
7. Strategies for Mediating AI-Student Interaction:
• What strategies do you employ to mediate the interaction between
students and the AI tool?
• How do these strategies contribute to responsible and effective use of AI
in writing?
8. Reflections on Professional Development:
• What kind of professional development or support do you think is
necessary for teachers using AI tools in L2 writing?
• How has your own professional development influenced your use of these
tools in the classroom?
9. Closing and Additional Comments:
• Is there anything else you would like to share about your experiences or
beliefs related to using generative AI in L2 writing instruction?
• Thank you for participating in this interview. Your insights are invaluable.
B. Thematic Analysis Coding Framework
1. Evolving Roles and Responsibilities:
• Codes related to changes in teacher roles, responsibilities, and perceptions
of authorship.
2. Ethical and Responsible Use:
• Codes related to beliefs, concerns, and practices regarding the ethical and
responsible use of AI in writing.
3. Contextual Factors:
Teachers’ Experiences with Generative AI as Co-Pilots in High School … 155

• Codes related to the influence of external and internal factors on the

integration of AI tools.
4. Impact on Student Writing Abilities:
• Codes related to teachers’ perceptions of how AI tools affect students’
writing skills and abilities.
5. Strategies for Mediating Interaction:
• Codes related to the strategies and practices teachers use to mediate
students’ interaction with AI tools.
6. Professional Development:
• Codes related to the need for and impact of professional development on
AI tool integration.

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Teachers’ Experiences with Generative AI as Co-Pilots in High School … 157

Nghi Tin Tran is the Dean of the Faculty of Foreign Languages, Ho Chi Minh City Univer-
sity of Industry and Trade, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. He holds a PhD in Applied Linguis-
tics from University of Foreign Languages, Da Nang University. He is an experienced educator
and researcher interested in second language acquisition and pedagogy. His work focuses on
developing and implementing effective teaching methodologies, using corpus-based techniques
in language teaching, AI in Education, and the role of literacy in second language learning. He
has a strong record of scholarly publications in prestigious Scopus-indexed journals. His commit-
ment to ongoing professional development is evident through his active involvement in leading
organizations like VietTESOL, STESOL, and VietCALL.
Vietnamese Graduate Students’
Perspectives on the Use of ChatGPT

Pham Vu Phi Ho

Abstract This chapter reports a study on the perspectives of Vietnamese graduate

students of TESOL on the use of ChatGPT. Its seeks to address how Vietnamese grad-
uate students of TESOL perceive the use of ChatGPT as a learning tool in a course in
Second Language Acquisition (SLA) and whether they think ChatGPT can replace
the teacher. The study employed qualitative quantitative questionnaires to collect
data from 32 graduate students at a university in Dong Nai Province, Vietnam.
The results showed that the graduate students perceived ChatGPT to be an effec-
tive language tool. Additionally, ChatGPT was believed to improve language class-
room understanding, engagement, and self-confidence, making it ideal for project
conception and ideation. All 32 participants believed that ChatGPT could not replace
teachers, shedding light on limits of technology in language education. The results
suggest a harmonic synergy between humans and technological advances in language
education.

Keywords ChatGPT · Engagement · Learning-support tool · Motivation · SLA

1 Introduction

A paradigm shift has occurred in language instruction due to the advent of AI tech-
nology. According to Fitria [1], OpenAI’s ChatGPT language model shows poten-
tial promise as technological advancement for better language acquisition. Due to
its widespread availability and user-friendliness, ChatGPT provides a substantial
advantage for language instruction. Unlike conventional language learning methods,
ChatGPT is accessible online, so users may practice their language skills whenever
and wherever they wish. Students with heavy schedules or who prefer to practice
outside class may find this accessibility extremely helpful.

V. P. H. Pham (B)
Faculty of Foreign Languages, Van Lang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 159
H. P. Bui and E. Namaziandost (eds.), Innovations in Technologies for Language
Teaching and Learning, Studies in Computational Intelligence 1159,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-63447-5_9
160 Pham V. P. H.

According to Trust et al. [2], ChatGPT, a groundbreaking development of OpenAI,

has significantly transformed teaching approaches. The study conducted by Opara
et al. [3] demonstrated that this technology has a far-reaching influence that extends
beyond certain domains. This is because of its remarkable ability to generate text
that nearly mimics human writing in several genres, including essay writing, narra-
tive, and expressing scientific topics at varying degrees of complexity. ChatGPT
is an invaluable resource for educators seeking to enrich the learning experience
using innovative strategies, owing to its extensive range of applications. Further-
more, Trust et al. [2] discovered additional obstacles that arose from using ChatGPT
in educational contexts, supporting the results of Kasneci et al. [4]. To overcome these
challenges, finding a delicate equilibrium between harnessing the model’s capacity
to enhance educational content and addressing concerns regarding its potential draw-
backs, such as the importance of emotional intelligence in communication and the
inadvertent reinforcement of errors, is essential. As researchers tackle these prob-
lems, it is imperative to engage in more study and foster cooperation in order to get a
comprehensive understanding of the potential implications of ChatGPT on the future
of education.
ChatGPT is a breakthrough instrument for language acquisition, according to
Kohnke et al. [5], because of its flexibility and capacity to stimulate active engagement
and modification. The research report presents data in support of the argument that
ChatGPT should be incorporated into language education methodologies on moral
and philosophical grounds. It also recommends educators investigate ChatGPT’s
educational uses. Hong [6] emphasizes ChatGPT’s enormous potential for academic
institutions and instructors of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and English as
a Second Language (ESL). According to Hong, employing ChatGPT broadens the
variety of language learning options and offers a conducive setting for study. The
model’s outstanding ability to create a highly personalized learning environment
provides researchers with an unmatched opportunity to investigate and contribute to
the rapidly developing subject of language training. Educators and researchers must
collaborate to properly examine the possibilities of ChatGPT in order to improve
language learning experiences and maximize its potential.
While ChatGPT offers educators several advantages, there are still obstacles asso-
ciated with incorporating technology into the classroom that must be addressed.
Rahman and Watanobe [7] have highlighted that there is cause for concern over the
potential for students to misuse it. Students may utilize ChatGPT to do assignments
or write essays on their behalf because of its usability and capabilities, which might
be seen as academic dishonesty. In addition, there is increasing concern over the use
of unapproved ChatGPT for exam fraud. Any misuse of any material has the potential
to lead to both academic problems and acts of violence or harassment. Rahman and
Watanobe [7] argue about how hard it is to judge if the data supplied is accurate and
appropriate. They especially address the risk that ChatGPT may provide responses
that are damaging, inaccurate, or neither. The fact that ChatGPT is prone to biases and
prejudices, seen in its training data, is another noteworthy feature. Moral questions
are raised by the possibility that societal biases would be strengthened or amplified
in educational environments. Teachers should acknowledge ChatGPT’s advantages
Vietnamese Graduate Students’ Perspectives on the Use of ChatGPT 161

and encourage its moral and proper usage in the classroom while taking proactive
measures to address and minimize these issues.

2 Literature Review

The incorporation of ChatGPT offers new opportunities and challenges in the field
of language training. While the model enhances engagement and offers personalized
learning experiences, there are apprehensions surrounding potential student dishon-
esty, the occurrence of inaccurate or harmful replies, and its vulnerability to biases
[5, 6]. The citation provided is from the publication of Watanobe and Rahman [7].
Instructors must strike a balance between addressing these several concerns and
making effective use of the features offered by ChatGPT.
The study done by Japoshvili-Ghvinashvili and Suleman [8] on the efficacy of
ChatGPT in enhancing language acquisition in a university setting in Pakistan reveals
various positive outcomes. According to their study results, ChatGPT improves moti-
vation and engagement by providing tailored feedback. Furthermore, the integration
of ChatGPT into pre-established tasks has enhanced students’ linguistic and subject-
specific skills. The researchers underline the need for a systematic and complete
integration process. They also highlight the need for educators to critically evaluate
technology’s effects in the classroom. Simultaneously, Yıldız [9] is undertaking a
study at Bülent Ecevit University in Zonguldak, Türkiye, to investigate the impact of
integrating ChatGPT-generated conversations into language learning materials for
second-year students. Yıldız’s research had a total of sixty students, and its find-
ings indicated that the use of ChatGPT resulted in heightened motivation among the
participants and ultimately contributed to improvements in their language learning
progress. The results obtained from Turkey and Pakistan exemplify the prospective
efficacy of ChatGPT in diverse educational settings. However, they also stress the
need to strategically integrate it and carefully assess its consequences to achieve the
most efficient deployment.
Hong [6] illuminates the revolutionary potential of ChatGPT by examining its
impact on the learning and teaching of foreign languages in China. According
to the study results, ChatGPT offers significant opportunities for Chinese institu-
tions and instructors to enhance the quality and effectiveness of foreign language
teaching. In addition, Hong highlights the significance of the model in creating new
research opportunities, particularly in the pursuit of a more individualized learning
encounter. The first findings of the academic investigation conducted by Rakhmonov
and Kurbonova [10] show great potential. Upon examining the replies of 20 partic-
ipants, the research revealed a significant 19% enhancement in grammatical under-
standing and a notable 25% augmentation in vocabulary acquisition. Furthermore,
participants credit an 85% surge in engagement to ChatGPT’s capacity to provide
162 Pham V. P. H.

tailored material. The results obtained from China and Uzbekistan illustrate the exten-
sive versatility of ChatGPT in several educational and linguistic contexts. These find-
ings indicate that ChatGPT has the capacity to enhance overall student involvement,
understanding, and language learning.
Kohnke et al. [5] argue that for ChatGPT to achieve its full potential in language
instruction, there has to be a significant shift in the roles and duties of instructors and
learners. Based on the research findings, it is recommended that teachers and students
acquire proficiency in using ChatGPT and design learning goals that align with its
capabilities. Teachers, specifically, need to learn additional skills in order to maximize
the efficacy of ChatGPT while fulfilling their teaching responsibilities. Mikeladze
[11] conducted research in Georgia that showcases the effective use of ChatGPT in
the creation of English teaching materials during this transitional phase. Mikeladze
[11] highlights the effectiveness of the AI model by emphasizing the significant
impact that ChatGPT has had on the teaching method. According to the research,
integrating ChatGPT into instructional materials not only streamlines the process but
also significantly enhances the quality of the learning experience for both instructors
and learners, making it more engaging and productive. The aforementioned findings
underscore the need to cultivate aptitudes and implement innovative methodologies
to use the capabilities of ChatGPT, therefore revolutionizing language instruction
strategies and enhancing academic performance.
Ulla et al. [12] conducted a study in Thailand to examine the viewpoints of seven-
teen English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers at a Thai institution about the
effectiveness of ChatGPT as a tool for teaching languages. According to studies,
teachers use ChatGPT for many teaching objectives, and it is garnering favorable
feedback. Instructors allegedly used the AI model to create language classes, respond
to student queries, and provide support with other language-related tasks. ChatGPT
has transformed into a very efficient instrument used for teaching English grammar,
enhancing writing skills, and aiding in full lesson preparation. The research revealed
that students exhibited a high level of enthusiasm over the integration of ChatGPT
into their academic experience. Kasneci et al. [4] investigated the constraints and
educational possibilities of large-scale language models like ChatGPT. The study
highlights the benefits of using ChatGPT for content creation and its potential to
enhance student engagement and involvement. Together, these Thai studies and the
wider range of research on extensive language models have confirmed the signifi-
cant impact of ChatGPT on the revolution of language instruction. It offers students
and teachers essential resources to enhance learning through creative and dynamic
teaching methods.
In line with the objective of the ongoing study, Nguyen [13] investigates the
perspectives of twenty English educators in Vietnam on the incorporation of ChatGPT
into Academic Writing classes. The research suggests that English professors at
VLU are keen on incorporating ChatGPT into their writing lessons. In relation to
the positive reception, Nguyen’s research identifies crucial factors essential for the
successful integration of ChatGPT in academic settings. First and foremost, it empha-
sizes the need to provide educators with professional development opportunities to
enhance their skills in employing ChatGPT. Furthermore, the study emphasizes the
Vietnamese Graduate Students’ Perspectives on the Use of ChatGPT 163

need to raise user awareness about the limitations and potential risks of ChatGPT
to encourage more responsible and informed usage of the technology. In general,
the research emphasizes the need to regulate the use of chatbots, with a specific
focus on ethical issues and norms. This will enable instructors and learners to use the
benefits of ChatGPT while minimizing its drawbacks fully. The inclusion of Viet-
namese viewpoints in this context significantly enhances the overall discussion on
the effective integration of ChatGPT into language teaching.
According to Su and Yang [14], the effectiveness of ChatGPT as a standalone
technology is now being examined. Concerns about the veracity of the data used in
ChatGPT’s replies may indicate limitations in the technology’s usefulness. In addi-
tion, Rahman and Watanobe [7] emphasize the apprehensions around the possible
impact of ChatGPT on critical thinking abilities and suggest exercising prudence
while incorporating it into academic environments. These challenges highlight the
need for ongoing study and comprehensive reviews of ChatGPT’s features and
possible limitations to ensure its ethical and beneficial integration in many fields,
including education.
The current body of scholarship on the use of ChatGPT in education lacks an
examination of the perspectives of Master’s level students who utilize the technology
to augment classroom activities. Moreover, the degree to which MA students make
use of material produced by ChatGPT for their academic pursuits is yet uncertain.
The presence of these gaps in the study highlights the need for comprehensive inves-
tigations into the practical applications of ChatGPT among Master of Arts students
in educational settings. These studies should provide valuable insights into the chal-
lenges individuals meet, the results of their tasks, and the experiences and barriers
they face while using this technology. An in-depth examination of these shortcom-
ings will result in a more nuanced understanding of ChatGPT’s role in the field of
higher education.
This study aims to fill gaps in existing research by examining two important
aspects of MA students’ engagement in ChatGPT. The main aim is to assess MA
students’ perceptions of the practicality of ChatGPT as an academic tool. Further-
more, the study will evaluate the extent to which assignments include content gener-
ated by ChatGPT MA students. The study aims to provide significant insights into
how MA students perceive and use ChatGPT in their academic activities. By doing
this, it aims to improve our understanding of the impacts and implications of this
technology in higher education.
Research Questions
• RQ1: What are the perspectives of graduate students of TESOL on the use of
ChatGPT as a learning tool in the course of second language acquisition?
• RQ2: Do graduate students of TESOL think ChatGPT can replace the teacher in
the long run?
164 Pham V. P. H.

3 Research Methodology

3.1 Context and Participants

42 MA students enrolled in a Second Language Acquisition (SLA) course at a univer-

sity in the province of Dong Nai were the subject of this research. The study focused
on the unique environment in which these students are finishing a 45-hour SLA
course. An in-depth analysis of MA students’ experiences with ChatGPT in the
context of language learning was made possible by this study setting, which also
shed light on the possible benefits, difficulties, and subtleties of integrating this
technology into SLA instruction.
In this study, students were introduced to ChatGPT and given the opportunity to
use it in their classes. Beyond the scope of traditional teaching methods, students used
ChatGPT as a resource for group and in-class discussions as well as for problem-
solving assignments. Their creation of at least ten questions every learning session,
emphasizing the value of these questions in clearing up any confusion or covering
topics the instructor did not cover, was a significant aspect of their involvement.
For their final report, students were also required to conduct a small-scale research
project and use ChatGPT as a resource. This multimodal method integrates ChatGPT
into many aspects of students’ learning experiences and academic goals, showcasing
its flexibility as a teaching tool.
In this study, the teacher played a crucial role in overseeing ChatGPT’s incorpora-
tion into the educational process. Significantly, the instructor assessed the precision
and pertinence of the students’ responses through a revision process informed by the
data generated by ChatGPT. The students were presented with explicit guidelines,
which underscored the educational benefits of ChatGPT while strictly prohibiting its
application to their final writing assignments. The meticulous methodology sought
to safeguard the originality of every student’s individualized project within the spec-
ified academic environment while capitalizing on the advantages of ChatGPT as a
supplementary resource for learning and reference.

3.2 Data Collection and Analysis

This research used a mixed-methods approach, incorporating quantitative and

qualitative aspects using an open-ended survey questionnaire. After the students
completed the SLA course, they received the questionnaire via a Google Form.
However, out of 42 students, only 32 students fully responded to the question-
naire. Regarding the quantitative data, the descriptive statistics from the SPSS versus
22 was employed to analyze for mean scores and standard deviations. The author
thematically analyzed the qualitative data.
For the ratings from the questionnaire, this study applied the measures as follows:
Vietnamese Graduate Students’ Perspectives on the Use of ChatGPT 165

Disagree 1,0–2,8
Unsure 2,9–3,70
Agree 3,8–5,00

4 Results and Discussion

4.1 RQ1

What are the perspectives of graduate students of TESOL on the use of ChatGPT as
a learning tool in the course of second language acquisition?
Table 1 presents information on students’ views of the learning assistance provided
by ChatGPT..
The mean (M) values showed that the 32 individuals had generally optimistic senti-
ments. Notably, questions 1 and 2 had the highest mean scores (M=4.16; SD=0.628

Table 1 ChatGPT Supported learning activities

No. Learning supports N Min Max M SD
1 ChatGPT can help each 32 3 5 4.16 0.63
learner find the answers to
their queries based on the
information they provide
2 ChatGPT can help you 32 3 5 4.16 0.57
reinforce the knowledge
you have just acquired
3 ChatGPT can help learners 32 2 5 4 0.67
to gain a better
understanding of the
reading tasks
4 ChatGPT can provide you 32 2 5 3.97 0.65
with numerous ideas,
helping you gain a better
understanding when
participating in discussions
5 ChatGPT can help you 32 2 5 4.06 0.62
clarify the concepts that
instructors are explaining
6 Learners often feel that 32 2 5 3.5 0.76
asking clarification
questions with ChatGPT is
easier than with the
instructor
7 ChatGPT can provide 32 1 5 3.28 0.73
clearer answers to learners’
queries than instructors
166 Pham V. P. H.

and M=4.16; SD0.574, respectively), indicating widespread agreement that ChatGPT

was beneficial in assisting learners in finding answers and reinforcing newly learned
information. Items 3, 4, and 5 had favorable mean scores (M=4.00, SD=0.672;
M=3.97, SD=0.647; M=4.06, SD=0.619, respectively), indicating positive percep-
tions of ChatGPT’s role in assisting comprehension of reading tasks, generating
discussion ideas, and clarifying concepts explained by instructors. However, with
somewhat lower mean scores (M=3.5, SD=0.762; M=3.28, SD=0.729, respectively),
items 6 and 7 indicated a considerably lower degree of agreement with the conve-
nience of asking clarification questions using ChatGPT compared to instructors and
the clarity of its responses. Overall, the data indicate that ChatGPT was evaluated
favorably in facilitating different learning activities, with some heterogeneity in
particular elements.
Table 2 shows the findings on the influence of ChatGPT on students’ academic
confidence. The mean (M) scores indicated that all 32 individuals had favorable
impressions. Items 10 and 11 had the highest means, demonstrating substantial agree-
ment that ChatGPT made students feel more secure engaging in group discussions
(M=4.25; SD=0.568) and lowered nervousness while responding to questions in class
(M=4.22; SD=0.491). Items 8 and 12 also had good mean ratings, indicating that
ChatGPT encouraged students to react to instructors’ queries (M=4.03; SD=0.595)
and helped alleviate the weight of class work (M=4.06; SD=0.564). However, item
9 (M=3.88; SD=0.833) showed the influence of ChatGPT on motivating students
to spend more time on SLA outside of class hours to engage in further self-study.
The data indicated that ChatGPT increases students’ confidence in numerous parts
of their language learning.
Table 3 shows how ChatGPT affected students’ participation in learning activities.
The 32 individuals’ mean (M) scores indicated good views. Item 15 had the highest
mean score (M = 4.16; SD = 0.628), indicating widespread agreement that ChatGPT
delivered a more engaging learning experience. Item 13 and 14 had similar mean
ratings (M = 3.88, SD = 0.421; M = 3.91, SD = 0.588, respectively), demonstrating
that students felt ChatGPT might have helped them prepare for novel tasks and
encouraged enthusiasm in studying SLA. Item 16, on the other hand, had a somewhat
lower mean (M = 3.97; SD = 0.740), indicating a modest degree of agreement that
students were more inclined to ask questions to ChatGPT than their teachers in the
classroom. Overall, the data showed that ChatGPT was seen as favorable in increasing
learning engagement, especially in cultivating a more exciting learning experience
and preparing students for unexpected activities.
Table 4 presents how the 32 participants judged ChatGPT’s responses. The mean
(M) scores indicate that people had generally optimistic sentiments. Items 17, 18,
and 21 had high mean scores (M = 3.78, SD = 0.553; M = 3.75, SD = 0.622;
M = 4.00, SD = 0.622), indicating agreement that ChatGPT could help learners
grasp knowledge, organize knowledge effectively based on learning objectives, and
provide appropriate answers to improve understanding from reading comprehension.
Item 19 had a significantly higher mean score (M = 3.88; SD = 0.660), indicating
moderate agreement that ChatGPT inspired learners to think more deeply when
evaluating correctness and dependability. Item 20, with a mean score of 3.91 (SD =
Vietnamese Graduate Students’ Perspectives on the Use of ChatGPT 167

Table 2 ChatGPT helped students feel confident in their studies

No. Confident in studies N Min Max M SD
8 ChatGPT can encourage 32 2 5 4.03 0.595
you to respond to the
instructor’s questions
9 ChatGPT can encourage 32 2 5 3.88 0.833
you to spend more time
learning SLA outside of
class hours
10 ChatGPT can help you feel 32 3 5 4.25 0.568
more confident when asked
to participate in group
discussions
11 In the classroom, ChatGPT 32 3 5 4.22 0.491
can help you feel less
anxious when answering
questions from instructors
and/or classmates
12 ChatGPT can help you 32 3 5 4.06 0.564
reduce the burden of
classwork, such as
homework, presentations,
final projects, etc.

Table 3 ChatGPT helped students engage in learning activities

No. Learning engagement N Min Max M SD
13 ChatGPT can help you be 32 3 5 3.88 0.421
prepared to tackle
unfamiliar tasks and
language-related challenges
14 ChatGPT can help you 32 3 5 3.91 0.588
stimulate interest in
learning the SLA course
15 ChatGPT can provide a 32 3 5 4.16 0.628
more engaging learning
experience for you
16 You are more willing to ask 32 2 5 3.97 0.74
ChatGPT questions in the
classroom than your
instructors

0.641), indicated that respondents believed ChatGPT replies were simple to compre-
hend. Overall, the data point to good assessments of ChatGPT replies’ usefulness
in promoting learning goals and understanding. The results of this study somehow
corresponded to the study of Pham and Luong [15], Pham [16], Pham et al. [17],
168 Pham V. P. H.

and Pham and Usaha [18] who found that feedback in the technological environment
effectively engaged students in the learning process.
Table 5 shows the difficulties associated with using ChatGPT as perceived by
the 32 participants. The mean (M) scores indicated various levels of worry. Item 22
indicated moderate agreement (M = 3.66; SD = 0.902) that too much involvement
with ChatGPT might have led learners to rely on automatic language help, possibly
decreasing their reading comprehension skills. Item 23 had a lower mean score
(M = 3.09; SD = 0.963), suggesting that utilizing ChatGPT might have learners’
enthusiasm for instructor lectures and reading comprehension tests. Items 24, 25,
and 26 had mean scores of 2.97 (SD = 1.062), 3.38 (SD = 1.008), and 3.31 (SD =
0.931), showing varied degrees of worry about possible distractions, overreliance on
ChatGPT, and limits in the level of information offered by its replies, respectively.
Overall, the results revealed various issues related to ChatGPT usage, stressing the
need for careful assessment and mitigating techniques to address these concerns in
educational contexts.
Table 6 presents, as frequencies and percentages, participants’ assessments of
the functions of ChatGPT in the learning process. ChatGPT was seen as a tutor by
the majority of respondents (35%), demonstrating its function in giving advice and
instructional help. Furthermore, 31% viewed ChatGPT as a friendly peer, implying a
more collaborative and accessible role. ChatGPT was seen as a consultant by a lower
amount (13%), stressing its role in providing advice or expertise. Furthermore, 9%
perceived ChatGPT as a clever supporting tool, emphasizing its ability to improve

Table 4 Reliability of ChatGPT’s resposnes

No. Effective responses N Min Max M SD
17 ChatGPT can help learners 32 3 5 3.78 0.553
grasp knowledge more
quickly
18 ChatGPT can help learners 32 3 5 3.75 0.622
organize knowledge
effectively based on their
learning objectives
19 ChatGPT responses can 32 2 5 3.88 0.66
prompt learners to think
more deeply as they must
assess the accuracy and
reliability of it
20 ChatGPT responses are 32 2 5 3.91 0.641
easy to understand
21 ChatGPT can provide 32 3 5 4 0.622
learners with appropriate
answers to enhance their
knowledge from reading
comprehension
Vietnamese Graduate Students’ Perspectives on the Use of ChatGPT 169

Table 5 Challenges of using ChatGPT

No. Challenges N Min Max M SD
22 Excessive interaction with 32 1 5 3.66 0.902
ChatGPT can lead learners to
rely on automated language
support, limiting their
reading comprehension
abilities
23 Using ChatGPT can 32 1 4 3.09 0.963
potentially reduce learners’
motivation towards
instructors’ lectures and
reading comprehension tasks
24 ChatGPT can distract 32 1 5 2.97 1.062
learners from the tasks they
are currently working on
25 Learners may become overly 32 1 5 3.38 1.008
dependent on ChatGPT and
lose the ability to think
critically and creatively
26 ChatGPT responses only 32 1 5 3.31 0.931
provide basic knowledge for
learners’ queries, so learners
cannot gain in-depth
knowledge in areas they are
interested in
Valid N (listwise) 32

the learning experience. ChatGPT was seen as a referring resource by a small frac-
tion (6%), demonstrating its function in giving information for academic reasons.
Finally, 3% of participants saw ChatGPT as both a personal teacher and a dictionary,
demonstrating different perspectives on its responsibilities in the learning process.
This range of viewpoints emphasized the diverse nature of ChatGPT’s contributions
to the educational setting.

Table 6 The roles of

No. ChatGPT’s roles n %
ChatGPT in the learning
process 1 As a tutor 11 35
2 As a friendly peer 10 31
3 As a consultant 4 13
4 As a smart supporting tool 3 9
5 As a referencing resources 2 6
6 As a personal instructor 1 3
7 As a dictionary 1 3
170 Pham V. P. H.

4.2 RQ2

Do graduate students of TESOL think ChatGPT can replace the teacher in the long
run?
The qualitative question, "Will ChatGPT replace the position of teachers in the
classroom in the future?" tackled the larger ramifications and possible modifica-
tion of educators’ roles as a result of ChatGPT integration. This question sought
to uncover participants’ opinions on the changing educational environment, exam-
ining their ideas and expectations about the future interaction between technology,
as represented by ChatGPT, and conventional teaching roles. By investigating this
subject, researchers hoped to gain insight into participants’ perceptions of the tool’s
capacity to modify classroom dynamics and the extent to which they foresaw tech-
nology playing an increasingly significant role in educational environments. The
feedback received would constitute valuable qualitative data regarding the partici-
pants’ perspectives, concerns, and anticipations regarding the potential convergence
of technology and human education in the future classroom.
The qualitative results showed that most students first believed that ChatGPT was
incapable of replacing instructors. They stated that ChatGPT could provide students
with basic ideas when the students provided a prompt. Different from ChatGPT,
the teachers would help students learn new lessons with clear explanations when
they delivered their lectures. This indicates that the students need more live lectures
from human beings than the chatbot. This finding aligns with previous studies that
underscore the critical role of human educators in the field of education [19]. The
points of view expressed by the participants underscore critical aspects of the teacher-
student relationship and the effectiveness of instruction.
ChatGPT cannot replace teachers. Because ChatGPT only supports general opinions and
cannot deliver lectures as clearly and coherently as a teacher can (Student 3).

According to Rahman and Watanobe [7], ChatGPT is a novel LLM capable of

maintaining human-like conversations and producing virtually identical human-like
writing for every natural language question. Chat GPT may be used to answer ques-
tions, create articles, solve issues, explain hard subjects, provide virtual tutoring,
practice languages, learn programming, educate, and assist with research. However,
although ChatGPT is a strong tool capable of producing outstanding replies on a
wide range of subjects, it has certain drawbacks, including a lack of common sense,
probable prejudice, trouble with complicated thinking, and failure to handle visual
information [7].
Second, many students in this study asserted that Chatgpt could not replace the
teachers in the classrooms because they really need actual human communication
rather than a chatbot. Furthermore, the students stated that only the human teacher
could help motivate them in the learning process in order to gain new knowledge.
ChatGPT cannot replace the position of the teacher in the classroom because human-to-
human communication still contributes to motivating the process of acquiring knowledge
(Student 6).
Vietnamese Graduate Students’ Perspectives on the Use of ChatGPT 171

The second argument emphasizes the importance of human-to-human contact in

stimulating the learning process. This is consistent with socio-cultural theories that
emphasize the value of social contact in learning (Vygotsky and Cole [20]). Human
instructors contribute to the social and motivating components of the educational
experience in addition to the delivery of knowledge. Hence, the students need their
peers’ and teachers’ responses (Pham, 2021).
Third, many students widespread opposition to ChatGPT replacing instructors
stems from the assumption that AI lacks the nuanced skills and human connection
required for successful teaching. While technology may help with certain elements
of learning, the irreplaceable worth of human teachers remains a dominant view-
point. The students emphasized the importance of teachers in transmitting practical
experience and knowledge based on theory. Additionally, While ChatGPT may help
with a variety of educational tasks, the students confirmed its limits in motivating
and developing activities that encourage in-depth research—a critical feature of good
teaching. Instructors encourage a more complete comprehension and application of
information via their practical skills.
Not possible. Instructors convey practical experience and knowledge based on theory. This
makes it easier to absorb and apply knowledge in real life (Student 10).
In my opinion, no. Because, after all, this is just a learning support tool. It cannot play
the role of a teacher in stimulating and creating activities to help learners conduct in-depth
research (Student 17).

Finally, most students believed that ChatGPT could not replace the teachers
because they might not provide appropriate responses that correctly corresponded to
the issues of cultures. Besides, only the teachers provided practical experiences for
the students to learn. Human teachers are skilled at negotiating intricate and culturally
diverse debates, providing vital insights that AI cannot. This was effectively solved
by the studies by Pham and Luong [15], , Pham [16], Pham et al. [17], and Pham and
Usaha [18] who implemented peer responses in the technological environment.
ChatGPT cannot replace the position of the lecturer because there are deep questions and
cultural aspects that ChatGPT cannot query, and the information provided to learners is only
for reference, unable to convey the valuable experiences from the instructor (Student 22).

The explanations given by participants are consistent with the wider debate over
the limits of AI in education, highlighting the critical role of human instructors in
providing experience learning, strengthening research skills, and addressing subtle,
culturally sensitive elements of education.

5 Conclusion

In conclusion, ChatGPT seems to be a highly effective tool for supporting MA

students throughout the learning process, leading to greater understanding, partic-
ipation, and self-assurance in the classroom. Beyond the scope of regular course-
work, its significance lies in helping students generate ideas and project concepts,
172 Pham V. P. H.

which improves participants’ academic achievement. Notably, the MA students used

ChatGPT with no significant issues, demonstrating its ease of use and seamless
integration into their learning process.
The research supports the significance of teachers as mentors in the learning
process, even in light of ChatGPT’s apparent benefits. Even though ChatGPT
enhances many aspects of education, human interaction is still required to provide
insightful guidance, address difficult questions, and encourage a thorough under-
standing of contextual and cultural intricacies. In addition to imparting knowledge,
teachers play a crucial role in fostering critical thinking, creativity, and individualized
support.
This study highlights the mutually beneficial relationship between technology and
human teaching, emphasizing the need for a well-balanced integration that makes the
most of teachers’ abilities and ChatGPT. With time, teachers may find that ChatGPT
is a useful tool to enhance their instruction, viewing it as an ally in fostering an
engaging and dynamic learning environment for Master’s students.

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Pham Vu Phi Ho is an associate professor at Van Lang University. He holds a PhD in

Language Studies at Suranaree University. He is now an Associate Dean of the Faculty of Foreign
Languages, Van Lang University, Vietnam. He used to be a Vice-President of Ba Ria – Vung Tau
University and Vice-President at Van Hien University, Vietnam. Pham has published 64 research
articles in both local and International Journals (ISI/Scopus-indexed), and 9 books and course-
books, 3-course books were used for both the undergraduate and graduate levels at Van Lang
University, HCMC Open University, Vietnam, and Lourdes College, Higher Education Depart-
ment, Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines. He has international experience in teaching English at
Suranaree University of Technology, Thailand, and Gyeongju University, South Korea. He is the
Vice President for Administrative Affairs of AsiaCALL and the managing editor of its Online
Journal. He is now the Editor-in-chief of the International Journal of TESOL & Education. He is
a peer reviewer for some international Journals indexed in ISI/Scopus such as Computer Assisted
Language Learning and Open Sage. His main interests include academic writing, peer responses,
translation, teaching methodologies, and technology-enhanced learning.
Generative AI and Second/Foreign
Language Education from Vygotsky’s
Cultural-Historical Perspective

Ngo Cong-Lem and Samran Daneshfar

Abstract ChatGPT is a conversation-based generative artificial intelligence (GAI)

chatbot with impressive capabilities for performing language processing tasks,
such as answering questions, generating texts in various styles, making plans, and
providing feedback. In this conceptual chapter, we explore how Vygotsky’s socio-
cultural perspective could be applied to explain ChatGPT’s facilitation of the second/
foreign language learning process. Major theoretical tenets from Vygotsky’s theory
utilised involve perezhivanie, speech development, and the Zone of Proximal Devel-
opment (ZPD). Three principles for understanding L2 acquisition from this perspec-
tive include: (1) the environment as a source of the ideal forms of the target language,
(2) internalisation through active and meaningful social interactions, and (3) optimal
L2 acquisition when effectively scaffolded in the ZPD of the individual. Additionally,
we highlight the significance of ChatGPT’s capabilities to provide target language
input, simulate authentic conversations, answer questions on diverse topics, and offer
feedback as crucial functions for fostering the second/foreign language learning
process. Implications, challenges, and future directions in integrating and researching
ChatGPT in L2 training and research are discussed.

Keywords ChatGPT · Artificial intelligence · EFL · Second language · Vygotsky

N. Cong-Lem (B)
Faculty of Foreign Languages, Dalat University, Da Lat, Vietnam
e-mail: [email protected]
N. Cong-Lem · S. Daneshfar
Faculty of Education, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
e-mail: [email protected]
N. Cong-Lem
BehaviourWorks, Australia, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 175
H. P. Bui and E. Namaziandost (eds.), Innovations in Technologies for Language
Teaching and Learning, Studies in Computational Intelligence 1159,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-63447-5_10
176 N. Cong-Lem and S. Daneshfar

1 Introduction

The launch of ChatGPT by OpenAI on November 30, 2022, marked a significant

stride in the progression of Generative Artificial Intelligence (GAI) technology.
ChatGPT is a Large Language Model that is trained on a massive dataset of various
text corpora using deep learning techniques such as neural networks to mimic human
language capabilities [1]. It can provide articulate and refined responses to questions,
adeptly summarise and paraphrase information, interpret the meaning of texts, and
compose texts in various genres and styles (e.g., [2]). ChatGPT, with its impres-
sive capabilities, has attracted immense interest from the public, and it only took two
months for ChatGPT to reach 100 million users, establishing it as the fastest-growing
app in history [3]. Other technology companies have also introduced similar GAI
chatbots, like Google Bard by Google and Bing Chat by Microsoft.
The GAI chatbot has been adopted in various fields, from medical science to
information technology, engineering, and education [1, 2]. Regarding the field of
second/foreign language education, ChatGPT holds the potential to “revolutionize
the ways in which language is learned, taught, and assessed in the fast-changing world
where globalization and technological advancement have dramatically changed the
education landscape” [4, p. 2]. Recent L2 research has explored teachers’ and
learners’ perceptions and behaviours regarding ChatGPT, pedagogical applications
of ChatGPT in creating teaching materials and learning tasks, and academic integrity
issues (e.g., [5–7]).
While the recognition of ChatGPT’s value in second/foreign language learning is
widespread, there is a gap in understanding how its use can be theoretically supported
and informed. This knowledge is crucial for guiding the design and implementation
of ChatGPT and similar GAI tools in L2 teaching and research. This chapter aims to
address this gap by providing a review of Vygotsky’s cultural-historical perspective
as an influential theory to examine the affordances of ChatGPT in facilitating second
language acquisition. It is important to clarify that, being a conceptual work, the
chapter does not present empirical findings. Implications and recommendations for
L2 teaching and research are discussed.

2 Vygotsky’s Cultural-Historical Theory

Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who proposed a cultural-historical

perspective for the field of developmental psychology focusing on human devel-
opment in the early 20th century. His theory suggests that human psychological
development is shaped through social interaction and collaboration with others in the
social environment. Vygotsky’s cultural-historical perspective has become increas-
ingly influential in the field of L2 education and has been widely adopted to explore
various aspects of language teaching and learning practices such as the role of private
speech and the relationship between emotions and professional learning of teachers
Generative AI and Second/Foreign Language Education … 177

(e.g., [5, 8, 9]). In the context of this chapter, three major concepts of Vygotsky’s
cultural-historical theory are examined including the concepts of Speech Develop-
ment, Perezhivanie, and Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). These concepts serve
to inform our later discussion on the affordances of ChatGPT for language learning.

2.1 Perezhivanie

One of Vygotsky’s key concepts is perezhivanie, which is a Russian word that

means “living through” or “experiencing”, which primarily deals with the relation
between environment and individuals’ psychological development or more specifi-
cally, the differential role of the former in the latter’s development. In other words, it
is concerned with the relationship between the environment and a person’s develop-
ment [10, 11]. Perezhivanie informs our understanding of the role of the environment
and its impact on individual psychological development in two important ways:
(1) The environment serves as the source of development.
(2) The impact of the environment on an individual’s development is relative and
contingent on personal characteristics.
First, from a cultural-historical perspective, the environment provides a critical
source of ideal input or forms of development, with which individuals interact to
advance their currently maturing forms.
… the social environment is the source for the appearance of all specific human properties
of the personality gradually acquired by the child or the source of social development of the
child, which is concluded in the process of actual interaction of “ideal” and present forms
[12, p. 203].

This point is illustrated in an example of the characteristics of a mother’s talk to

her child:
We have a child who has only just begun to speak and he pronounces single words … The
child speaks in one word phrases, but his mother talks to him in language which is already
grammatically and syntactically formed and which has a large vocabulary, even though it
is being toned down for the child’s benefit [emphasis added]. All the same, she speaks using
the fully perfected form of speech [emphasis added]. Let us agree to call this developed form,
which is supposed to make its appearance at the end of the child’s development, the final or
ideal form—ideal in the sense that it acts as a model for that which should be achieved at
the end of the developmental period; and final in the sense that it represents what the child
is supposed to attain at the end of his development [emphasis added]. And let us call the
child’s form of speech the primary or rudimentary form [11, p. 348, cited in 13].

In the example above, the mother’s communication encompasses linguistic

features that epitomise the ideal levels of development in the child’s speech. This
underscores the crucial role of the environment as a source of development, providing
essential cultural materials. Exposure to these exemplary forms stands as the initial
imperative for subsequent developmental stages.
178 N. Cong-Lem and S. Daneshfar

Second, the influence of the environment on individuals’ development is dynamic

and individualised. Perezhivanie refers to the internal relation of the child to the
environment, which refracts the influence of external environmental factors and
accordingly shapes the child’s psychological development. Vygotsky [11] stipulates
that:
environment should not be regarded as a condition of development which purely objectively
determines the development of a child by virtue of the fact that it contains certain qualities
or features, but one should always approach environment from the point of view of the
relationship which exists between the child and its environment at a given stage of his
development [emphasis added] [11, p. 338].

We, therefore, cannot assume a similar impact of an environmental condition on

an individual’s development without taking into account the personal characteristics
of the individuals at that given stage of development in that situation. In examining
the role of environment on the course of a person’s development, it is crucial to find
“the particular prism through which the influence of the environment on the child is
refracted, … the child’s perezhivanie, in other words how a child becomes aware of,
interprets, [and] emotionally relates to a certain event” [11, p. 341]. This implies
that, to elucidate development, the individual’s emotions, interpretation, and attitude
toward the environment or situation of interest should be carefully examined, as
they play an important role in shaping how external influences from the environment
refract upon their development.
In summary, the concept of perezhivanie stipulates the necessity to consider the
true relationship between the individual and the environment in its unity, dynamics
and situatedness. The environment provides the source of ideal forms leading the
direction of development for an individual but its impact is subjectively refracted
depending on the characteristics of the person and the quality of interaction [11,
12]. Veresov [13] succinctly encapsulates this idea by stating that the trajectory of a
person’s psychological development in an environment
depends on (1) what kind of social situation the child is involved in, (2) what kind of ideal
forms the social surrounding presents to the child, and (3) what kind of interactions take
place between the child’s real forms and social ideal forms [13, p. 53].

The understanding of L2 learning and the role of ChatGPT in L2 learning

from a Vygotskian cultural-historical perspective are essentially informed by these
principles, which will be discussed in the later sections below.

2.2 Speech Development

Furthermore, one of the main interests of Vygotsky’s work was to study the process of
speech development which he believed to be a process initiating from the social plane
and gradually becoming individual/internal [14]. The exploration of speech devel-
opment and its relationship with human thinking has intrigued scholars since the
Generative AI and Second/Foreign Language Education … 179

twentieth century. Before Vygotsky, Piaget understood the process of speech devel-
opment to start from the individual side to the social plane. According to Vygotsky,
the process of speech development begins with social speech and ultimately evolves
into inner speech, or verbal thinking, passing through the transitional stage of private
speech [15]. Social/external speech (oral or written) represents the externalised form
of communication, or the use of language intended for interaction with others, sharing
feelings, and expressing emotions. The second or the intermediary stage is private
speech which pertains to an individual’s overt self-talk, whether articulated in soli-
tude or within the company of others. Finally, inner speech or verbal thinking is the
internalised form of speech that happens when speech becomes an internal tool for
the human.
The process of speech development is critical for human development as the
result of this process highlights not only the development of speech but also its inter-
connections with thinking. For instance, regarding the second stage, private speech
happens when an individual verbalises language to regulate their behaviour, plan
their activity, and solve problems in a real-life or a specifically created situation
such as a test [9]. Furthermore, in a Vygotskian-based language learning approach,
beyond the enhancement of communicative skills, there exists an opportunity for
language learners to cultivate novel language applications for cognitive processes,
encompassing thinking, problem-solving, and self-regulation [16]. This has raised
the importance of looking at L2 learning similar to what Vygotsky proposed for the
development of speech. To this end, the purpose of language education entails atten-
tion to studying a process starting based on interpersonal communication practices
towards developing the intramental plane and aspects of language [9].

2.3 Zone of Proximal Development

The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is another central concept produc-

tively employed in educational research drawing on a Vygotskian cultural-historical
perspective. The significance of this concept lies in that ZPD “opens up the internal
relation between development and education, with the process of education leading
the development of intellectual functions” [17, p. 1]. Accordingly, it informs our
understanding of the crucial role of formal instruction in leading the developmental
trajectory for learners.
Conceptually, according to Vygotsky, ZPD refers to
the distance between the level of his actual development, as identified with the help of the
tasks the child solves independently, and the level of possible development, identified with
the help of tasks the child solves under the guidance of adults and in cooperation with more
intelligent peers [18, p. 26].

In the educational context, ZPD indicates the distance between what a learner
can do independently and what they can do with the guidance or assistance of a
more knowledgeable or experienced person. ZPD thus represents the potential for
180 N. Cong-Lem and S. Daneshfar

learning and development, and the optimal level of challenge for a learner. Vygotsky
[19] argues that learning occurs when a learner is engaged in activities that are within
their ZPD and that the role of a teacher or a peer is to provide scaffolding, or support,
to help the individuals ultimately perform the activity independently.

3 Second/Foreign Language Learning as Informed

by Vygotsky’s Theory

This section delves into the application of Vygotsky’s theory to enhance our under-
standing and research on second language learning. It is crucial to note that Vygotsky,
a psychologist by profession, primarily focused his research on broader psychological
aspects rather than language acquisition. Although he did explore speech develop-
ment, it primarily pertained to first language acquisition for children, which is largely
examined from a psychological approach. The transferability of knowledge from
first language acquisition to second language acquisition remains a topic of ongoing
research and debate. Nonetheless, past research that has embraced Vygotsky’s theory
has proven to be productive, and the widespread recognition of its value in informing
our understanding of second language learning is evident.
Vygotsky’s cultural-historical perspective is particularly relevant for language
learning, as language is a social and cultural phenomenon that mediates cognition
and communication. This theory viewed language as a tool for thinking and learning
and as a means of expressing and sharing ideas, emotions, and experiences [11, 12,
14]. It also believes that language development is influenced by the social and cultural
context, and that language learning is a social process that involves interaction and
negotiation with others. In other words, from a sociocultural perspective, the process
of learning another language could be facilitated and take a movement from social
interactions and gradually become a tool for the learner.
Drawing on Vygotsky’s theory as a whole and the three concepts discussed above
specifically, L2 acquisition can be informed by Vygotsky’s theory in three specific
principles:
(1) environment as a source of the ideal forms of the target language,
(2) internalisation through active and meaningful social interactions,
(3) optimal L2 acquisition when effectively scaffolded in the ZPD of the individual.
From a cultural-historical viewpoint, the environment plays a critical role in
language acquisition by providing language input in the ideal/final forms toward
which the individual’s language competency is progressing. Vygotsky [11] contends
that “it is necessary for this ideal form to be present in the environment and to interact
with the child’s rudimentary form; only then can speech development be achieved”
[11, p. 349]. In the same vein, L2 acquisition can be facilitated through the interac-
tion between the ideal form and the current form of the target language. This points
to the existence of an interaction of the two forms of language during the process
Generative AI and Second/Foreign Language Education … 181

of speech development, as in the ideal or the developed form of the mother and the
developing form of the child discussed in the previous sections.
Second, L2 learning occurs through internalisation, which is enabled by mean-
ingful social interactions. Drawing on Vygotsky’s perspective, Lantolf [8] postulates:
internalisation of the features of a L2 takes place through imitation, especially as occurs in
private speech. Imitation, based on recent neuroscience and child development research, is
seen as an intentional and potentially transformative process rather than as rote mimicking
[8, p. 67].

Importantly, the theory places significant emphasis on the pivotal role of the indi-
vidual within these interactions, as highlighted by Vygotsky [12] when discussing
the role of experience (perezhivanie) in forming personality and psychological
development. He points out that “every experience [perezhivanie] is my experience
[perezhivanie]” [12, p. 294]. The individual’s active involvement in cultural and social
contexts is underscored from Vygotsky’s perspective, contributing to the shaping of
the person’s experiences and development. Here, social interaction and feedback
are crucial for language learning, as they provide learners with input, output, and
scaffolding that can enhance their linguistic and communicative competence. This
process in a second language is argued to be “an active, and frequently creative,
reasoning process” rather than a simple imitation of the social source [20, p. 209]
which highlights the uniqueness of the process through the learners’ central role in
social interactions.
These social interactions encompass various settings like family dynamics, and
interactions within peer groups, and extend into institutional contexts such as educa-
tional settings, organised sports activities, and workplaces, among others [20, 21].
The value of social interactions is also informed by Vygotsky’s general genetic law
of cultural development, which states that “every function in the cultural develop-
ment of the child appears on the stage twice, in two planes, first, the social, then the
psychological, first between people as an intermental category, then within the child
as an intramental category” [22, p. 106]. In other words, every function in the process
of development manifests twice—initially on the social plane and subsequently on
the psychological/personal plane. The social plane exists between individuals or in
an interpsychological form and consequently transforms into an intrapsychological/
intrapersonal form. This is evident in Vygotsky’s example of the mother and child
talk mentioned in the section Perezhivanie above. The child interacts and collab-
orates with the mother’s speech, a developed form of speech initially used on the
social plane. Gradually, as the child’s speech develops, it transforms into an internal
tool.
The general genetic law addresses two important aspects in the development of
speech/language from a cultural-historical perspective; first, its facilitation through
social interaction as discussed above and second the significance of mediation within
the learners’ ZPD, which is explained below.
The third principle suggests that L2 acquisition conceivably best occurs in the
learners’ ZPD. The ZPD looks beyond current development, suggesting that present
abilities with mediation indicate future independent capabilities. L2 learning should
182 N. Cong-Lem and S. Daneshfar

be personalised to the individual’s existing actual level of development (ALD) as well

as to the possible development of the learners’ L2 capacity. This is to both support
more optimal L2 acquisition and appeal to the learners’ personal interests for engen-
dering their L2 learning motivation. Additionally, from a cultural-historical perspec-
tive, the concept of ZPD highlights the significance of peer support in enhancing
interaction and aiding or providing mediation [23]. In the context of second language
learning, it is crucial to establish an engaging learning atmosphere where learners
can connect and collectively build their L2 skills with the help of their peers and
mediation from the educator. Aljaafreh and Lantolf [24] delineate several effica-
cious mechanisms of assistance, emphasising that mediation should be responsive
to the L2 learner’s specific needs. This involves a continuum starting with implicit
hints and progressing to explicit correction when required.

4 ChatGPT and Language Learning as Informed

by a Vygotsky’s Perspective on L2 Learning

4.1 ChatGPT’s Affordances for L2 Learning

The affordances of ChatGPT for language learning have been recognised in the litera-
ture. In general, major affordances of ChatGPT with respect to facilitating L2 learning
involve a source of rich linguistic input in the target language, social interactions in
conversations, and individualised feedback.
First, as stated above, from a Vygotskian view one important aspect of the devel-
opment of humans is the use of signs and tools. Human psychological development is
a mediated process organised by cultural tools and signs. In the context of this paper,
this includes the tools/signs that the language learner applies as a way to enhance
their learning. ChatGPT, a complex human artifact, falls into this category.
Second, the design of ChatGPT allows for human-like conversations in the target
language. ChatGPT can generate realistic and engaging dialogues on various topics
and scenarios, and it can respond to the user’s input in a natural and appropriate way.
This holds various values for learning as informed by the concept of perezhivanie.
In particular, interacting with ChatGPT using the target language can help increase
exposure to target input, and lower learners’ interaction anxiety when having to
engage in face-to-face interactions with other people such as their teachers or peers.
It also caters for a wide range of topics of personal interest to the learners, thereby
potentially engendering motivation and acquisition.
Third, learners can receive feedback for their language output with the support of
ChatGPT. Language learners can receive feedback from ChatGPT for their learning
activities, tailored to their input. This can promote more favourable learning in the
learner’s ZPD. ChatGPT can also provide scaffolding for language development, as
it can give feedback, correction, and explanation to the learner’s language output or
cultural context awareness. An advantage of ChatGPT in feedback provision is that
Generative AI and Second/Foreign Language Education … 183

it is always available to the learners without time and space constraints and that the
learners can ask for further clarification/follow-up on an ongoing basis.

4.2 How ChatGPT Enhances L2 Learning: A Theoretical

Discussion Drawing on Vygotsky’s Perspective

The three affordances of ChatGPT discussed above align well with how Vygotsky
theorises learning and development. First, it can be argued that ChatGPT has been
developed using authentic language resources. This aligns with the Vygotskian-
based L2 sociocultural theory, emphasising the social environment as the source of
development. ChatGPT can simulate real-world social situations, thereby making it
a potent cultural tool mediating second/foreign language learning process. Conse-
quently, this can be likened to the process of speech development, which begins on
the social plane or social speech and subsequently evolves on the intrapersonal plane
or inner speech. The existence of private speech in this model might be of interest to
observe in researching ChatGPT as a tool and social source for speech development.
Second, ChatGPT can simulate real-life social interactions, which can appeal
to the learners’ personal interests and foster positive emotional experiences and
internalisation of L2 input. From the theoretical lens of perezhivanie, this would
allow for positive emotions and experiences and an overall positive attitude towards
L2 learning, thereby enhancing language learning outcomes. As discussed in the
second principle above, meaningful social interactions are an essential condition for
L2 acquisition.
An important point to consider is that how much learners find ChatGPT helpful
depends on their personal characteristics, which vary in different situations. For
instance, ChatGPT is like a cultural tool, and learners must learn how to use it well
before it becomes effective in their language learning. The value of ChatGPT may
be different for students who are not familiar with how to use it. Therefore, the main
idea here is that the impact of ChatGPT on learners’ L2 learning is not the same
for everyone but relies on whether and how individuals can use it for their language
learning.
Third, individualised feedback and guidance from ChatGPT can further create
input and learning activities that are likely to occur in the learners’ ZPD. ChatGPT
can also simulate the role of a more experienced or advanced interlocutor, who can
provide the language learner with rich input and feedback. The type of feedback
from ChatGPT can vary depending on the learners’ prompts and needs, including
but not limited to feedback on their written L2 output (i.e., as of the writing of
this chapter, ChatGPT-3 can only receive written input and provide written output),
knowledge of language and cultures, and language learning strategies. Additionally,
learners can ask the chatbot for its feedback on their language learning plan. Overall,
ChatGPT can thus enhance language learning by creating a personalised, dynamic,
and engaging learning environment.
184 N. Cong-Lem and S. Daneshfar

5 Considerations for An Effective Integration

of Generative AI in Foreign Language Education
from a Vygotskian Perspective

5.1 Implications for Relevant Stakeholders

The preceding sections have examined the values of ChatGPT as an exemplar of GAI
chatbots for L2 learning within the framework of Vygotsky’s theoretical perspective.
This section provides pragmatic guidance on the appropriate utilisation of GAI tools
to bolster L2 teaching and learning.
Firstly, for policymakers, recognising the mounting concerns surrounding
academic integrity in the context of ChatGPT usage, it is crucial that policymakers
and school administrators collaborate with relevant stakeholders to establish regula-
tions. These regulations should ensure the responsible, ethical and effective use of
ChatGPT and similar AI tools.
Secondly, the potential applications of GAI tools in L2 learning, teaching, and
assessment are vast and warrant exploration. Consequently, it is recommended that
language teachers and learners be afforded opportunities and encouragement to
leverage GAI chatbots effectively. For instance, these tools can be employed to
generate English language teaching materials, act as virtual consultants for planning
and designing tasks, and serve as teaching assistants or tutors, facilitating student
interaction and feedback on language output (e.g., Ulla et al. [25]).
Lastly, it is crucial to emphasise that the use of ChatGPT, like any other tools,
is informed by research evidence. The use of available evidence in informing the
use of GAI tools serves a dual purpose: it keeps educators and students abreast
of best practices while also optimising time and resources. Drawing on established
research findings can help institutions streamline the integration of GAI tools into the
pedagogical environment and make more informed decisions to ensure an efficient
and effective educational experience.

5.2 Potential Legal, Ethical and Privacy Issues in Using

ChatGPT

Despite the potential benefits of using ChatGPT as a language learning tool and virtual
environment, there are also some challenges and considerations in adopting the
chatbot in formal language education. First, the information a GAI chatbot provides
can be incorrect and biased [26, 27]. It is, therefore, important to raise educators’
and students’ awareness of the quality and reliability of ChatGPT’s output and the
necessity of exercising caution in double-checking the validity of the information
before implementing it.
Generative AI and Second/Foreign Language Education … 185

Second, the privacy and security of the user’s data and identity, or the impact of
ChatGPT on the user’s behaviour, attitude, or values should also be acknowledged
and addressed with appropriate measures. For instance, learners should be cautioned
against providing sensitive information (e.g., their identity) to the chatbot to protect
them from privacy/information breach concerns.
Third, despite the capability of ChatGPT as a learning peer, there is always the
need for human involvement and supervision in the language learning process, as
ChatGPT cannot truly replace the role of a human teacher or a peer. Language
learning and the learners per se need more than just input. The full range of social
and emotional support and guidance are essential to ensure their well-being and
holistic development.

5.3 Future Research Directions

With respect to future research directions, the use of theory in informing the appli-
cation of GAI tools in L2 research is essential, with Vygotsky’s cultural-historical
theory potentially serving as a potent theoretical framework, as discussed in this
paper. While current L2 research evidence seems to focus on the perception and
attitude of relevant stakeholders towards ChatGPT (e.g., [7, 25]), more research is
needed to investigate the efficacy of ChatGPT in enhancing L2 learning and teaching
effectiveness.
On the other hand, in addition to linguistic outcomes, this exploration can extend
to examining various outcomes such as L2 learning motivation, engagement, enjoy-
ment, anxiety, competence, awareness, and identity. There is an urgent need to explore
measures and methods addressing academic integrity concerns associated with the
use of ChatGPT (e.g., [5]).
Lastly, a promising research avenue involves the exploration of how ChatGPT
can be integrated within existing or emerging language learning platforms, including
online or mobile applications, as well as virtual or augmented reality environments.

6 Conclusion

In this chapter, we explored how ChatGPT, as an exemplary GAI tool, holds great
potential in supporting L2 acquisition, learning, and teaching, drawing on three key
concepts from Vygotsky’s cultural-historical theory: perezhivanie, speech develop-
ment, and ZPD. We emphasised three principles for effective L2 acquisition from
the Vygotskian CHT perspective: (1) environment as a source of the ideal forms of
the target language, (2) internalisation through active and meaningful social interac-
tions, and (3) optimal L2 acquisition when effectively scaffolded in the ZPD of the
individual.
186 N. Cong-Lem and S. Daneshfar

Building on these principles, we elaborated on how ChatGPT can create a virtual

social interaction environment with ideal language forms for language learners, facil-
itate meaningful and authentic social interactions in L2 language, and provide indi-
vidualised feedback tailored to the learners’ levels. Regarding its integration into
formal language education programs, we stressed the importance of making relevant
stakeholders, especially language educators and learners, aware of potential biases
and inaccuracies in ChatGPT’s responses, as well as other legal, ethical, and privacy
concerns associated with the use of the GAI chatbot. We also outlined future research
directions. While GAI-informed language education is still in its nascent stage, we
believe that this chapter offers a much-needed theoretical discussion to enable a more
informed and strategic approach to leverage the affordances of GAI tools in the field
of L2 education.

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Ngo Cong-Lem, PhD is a lecturer at the Faculty of Foreign Languages, Dalat University, Da
Lat, Vietnam, and a postdoctoral research fellow at Monash Sustainable Development Institute
(MSDI), Monash University, Melbourne, Australia. His research interests encompass generative
artificial intelligence (GenAI), educational psychology, teacher agency, TESOL, and cultural-
historical theories. He has published in reputable international journals, such as International
Journal of Human–Computer Interaction, Language Learning & Technology, European Journal of
Psychology of Education, Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science, and The Educational
and Developmental Psychologist.
188 N. Cong-Lem and S. Daneshfar

Samran Daneshfar holds a PhD in education from the Faculty of Education at Monash University
in Australia. Samran holds qualifications in English literature and teaching English. Samran is a
Teaching Associate at the Faculty of Education at Monash University. He worked as a primary
teacher and a secondary English teacher across schools in Iran. His PhD project investigates adult
multilingual English learners’ private speech. Samran’s areas of interest include second language
education in a multilingual environment and Vygotsky’s cultural-historical theory.
Building a Corpus for Teaching
and Learning a Second Language
by Using Sketch Engine

Phan Thi Thanh Thao

Abstract It is well acknowledged that corpus linguistics has significant impacts

on not only the modes of language use and communication but also the supply of
authentic materials collected by digital devices. This chapter introduces the building
of a corpus for the purpose of learning and teaching a second language in the digital
technology era where its application in the language learning and teaching becomes
more and more popular. As technology continues to advance, the synergy between
corpora and digital tools will likely play an even more significant role in teaching
and learning a language since the corpora use is regarded as a new tool to supply
teachers with authentic data of language structures and encourage the students’ self-
study since they can delve into language features of a determined corpus. Thus, it
is necessary to master the way how to create a corpus that might help learners and
teachers deal with the authentic resources’ use in a second language acquisition.
This chapter first introduces why the corpus-based approach is crucial in applied
linguistics and language education before classifying various types of corpora based
on different approaches. It then discusses advantages of using corpora in teaching
and learning a second language and presents methods of building a corpus. It finally
provides some practical tasks of building and applying a corpus in learning and
teaching English after illustrating the application of a corpus in a second language
lesson.

Keywords Learner corpora · Corpus · N-gram · Natural language processing ·

Sketch Engine

P. T. T. Thao (B)
University of Foreign Languages and International Studies, Hue University, Hue, Vietnam
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 189
H. P. Bui and E. Namaziandost (eds.), Innovations in Technologies for Language
Teaching and Learning, Studies in Computational Intelligence 1159,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-63447-5_11
190 P. T. T. Thao

1 Introduction

There exist a variety of ways to define a corpus in different domains. In the linguistics
domain, corpus definitions are based on its origin, size and function. In fact, the word
“corpus” deriving from Latin originally means the ‘body’, which contains a large
body of texts which can be stored and processed in an electronic form [1].
According to many linguists, like McEnery et al. [2], Sinclair [3] and Tognini-
Bonelli [4], a corpus is defined as “a representative collection of pieces of a language
that are selected according to explicit linguistic criteria and reflect natural chunks
of this language to be used for a linguistic analysis” [2, 4, 5]. In other words, this
definition implies the close relation between corpora and their linguistic features.
In sight of many linguistics and language studies, a corpus also refers to a large
and structured set of texts (spoken or written) used for linguistic analysis and study
Actually, corpora can be manipulated as essential tools for being aware of as well as
conducting an investigation into various aspects of language, including its structure,
usage, and patterns. Moreover, considering the size of a corpus, Patsala and Michali
[6] recognize that it forms a representative sample of language, while its machine-
readable format allows annotation, and various types of analysis related to the criteria
set and the tools used, for instance, part-of-speech, frequencies, key-word-in-context,
etc. [7]. It is evident that the corpus has been compiled with a collection of texts
ranging from small to big size, and from general to specialized fields.
Concerning computational linguistics, a corpus is known as a collection of natu-
rally occurring language texts, which have been selected to characterize a language’s
state or its variety. According to Sinclair [3], a corpus typically contains a vast number
of words (e.g. millions of words) since it is acknowledged that the natural language’s
creativity has brought such immense variety of expressions appearing in the recur-
rent patterns which become the clues to the language’s lexical structure. Take an
example of the British National Corpus (BNC) including more than one hundred
million of words, a corpus is collected surely with a huge amount of words from
both spoken and written texts belonging to various domains. Furthermore, Kuble
and Zinsmeister [8] confirm that many linguistically analyzed and publicly available
corpora have also been increased significantly which provide a rising number of data
for analyzing language and other applications on computational linguistic purposes.
Since corpora are regarded as essential tools in linguistics, computational linguis-
tics, and natural language processing (NLP), their study becomes more and more
practical, in particular in the digital era. As Rayon mentions, the increasing power
of computer science partly relating to the popular use of computational methods in
storing and processing language samples flourished people’s interests in the corpus
linguistics domain during the period of 1970s and 1980s [7]. While linguists use
corpora to study language patterns, frequency of words, syntactic structures, and
other linguistic phenomena, in the natural language processing and machine learning,
they often use corpora to train and evaluate language models. Hence, this chapter
reveals the term “corpus” in not only general linguistics but also in the computational
Building a Corpus for Teaching and Learning a Second Language … 191

linguistics aspect which is considered a vital domains in the language study in the
modern digital technology.

2 Type of Corpora

To our best knowledge, there are different types of corpora, which are divided on the
basis of various categories such as mode of communication of the corpus language,
the scope and variety of corpus language, and the corpus source and target languages
or their translations. Corpora are classified into written corpora, spoken corpora,
specialized corpora (focused on specific domains or topics), and balanced corpora
(representative of various genres and registers), parallel and comparable corpora,
bilingual and multilingual corpora [9]. It is apparent that the creation and analysis of
corpora have contributed valuable insights into the structure and usage of languages.
First, concerning the mode of communication which the collected texts of a corpus
represent, there remain written and spoken corpora.

2.1 Written Corpora

These corpora consist of written texts such as novels, fiction works, books, academic
articles, students’ essays or assignments, newspaper articles, and other written mate-
rials from the website such as emails, blogs, tweets and Facebook posts. We usually
use them in our study of language patterns, syntax, and semantics. According to
Gardner and Moreton, written corpora contain not only actual texts but also meta-
data, or information about the place where the texts are written, the time and the
reason of the texts appearing, the person who has created and the things what the
texts are about. All of them can associate the text with its social context and assist
us in comparative analyses within and across the corpora. Thus, written corpora can
be analysed from a range of quantitative perspectives to uncover patterns that would
be hard to detect manually. These might be based on frequency, co-occurrence or
relatove frequency being shown in specific applications of the corpora [9].

2.2 Spoken Corpora

Different from written corpora, spoken corpora consist of transcripts of spoken

languages, such as conversations, interviews, or recorded speech. According to
Brezina and Gablasova [10], spoken corpora usually have smaller size than that
of written corpora, and they are uncommon as it is rather challenging and costly
to compile them [10]. Moreover, spoken corpora are valuable for studying other
language aspects such as intonation, prosody, and discourse analysis. For instance,
192 P. T. T. Thao

ANDOSL (Australian National Database of Spoken Language) has been built with
the dialogues, and speeches of various major speaker groups in Australia It is notice-
able that this corpus is recorded in a high quality environment at the National Acoustic
Laboratories with manual annotation at both word & phonemic levels [10].
Second, taking into account the scope of corpora and the variety of language
features they represent, researchers distinguish the other two kinds of corpora like
general and specialized corpora.

2.3 General Corpora

In Brezina and Gablasova’s [10] opinion, general corpora are often very large which
contain hundreds of millions or billions of words in the languages used in different
domains and contexts. For instance, the 100-million-word British National Corpus,
namely BNC, a general corpus of British English, and the 450-million-word Corpus
of Contemporary American English-COCA [11, 12] standing for a general corpus of
American English are the two biggest and the most popular corpora in the linguistics
domain.

2.4 Specialized Corpora

On the other hand, specialized corpora are designed for a specific purpose and repre-
sent a usage of a specific language or a group of specific language users [13]. There
are some specialized corpora which have been created in specific domains as follows:
British Academic Written English (BAWE) contains 6.5 million words collected from
university students’ writings at different disciplines and levels of study; Hong Kong
Professional Corpora are those specializing in various disciplines such as financial
services, engineering, and governance. In addition, those corpora belonging to this
type include academic English corpora, healthcare communication corpora, aviation
English corpora, and so forth [9].
Third, corpus classification based on the translation-relevant collected documents
gets involved in two kinds of corpora including parallel corpora and comparable
corpora.

2.5 Parallel Corpora

These corpora consist of a set of source language texts and their translations in
a target language. In other words, they share meanings of the texts between the
source language and the target language. For example, EUR-LEX is a multilingual
Building a Corpus for Teaching and Learning a Second Language … 193

parallel corpus of European Union documents, which have been translated into many
European languages.

2.6 Comparable Corpora

These corpora are designed with the collection of texts based on the same criteria,
e.g. sizes, topics, periods of time. Concerning the building of a comparable corpus,
Kenning [14] gives some criteria to select texts. First, these texts have to follow textual
conventions which are varied in different cultures. Second, they should exemplify
certain kinds of items of interest to the comparable corpora’s designers. These texts
might hold various forms like newspaper articles, speeches, job advertisement or
announcements, and so on.
There are surely some differences between parallel and comparable corpora.
First, while parallel corpora contain translationally “equivalent” texts like source
texts and their corresponding target texts, comparable corpora include texts origi-
nally produced (not translated) in the respective languages. Second, when parallel
corpora need to be aligned, usually at the sentence level, comparable corpora tend to
consist of independent texts, which are “similar” according to some pre-determined
criteria. Third, comparable corpora own various language components that share
a set of common features, e.g. text type, genre, publication span, domain, topic,
etc., but parallel corpora focus on the contexts provided to clarify the “equivalence”
and “translation shifts” between ST and TT. Therefore, we could figure out some
main common characteristics of comparable corpora through a range of language
components appearing in those comparable corpora. Finally, in parallel corpora, the
translation method needs to be identified, which are shown in SL and TL components
of the corpus when comparable corpora supply widely varied parameters defining this
similarity [9]. Because of those features mentioned above, parallel corpora become
useful and potential for studying translation, comparative linguistics, and language
learning, while comparable corpora just allow researchers to make cross-linguistic
or cross-cultural comparisons for their study on linguistics and language cultures.
Fourth, based on the number of languages, the corpora get involved in, the
corpus division may include other three kinds such as monolingual corpora, bilin-
gual corpora, and multilingual corpora. With various objectives of the study, the
researchers can choose the type of corpus which can align with different linguistic
phenomena.

2.7 Monolingual Corpora

These corpora are defined as a collection of texts in a single language used for
studying linguistic properties, language structures, vocabulary, and various aspects
194 P. T. T. Thao

within a specific language [9, 10]. As mentioned previously, BNC is one of the well-
known monolingual corpora in British English consisting of a 100-million-word
collection of samples of written and spoken language from a wide range of sources.

2.8 Bilingual Corpora

Different from parallel or comparable corpora, bilingual corpora contain texts in

a pair of languages, which are aligned at the sentence level for direct translation
comparisons or its corresponding translation. The bilingual corpora use aims to
conduct studies on translation, contrastive linguistics, and specific language pairs
[10]. Here are a series of bilingual corpora for a wide range of language pairs such as
English-French, English-German, Vietnamese-English, French-Italian, and so on.

2.9 Multilingual Corpora

With the corpus name, it is easy to recognize that these corpora involve texts in more
than two languages, which are used for cross-linguistic studies, language compar-
isons and linguistic universals or typology. For instance, EU Acquis Communautaire
is a multilingual corpus containing EU law texts in 20 European languages [15],
which is freely available for the analysis and use of many languages.
Fifth, the third major categorization of corpora relates to the group of corpus
language users. Here, we can distinguish the native speaker corpora and non-native
speaker (or learner) corpora.

2.10 Native Speaker Corpora and Non-native Speaker

Corpora

It is obvious to be aware of the native speaker corpora which have been compiled
by those who were born and grew up with their mother tongue captured as the
target language of the corpora. Meanwhile, non-native speaker corpora are created
by the speakers and writers of English or another language to represent their second
language’s (L2) production, which is different from backgrounds and proficiency
levels of the first language or native language (L1) [16]. The non-native speaker
corpora are often compared with native speaker corpora in pedagogical aspects,
which can determine the main differences between learners and native speakers.
These can then be addressed in textbooks used in teaching foreign languages.
Building a Corpus for Teaching and Learning a Second Language … 195

3 Benefits of Using Corpora in Teaching and Learning

a Second Language

Language teaching in the period of technology advancement has been changed

significantly due to the great impacts of some linguistics domains, especially corpus
linguistics [17–20]. In fact, corpora use in teaching and learning a second language
can offer various benefits since corpora studies may have some impacts on the
language teachers’ methodology. For example, teachers can create many activities in
their lessons for students to explore the language features with computer programs
such as the concordance which is used to identify words and their common collo-
cations in a particular corpus [3, 21]. Here are some advantages of incorporating
corpora in the second language teaching and learning as follows:
First, corpora can improve the programs and material design courses by providing
authentic examples of language use which allows learners to encounter real-life
language in context. In Alcantar and Jose’s opinion, since corpora inform us the
use of language elements in a way which we cannot do by ourselves, they can be
used as an effective tool to illustrate the syllabus, and supply with most teaching
materials, for example, the modals’ use and their form presented in textbooks of
English [21]. With some corpora-based studies on modal verbs (e.g., would, can,
might, etc.) conducted by researchers [2, 21, 22], they recognize that textbooks are
not only used to teach full types of modal languages, but also offer some confusing
explanations for the language they teach.
Second, corpora have certain influences on language awareness. Carter defines
language awareness as the learners’ development in their consciousness of the
language forms and functions [23]. Hence, when learners work with corpora, they can
discover language themselves. Van Lier also gives an example of language aware-
ness in teaching activities which shows the way the language is focused on the
learners, not the teachers [24]. For instance, when using a corpus, learners easily
search for vocabulary with its concordances. Through observing and memorizing
these concordances, learners could use the words or phrases more correctly and
naturally. Besides, corpora analysis allows learners to identify common lexical and
grammatical patterns, enabling them to learn language structures more efficiently.
This data-driven approach helps learners understand how words and structures are
used in inauthentic communication.
Third, using corpora also develops learners’ and teachers’ autonomy and inde-
pendence. Actually, corpora use can promote students’ self-study, since students are
responsible for their own language learning, i.e. they can search for language features
in various language resources. Students can use corpora to learn different structures
and grammatical patterns and vocabulary as well as themselves without any support
from their teachers. That is to say, their learning autonomy has been improved.
Moreover, through using corpora, both learners and teachers are able to work inde-
pendently with specific examples of ‘real life’ language, which makes them feel more
confident about the language they use to present in classrooms. Furthermore, due to
the increasing number of contributions in the field of corpus linguistics, more and
196 P. T. T. Thao

more linguists use corpora in their language study and analysis. This idea penetrates
researcher’s mind in a series of language domains like cognitive linguistics, metaphor
analysis, language learning, corpus stylistics, dictionary creation, translation [22].
Fourth, incorporating corpora into language learning also encourages the learners
to develop their cultural aspect of language use. They can understand idiomatic
expressions, cultural references, and the subtleties of communication that are often
challenging to teach through traditional methods. Moreover, when learners work
with authentic materials from the available or newly built corpora, they find out that
learning a language is more interesting and beneficial since it can bring relevance to
their studies and helps them see the practical applications of what they have learnt.
Last but not least, through corpora use, learners surely will be able to enhance
their research skills. They can explore linguistic data, analyze patterns, fostering a
more independent and critical thinking approach to language learning.
All in all, incorporating corpora in the second language teaching and learning
offers learners a data-driven, authentic, and contextualized approach that can consid-
erably ameliorate their language competence and comprehension. For instance, the
teaching English with the help of corpora is established in various domains, such as
the development of materials, design of syllabus, and organization of classroom activ-
ities [17]. With the help of corpus-based solutions, educators can enhance approaches
to teaching reading, writing, vocabulary, and, most importantly, grammar.

4 How to Build a Corpus?

There is no doubt that the corpus use has brought a large number of benefits, espe-
cially in teaching and learning a second language. However, no corpus exists which
is suitable for all your purposes. Some people use English corpus to learn collo-
cations, idioms and structures. Others use parallel corpora to learn translation in
different language pairs. Therefore, we need to design our own corpus for our own
target. In order to build a corpus, we have to take many factors into considera-
tion, which includes the purpose and research aims of a corpus size, balance and
representativeness.
First, it is necessary to identify the specific aims and research goals before
compiling a corpus. Is the corpus involved in linguistic analysis, natural language
processing, machine learning, or other areas? Based on the objectives set up, the
collection of texts for the corpus building becomes easier and more focused.
Second, the corpus size depends considerably on the type of questions that are
going to be asked. Determining the size of the corpus is based on many factors, and of
course, there is no one-size which fits all the questions. Larger corpora may provide
more representative samples; nevertheless, they also require more resources for the
corpora design and analysis.
Third, representativeness is an essential factor in building a corpus. The represen-
tativeness should assure that the corpus clearly indicates or presents some features
Building a Corpus for Teaching and Learning a Second Language … 197

of language or phenomena that we are studying, e.g., the regions’ variation, native
speakers’ accents, culture diversity, and language styles, etc.
Finally, the balance of the corpus plays a significant role in the corpus building,
which gets involved in a range of text categories such as the balance of spoken and
written data, the balance of domain specific corpora, the balance of samples, and so
forth.

4.1 Size

There exist different opinions about the corpus size. In fact, the size of a corpus
depends on the purpose of its use, i.e. there is no ideal size of a corpus. Comparing
a tiny one-million-word corpus with a one-billion-word corpus, we can see the great
difference between the terms, phrases, collocations and other linguistic characteris-
tics in these two corpora. The former is extremely limited in terms of the phenomena,
when the latter contains 1,000 times as much data [25]. In addition, a “large” or
“small” corpus depends on whether the corpus is written or spoken since it takes
quite a long time to compile a spoken corpus, which tends to be smaller than written
ones [26]. According to O’Keeffe et al., any spoken corpus consisting of over a
million words of speech is considered large, on the contrary, written corpus with five
million words is quite small; however, many small corpora, even written ones, are a
great deal smaller than that, which can be totaled up to 250,000 words [27].
In this study, concerning the corpus size, we mention two main factors including
the kind of query estimated by its users and methods they use to study data [28].
Here it is good to start the kind of query by selecting a list of the “objects”, which
are created by tags such as lemmas to study the corpus. Then we can try out one
of the corpora to investigate the vocabulary of a corpus, which can be organized
in frequency order. Have a look at the frequency of words or phrases in different
phenomena in COCA, BNC, and Brown corpus According to Davies [11, 12], in
case of some moderately frequent words, a one-million-word corpus like Brown
corpus cannot provide efficient data for useful analyses. For example, 83 of 1,000
adjectives which are the most frequent in COCA appear five times or less in Brown
corpus including common words such as fun, offensive, medium, tender, teenage,
coastal, scary, cute, risky, shiny, hazardous, conceptual, and affordable. All of these
words occur 5,000 times or more in COCA [11, 12]. That is to say, the corpus size
could offer the number of frequency times of words appearing so that users can
analyze the lexical phenomena of that corpus easily and accurately.
Nevertheless, if the study is conducted on multi-word phrases, but not only a
single word, it will be more complex since the occurrence of two or more words
together is less common [16]. Moreover, the methodology that you intend to use
must be built when you need to estimate the optimal corpus size. It is essential to
turn direct method of searching initial results of corpus to indirect methods and use
the computer for further stages of analyzing including recycling and refining early
results. For example, we use Sketch Engine to search for some lemmas, e.g., healthy,
198 P. T. T. Thao

sportive in the English Web 2021(enTenTen21) with around 52.3 million words (see
Fig. 1).
Here is the list of some lemmas, like “the” with its frequency (3,040,035,254);
“be” (1,926,710,673), “and” (1,552,569,146), “have” (537,306,209) (see Fig. 2).
If we search the phrase with “healthy” and “deep”, both have 1,000 instances
occur in this corpus with N-gram (N = 3–4) (shown in Figs. 3 and 4); however, with
N-gram (n=6) the word “healthy” has 70 instances and “deep” has 87 instances.

Fig. 1 Using Sketch Engine for searching lemmas

Fig. 2 Frequency of some lemmas

Building a Corpus for Teaching and Learning a Second Language … 199

Fig. 3 An example shows the instances of N-gram (N = 3–4) of the word “healthy”

Fig. 4 An example shows the instances of N-gram (N = 6) of the word “healthy”

As Figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6 show, we can see the frequencies of collocations with

these words appearing with different number of times, safe and healthy (1,491),
maintaining a health (599), to stay health (597), to live long and healthy life (14),
a health scratch on the inactive (10) into the deep (329), take a deep breath (351),
deep knowledge of (613), deep dive into (892), has developed a deep understanding
of (11), thrown in at the deep end (12).
200 P. T. T. Thao

Fig. 5 An example shows the instances of N-gram (N = 3) of the word “deep”

Fig. 6 An example shows the instances of N-gram (N = 6) of the word “deep”

From those examples, we agree with Weissers’ opinion stating that the frequency
of collocations is one of the factors determining the optimal size of a corpus while
other components like the range of a chosen word’s ambiguity, and sometimes its
distribution might partly influence the corpus size [28]. In case we continue exam-
ining the frequency of words in N-gram by using the computer, we might find out a
variety of instances of the words, depending on the n-gram (n = 3, 4, 5, or 6), the
programs can indicate the different number of instances and their frequencies in the
Building a Corpus for Teaching and Learning a Second Language … 201

corpus, which will be a useful resource for learning grammar structures of a second
language.

4.2 Sampling

Sampling is one of vital issues in compiling a corpus since it can help the builder
decide the key factors relating to the sampling policy. It is essential to focus three
considerations: 1. Language orientation; 2. Criteria of choosing samples; and 3.
Features and dimensions of samples.
Concerning the language orientation, the corpus builder should avoid the varia-
tions, but take most examples as models for other users. Take the Brown corpus an
example of normative purpose close to a standard language. In addition, the criterion
of choosing samples should be introduced at the beginning of the corpus building
process, for instance, the type of formal or informal languages, the contents/field of
the samples (medicine, education, environment, technology, entertainment, history,
etc.), the feature and dimensions of those samples (public or private information,
simple or complicated samples, etc.).
In this chapter, we introduce our English-Vietnamese parallel corpus of tourism
and culture as a sample. This corpus contains approximately one million words
which has been built with 500 English texts translated into Vietnamese on the topic
of tourism and culture. Concerning the language orientation, it can be noted that
data collected to build this corpus include authentic materials, which are articles or
textbooks on the tourism and culture theme from newspapers, journals, magazines,
guide books, brochures, books, and so on in English, thus the language belongs to the
formal and natural type. Moreover, those materials have been manually translated by
students majoring in translating and interpreting and edited by a group of lecturers
at HUFLIS, Vietnam. Since it is a parallel corpus, the source language document has
been aligned with the target language one, which can be a specific sample to satisfy
all the criteria of linguistics and culture.

4.3 Balance

Balance is another issue that closely relates to the building of a corpus. What is the
balance in a corpus compilation? Basically, according to Weisser [28], the balance
only applies to corpora for general use to offer an equal number of materials from
many different genres or areas of relevance which allow the users to scrutinize a
representative and realistic sample of the language. Obviously, this aim is completely
challenging to obtain since we find it hard to create a corpus with a huge number of
words that could meet the balance.
It is acknowledged that people having built a corpus, often use samples of approx-
imately 2,000 words from different texts and genres to achieve the balance; however,
202 P. T. T. Thao

it is impossible to provide the similar or relative number of samples in all parts in

the whole corpus. As Sinclair contends that it’s worth attempting to be too precise in
selecting such equal-sized samples [5]. That is to say, if a corpus keeps the remaining
balance, the proportion of different kinds of texts in that corpus should correspond
with its informed and instinctive assessments.
Nowadays, most of corpora contain a very huge number of words (millions or a
dozen of millions or a hundred million), hence they are badly balanced because their
samples are often various. Besides, according to Weisser’s study, another factor that
affects the corpus balance is the texts’ specialization [28]. For instance, while the
written corpus materials including articles, newspapers, magazines, books, etc., the
balance rate is surely higher than that of spoken corpora which consist of broadcasts,
meetings, lectures, talks, conversations, or dialogues, and so forth without exact
equivalents.
Take our English-Vietnamese parallel corpus on tourism and culture an example
of balance criterion. As regards the total amount of segments in English and their
equivalents in Vietnamese, there are 19,857 segments in English and the same figure
of alignments in Vietnamese; however, the number of words in English document
and Vietnamese translated version is not the similar. The source language document
in English consists of 481,227 words while the target language one in Vietnamese
includes 522,761 words. In addition, the balance referring to language type (formal
language) and samples of texts with tourism and culture theme has been obtained in
our corpus.

4.4 Representativeness

The representativeness is mentioned as the first principle concerning the factors

of compiling a corpus such as sort of documents, the difference and similarity of
the material publications (e.g. the public or private conversations, printed language,
e-mails and web pages).
To achieve a representative corpus, Weisser presents some important steps as
follows: first, it is necessary to decide the structural criteria which are used to design
a corpus and create a framework of main components; second, using these external
criteria to formulate a comprehensive inventory of text types; third, the texts’ types
should be put in a priority order and the factors that might increase or decrease
the texts’ importance should be taken into consideration; fourth, it is essential to
estimate the target size of each text type; fifth, making comparison between the actual
dimensions of the resources and the initiative plan as the corpus has been shaped.
Finally, it is crucial to document these steps so that users can have a reference if they
get unexpected results [28]. In short, it is easily understood that the representativeness
of a corpus is totally assured if the compilers always stick to their principles in the
process of building corpora.
Building a Corpus for Teaching and Learning a Second Language … 203

4.5 Procedures of Building a Corpus for Teaching

or Learning a Second Language

In this Chapter, we will introduce all the procedures of building a parallel corpus
which can be used for students learning English as a second language as well as in
translation studies. As Kennedy states that there are three stages of corpus compilation
such as corpus design, text collection or capture and text encoding and markup [29],
Adolphs also confirms three stages in the corpus compilation process including data
collection, annotation and markup, and storage [30]. There is an overlap between
these two opinions which can be seen as an annotation step. However, in our study,
we focus on three main stages presented in this building process as follows (Figs. 7
and 8).

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

Preparation of Work with Sketch Corpus analysis
database for the Engine
corpus

Fig. 7 Process of building a corpus

Fig. 8 Interface of Sketch Engine

204 P. T. T. Thao

Stage 1: Preparation of database for the corpus.

During the preparation, we need to decide the following issues:
1. Purpose of corpus: This corpus is built to help Vietnamese students learn ESP
(English as Specific Purpose) in tourism domain
2. Kind of corpus: English-Vietnamese parallel corpus
3. Specific domain: Tourism
4. Size of corpus: about one million words
5. Resources: electronic articles, news, textbooks, journals, etc.
6. Features of corpus: This corpus is an electronic body of linguistic data (texts)
extracted from the larger texts which have been translated from English (the
source language) to Vietnamese (the target language). This parallel corpus can
help the learners search for terms, phrases, collocations, and sentences which are
aligned in both English and Vietnamese languages.
7. Format of data: Since The data prepared for the corpus are saved in the file formats
like.xlsx,.xls or.txt, which can provide the builders or designers the alignments
of the texts in both languages since most corpus investigation software will not
read the kind of complex embedded formatting associated with common word
processing packages like Microsoft Word or pdf.
Step 2: Work with Sketch Engine
Sketch Engine is known as a corpus manager and text analysis software developed
by Lexical Computing CZ s.r.o. since 2003 [31]. For the purpose of supporting
people to study languages, for example, the second language learners, researchers
in corpus linguistics, and translators are able to search large text collections according
to complex and linguistically motivated queries. Here are some major steps to deal
with Sketch Engine.
First, you have to create an account and sign up to the Sketch Engine website:
sketchengine.eu.
Second, you should choose the New corpus and select languages before Creating
Corpus and then name your corpus (see Fig. 9).
If you want to create a monolingual corpus, you can select Single language corpus;
otherwise, Multilingual corpus is your option if you would like to build a parallel
corpus (see Fig. 10).
Moreover, you will choose non-aligned documents if your documents can be
aligned automatically (see Fig. 11).
Then you will upload your files remembering that your files should be accepted
in the.doc,.docx,.html,.pdf formats (Fig. 12).
Just after several minutes, your corpus will have been built in Sketch Engine.
Stage 3: Corpus analysis.
Dealing with corpus analysis, we should pay attention to the evaluation of the
frequency of words’ occurrences, which is considered one of the simplest, but best-
known possible metrics. Take an example of Parallel Concordance in the English-
Vietnamese parallel corpus that we have just designed, we may search for any words
Building a Corpus for Teaching and Learning a Second Language … 205

Fig. 9 Selecting languages and creating corpus with Sketch Engine

Fig. 10 Selecting multilingual corpus if your corpus relates to many languages

in English and their equivalences in Vietnamese in this corpus. For instance, we can
find the plural noun “tourists” with its frequency of 326 times, 713.42 per million
tokens accounting for 0.071%. Figure 13 shows how we find out the concordances
of terms, collocations, or sentences in both English and Vietnamese. Therefore, we
can compare the linguistic features of this language pair.
Similarly, if you want to find some phrases with the singular noun “tourist”, there
are only 72 phrases in our corpus with 157.56 per million tokens (0.016%) (Fig. 14).
206 P. T. T. Thao

Fig. 11 Selecting aligned or non-aligned documents

Fig. 12 Uploading data in Sketch Engine

5 Corpus Application in a Second Language Lesson

As mentioned in the previous sections, a corpus in the context of language learning

refers to a large and structured set of texts that can be analyzed to understand language
patterns, usage, and context [19, 32]. It means that corpus application in the second
language teaching and learning can offer some benefits. Here are some ways in which
corpora can be applied in the language lessons.
Building a Corpus for Teaching and Learning a Second Language … 207

Fig. 13 Comparing the linguistic features of the word “tourists” in the parallel corpus

Fig. 14 Collocations with the singular noun “tourist” in the parallel corpus

5.1 Vocabulary Building and Development

– Word frequency: Corpus is an enormous collection of texts that can provide the
users a huge amount of vocabulary [4, 7]. The corpus has the function of creating
the word frequency and its analyzing which can help language learners identify
high-frequency words. This frequently used vocabulary should be paid much
208 P. T. T. Thao

Fig. 15 The interface of Sketch Engine for searching vocabulary

attention to the learners to prioritize their focus on studying and applying it in real
contexts, which are essential for effective language learning and communication.
– Collocations recognition: A corpus provides users with a large number of collo-
cations or word combinations. The corpus supports learners to identify those
common collocations that enhance learners’ mastering of how words are typi-
cally used together in natural language, improves their ability of using them in
contexts. Here are some steps for searching the word frequency, for example, the
word “visit” as a singular noun in the British National Corpus (BNC) with Sketch
Engine. First, we need to sign in the account in Sketch Engine; then select a corpus
to search for vocabulary, e.g., BNC; after that, click the category Word Sketch to
search for Collocations or word combinations (Fig. 15).
Figure 16 indicates how the user analyzes the word, and collocations/word combi-
nations based on the part of speech including nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs,
and pronouns. The option “minimum score” provides the number of words in the
combinations.
Figure 17 shows the list of the word “visit” in its combinations with other words
in different patterns: modifer, p-to-p, object-of, and/or, pp-obj-of-p and possessor
(Fig. 18).

5.2 Grammar and Syntax

In addition to vocabulary, corpora can provide a variety of common grammat-

ical structures and patterns, which help learners understand how words are used
in different grammatical contexts and authentic contexts [33–35]. For teachers,
corpus is regarded as a useful resource of authentic materials, which can be used
Building a Corpus for Teaching and Learning a Second Language … 209

Fig. 16 Dealing with part of speech to analyze words or collocations

Fig. 17 Some examples of collocations with the word “visit”

to analyze sentence structures to improve students’ understanding of syntax and

sentence construction. Moreover, teachers can use corpora to indicate and analyze
common errors made by learners, from which they may address some instructions
to deal with specific grammatical difficulties to the learners.
210 P. T. T. Thao

Fig. 18 The concordance of the word “visit” is shown in 20 rows per page

5.3 Language Skills

It is apparent that corpora analysis can help language learners understand different
writing genres, which allows them to imitate the appropriate structures and follow
styles to improve their own writing skills. Furthermore, when using corpora, learners
are able to better understand how words collocate in many written texts, it means that
they can obtain some collocational competences, which is of factors to enhance their
writing fluency and coherence. Since a corpus provides real-world examples of how
words and phrases are used in context, helping learners understand their meaning and
usage better. Last but not least, learners can discover idioms and expressions used by
native speakers through examples in a corpus to develop their idiomatic expression
competence in their writing styles.
Concerning reading skills, it is indisputable that corpora provide learners with
a vast number of reading texts in various domains and different genres with both
common and specific-field vocabulary. Therefore, second language learners can
significantly improve their reading skills.
To develop the listening and speaking skills, learners can use spoken corpora
to listen to authentic pronunciation and intonation patterns, and teachers can
expose learners to authentic spoken language with various accents, intonational and
conversational strategies.
In short, both written and spoken corpora can provide learners and teachers
authentic resources which are particularly useful and effective to improve the
learners’ all the language skills of a second language.
Building a Corpus for Teaching and Learning a Second Language … 211

5.4 Cultural Knowledge and Linguistic Competence

Corpora contain most of authentic materials that reflect cultural nuances, which can
help learners and users obtain their insights into cultural context of the language. In
addition, analyzing corpora can support the learners to identify pragmatic markers
and expressions used in different context, and understanding how different speech
acts (requests, apologies, recommendations, orders, commands, etc.) are expressed in
authentic language use. As a result, this can make a contribution to improve learners’
pragmatic competence.

5.5 Autonomous Learning Skills

It is evident that learners can use corpora to self-study effectively in language learning
since corpora as mentioned above are reference materials which offer countless
documents for learners to explore language patterns independently, self-correct some
language mistakes that can promote their autonomous language skills.
For example, deal with our designed English-Vietnamese parallel corpus on the
tourism and culture, students at our university can improve their self-study in trans-
lation domain by searching for some key words, e.g. tourist, ecotourism, travel, visit,
monuments, etc. to find out the concordances of these terms as well as their colloca-
tions appearing in the real articles. The translation version or the equivalence of the
texts including these words in two languages, which are shown in Fig. 19, may help
learners understand better these words’ meanings in authentic contexts which are
translated from the source language (English) to the target language (Vietnamese).
Furthermore, this parallel corpus also makes the learners focus on specialized
vocabulary relating to their field of interest or study, which can help them master
in translating documents in some specific domains. Figures 20 and 21 show the
concordance of the word “ecotourism” and its prepositional phrases with the corpus
on tourism and culture.
In summary, incorporating corpora into teaching and learning supplies a data-
driven and authentic approach which supports learners to develop a more nuanced
understanding of language usage in real-world contexts. However, it is important
to use a well-constructed and representative corpus for effective language learning
outcomes. Thus, the learners should identify their purposes of using corpora and the
ways how to manipulate the corpora more effectively to optimize their benefits.
212 P. T. T. Thao

Fig. 19 The word “ecotourism” and its collocations are translated to Vietnamese in different texts

Fig. 20 Concordances of the word “ecotourism” in the E-V parallel corpus

6 Practical Tasks of Building and Applying a Corpus

in Learning and Teaching English

As mentioned in the introduction of this chapter, we have designed the following

tasks for learners of English:
Building a Corpus for Teaching and Learning a Second Language … 213

Fig. 21 Prepositional phrases with the word “ecotourism”

Task 1: You are required to build a monolingual corpus of about 200,000 words
with the various topics such as tourism, education, environment, laws, technology,
science, entertainment, and so on.
Task 2: Based on the corpus you have just designed, list some words on
the selected topics, for example, environment, health, education, tourism, tech-
nology, development, entertainment, etc. and indicate their frequency of some key
words appearing in the corpus such as: climate, pollution, change, trip, destination,
passenger, transport, activity, travel, enjoy, etc..
Task 3: Search for the n-gram with the key words listed in Task 2. Try with n =
2, 3, 4, 5, 6 to find out the combination of these words with other words.
Task 4: Search for the concordances of the listed words in Task 2.
Task 5: Create a parallel corpus of a language pair (English- Vietnamese and
vice versa, French–English, and so forth) on the themes like tourism, education,
environment, laws, technology, science, entertainment.
Task 6: Create a glossary of the chosen language pair with the themes mentioned
in Task 5.
Here are some instructions to complete some tasks above:
1. How to create a corpus?
First, you have to prepare the document (texts extracted from articles, magazines or
books) on the selected topic. Then you have to create an account on Sketch Engine
(Figs. 22, 23, 24 and 25).
2. How to list words mentioned in Task 2?
3. How to search n-gram for the words requested in Task 3?
4. How to search for concordance of the listed words in Task 4?
214 P. T. T. Thao

Fig. 22 Creating an account and signing in Sketch Engine

Fig. 23 Selecting Wordlist to find out all the words listed

Building a Corpus for Teaching and Learning a Second Language … 215

Fig. 24 Searching n-gram for all the words listed in Task 3

Fig. 25 An example of the concordance of the word “education”

7 Conclusion

This chapter overview all the issues relating to the definitions of corpus, various kinds
of corpus, the benefits and challenges of using corpora in teaching and learning a
second language, the methods of designing a monolingual and parallel corpus, and
216 P. T. T. Thao

how to apply corpora in teaching and learning a second language. In fact, building a
corpus is a meticulous process that involves many factors as mentioned in the previous
sections like purpose, size, sampling, representativeness, and balances. However,
corpora are valuable resources for various applications, especially linguistic research,
translation studies, corpus linguistics, and the development of machine translation
models, which are considered the potential language domains in the future.

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Phan Thi Thanh Thao, PhD. is working at Faculty of English, University of Foreign Languages
and International studies, Hue University (HUFLIS), Vietnam as a senior lecturer, who is respon-
sible for giving English language courses (ELT), translation and interpretation modules using
computer-assisted translation (CAT) tool systems and corpus linguistics for undergraduate and
graduate students. Moreover, she has conducted many studies on using digital technologies in
supporting the English teaching and learning in Vietnam. She’s greatly interested in ELT, CALL
and computational linguistics.
Using Corpora in Translation Studies
and Translation Education

Lien-Huong Vo and Thuy-Minh B. Nguyen

Abstract The study of compilation of texts, under the banner of corpus linguistics,
has been used for linguistic analyses of the nature, structure and uses of language for
a long time. It is not only designated as a field of theoretical linguistics, but also as an
emerging methodological approach to language-related research in the present day.
For the sake of a thorough understanding about corpus linguistics and its application
in arrays of language studies, this chapter offers conceptual discussion about using
corpora to explore practical issues pertaining to Translation Studies. The chapter
first offers a brief history of corpus linguistics, including its varied definitions and
theoretical positions, as well as the influences of changes in theoretical perspectives
on its development. The chapter then presents different corpus-based approaches to
Translation Studies and characterizes types of corpora used for research purposes.
It also discusses the strengths and weaknesses of using corpora as data sources and
for data analyses. The chapter ends with recommendations on possible application
of corpus-based approaches to research in Translation Studies.

Keywords Corpus linguistics · Corpus-based analysis · Types of corpora ·

Building corpora · Translation studies

1 Introduction

Corpus linguistics, the study of electronically stored natural language, has come into
existence for decades. The idea of placing corpora containing authentic language data
at the core of linguistic research can be traced back prior to the 1950s [1]. During what
was called “the heyday of the corpus” [2], the corpus-based approach was widely
employed by field linguists and later other structuralist linguists, albeit not explicitly
adopting the term “corpus linguistics.” Thus, there was a misconception in the early
time that using corpora was confined to research in theoretical linguistics. Corpus

L.-H. Vo (B) · T.-M. B. Nguyen

HUFLIS, Hue University, Hue, Vietnam
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 219
H. P. Bui and E. Namaziandost (eds.), Innovations in Technologies for Language
Teaching and Learning, Studies in Computational Intelligence 1159,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-63447-5_12
220 L.-H. Vo and T.-M. B. Nguyen

linguistics, however, posits that the authenticity of texts in a corpus makes the analysis
of language possible and reliable, and thus applicable in a wider range of disciplines.
In the era of technology now, corpus linguistics has made a comeback entailing
an emerging trend of using corpora in Applied Linguistics research, especially in
Translation Studies, with the assistance of computer software.
This chapter, which is about using corpora in Translation Studies, is intended
as conceptual discussion with a view to offering researchers and practitioners a
picture of corpus linguistics and how it should be used. The chapter first presents an
historical overview and theoretical positions of corpus linguistics. It then discusses
the salient features of different corpora types and how they can be deployed in
research in Translation Studies by looking at the advantages and disadvantages of
using corpora. The chapter ends with recommendations on aspects of translation that
can be explored through corpora, accordingly.

2 A Brief History of Corpus Linguistics: From Antipathy

to Popularity

Initially, corpus linguistics studied observed data, which were as simple as collections
of written or transcribed texts and paper-based stored. For this simplicity, although
corpus-based studies had established the empiricism in linguistics by describing the
nature, the structure, as well as the use of language in particular contexts, it was
criticized for its “skewedness” of corpora [1, 3]. The era of corpus linguistics faded
as soon as Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar came to the forefront.
His seminal works, notably “Syntactic Structures” [4] and “Aspects of the Theory
of Syntax” [3], emphasized that language structure is based on innate, underlying
rules that are part of the human mind from birth. The primary focus of linguistic
enquiry, therefore, should be on describing linguistic competence (the speaker’s
unspoken understanding of his language) rather than performance (the actual use of
language in specific contexts). From Chomsky’s point of view, although corpora of
observed language use provide valuable insights, they might not adequately represent
the infinite nature of language, and thus giving only a partial and indirect view of
linguistic competence. This shift in theoretical perspective significantly impacted the
field of linguistics. As a result, corpus-based approaches temporarily fell out of favor
in mainstream research from the late 1950s and into the 1960s [1].
The decades that ensued, however, witnessed a resurgence of general enthusiasm
for corpora in linguistic studies, driven by a dual force. First, major advancements
in computer technology and computational tools played a key role in facilitating the
integration of corpora with computers, thereby enabling large-scale linguistic anal-
ysis. Second, the contributions of pioneers who worked with corpus data throughout
the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s should not be overlooked [1]. In the modern linguistics,
a corpus is defined as a compilation of texts that is characterized as authentic (i.e.,
the texts must be extracted from original sources), machine-readable (i.e., they can
Using Corpora in Translation Studies and Translation Education 221

be manipulated and searched in a computer) and representative (i.e., they are typical
of a language variety) [2, 5, 6].
One remarkable example of the endeavors to create modern corpora is the Brown
Corpus compiled by W. Nelson Francis and Henry Kučera in the early 1960s [7].
As the first computer-readable general corpus of texts developed for research into
modern English, it demonstrates the feasibility of linguistic analysis on a broad scale.
Following such important developments, the number of corpus studies experienced
a significant growth from the 1980s onwards. This was fueled by the increasing
prevalence of corpora, methodologies, and compelling arguments (e.g., [6, 8–10]) in
support of their use in linguistic research [11]. During this period, the application of
corpora progressively expanded across a range of subfields within applied linguistics,
including lexicography, educational linguistics, natural language processing (NLP),
machine translation, computer-aided translation, contrastive analysis, terminology,
forensic linguistics, and critical linguistics, among others [12].

3 Corpus-Based Approaches to Translation Studies

In the dynamic landscape of translation studies, the availability of large corpora of

both original and translated texts, together with changes in theoretical perspectives
on fundamental concepts, laid the groundwork for a move towards corpus-based
approach. One critical factor in this evolution, as pointed out by Baker [13], was
the attempts of several linguists such as [14–18] to depart from traditional prescrip-
tive and introspective methods to descriptive approach in translation studies. As
a theoretical framework, descriptive translation studies (DTS) seek to systemati-
cally observe and analyze translation phenomena without adhering to prescriptive
rules or standards. Thus, the emphasis of DTS is to uncover recurrent features and
behaviors in translated texts within their specific cultural and historical contexts
[17]. It is asserted that such objectives can be complemented by the techniques and
methodology of corpus linguistics [13]. This highlights the urgent need to promote
the development of this approach in translation studies. Expanding on this founda-
tion, Baker suggested parallel, multilingual, and comparable corpora for application
in translation studies and potential research areas that can be conducted with the
assistance of each type [19]. Laviosa, in explaining the rationale behind Baker’s
proposals, attributed the connections between corpus linguistics and DTS mainly to
their shared “descriptive, functional and empirical approach to the study of language
and translation” [20, p. 228]. The interplay between these two frameworks resulted
in the establishment of corpus-based translation studies (CTS), which has grown and
garnered significant contributions and interests since the late 1990s.
Building upon DTS, CTS lays emphasis on identifying translation universals,
i.e. features that potentially differentiate translations from texts originally written in
the source language (SL). These characteristics arise in the translated text not as a
result of interference from specific linguistic systems, but rather due to constraints
intrinsic to the translation process [13]. Another crucial research strand involves the
222 L.-H. Vo and T.-M. B. Nguyen

exploration of translator style, defined as a distinctive way of translating that is iden-

tifiable across multiple translations by the same translator [21]. This distinctive style
not only sets the translator’s work apart from others but also develops a coherent
pattern of choice. In addition, the introduction of computerized corpora has greatly
facilitated investigations into various theoretical issues that have proven challenging
for small-scale studies. These encompass areas such as translation norms and conven-
tions, translation and language change, corpus-based interpreting studies, contrastive
linguistics, and research utilizing translation learner corpora [22].
The corpus-based approach in applied translation studies (ATS), though emerging
slightly later than in the descriptive branch of the discipline, quickly gained
momentum in the late 1990s and gave rise to more empirical and technology-
driven methodologies. Laviosa (2011) described this sub-branch as interdisciplinary
because it integrated elements of contrastive analysis, language for specific purposes
(LSP), foreign language teaching, terminology, lexicography, and computational
linguistics, hence offering practical insights into the translation process [23].

4 Building Corpora for Translation Studies

Since the early days in corpus linguistics, several attempts have been made to clas-
sify corpora into different types relevant to the research questions being addressed.
The categorization schemes for corpora typically revolve around key aspects such
as the domain of focus (e.g., general, specialized), the mode of the text (e.g.,
written, spoken), temporal restriction (e.g., diachronic or synchronic), the number
of languages involved (e.g., monolingual, bilingual, multilingual), and the relation
between texts (e.g., parallel, comparable) [19, 24]. In the context of translation
studies, parallel corpora and comparable corpora are of specific interest to scholars
since these resources enable inquiries into a variety of research areas. The following
discussion will delve into their features and applications in the field.

4.1 Parallel Corpora

One of the most frequently cited definitions of parallel corpora to date belongs to
the linguist Baker. She characterized this type of corpora as a combination of “orig-
inal, source language-texts in language A and their translated versions in language
B” [19, p. 230]. This description was complemented by highlighting the necessity
for alignment between source and target texts at different levels, which is widely
recognized as a defining feature of parallel corpora [1].
Parallel corpora can be further subdivided into many types in accordance with
various criteria. Regarding the number of languages represented, parallel corpora
can be either bilingual or multilingual. While the former comprises two languages
in a translational relationship, the latter encompasses one source language and its
Using Corpora in Translation Studies and Translation Education 223

translated versions in other languages [25]. On the other hand, when the issue of
directionality is considered, parallel corpora can be categorized as unidirectional,
bidirectional or multidirectional. At the most basic level, the unidirectional design
signifies a one-way flow of translation, whereby source texts in language A are
rendered into language B, as in the Norwegian-Spanish corpus of contemporary
written texts (NSPC) [26]. The corpora become bidirectional when this translational
relationship also exists in the opposite direction, with source texts in language B
being translated into language A. The English-Norwegian Parallel Corpus (ENPC)
compiled by Johansson and collaborators in the 1990s is among the earliest and
best-known examples of this type. Extending beyond the aforementioned relation-
ships, multidirectional parallel corpora contain translations across multiple source
and target languages in various directions [27]. A remarkable illustration of this
intricate configuration is the massive parallel corpus of the Bible in 100 languages
constructed by Christos Christodoulopoulos [28].
The versatile nature of parallel corpora, coupled with their empirical value,
makes them highly applicable in translation studies. As highlighted, their typical
aligned structures are particularly useful for research into translation strategies and
methods, translational norms, and the equivalence between languages across different
levels [25]. Moreover, the study of translators’ styles benefits greatly from statistical
measures applied to parallel corpora. For instance, employing the linguistic metric
Type-Token Ratio (TTR) can shed light on aspects such as vocabulary richness and
stylistic preferences. It is also noteworthy to mention contrastive analysis for its exten-
sive usage of parallel corpora. Translators and scholars often engage in contrastive
investigations to systematically compare two or more languages in order to describe
their similarities and differences. In achieving this objective, parallel corpora of
original and translated texts would serve as a useful instrument for identifying and
analyzing cross-linguistic correspondences [29].

4.2 Comparable Corpora

Although the notion of comparable corpora has existed in translation studies and
corpus linguistics for a considerable period, an agreement on its definition has yet
to be reached among research communities. Having said that, there is widespread
consensus on certain key features of comparable corpora. In essence, scholars
commonly acknowledge that the comparability of texts within a comparable corpus
is crucial as it provides a foundation for meaningful comparisons between different
linguistic elements or variations. To achieve this, the corpus of this type is constructed
based on the same sampling frame, that is, pre-established criteria for text selection.
Furthermore, the whole compilation process should ensure corpus representative-
ness as well as a balanced distribution of texts across relevant categories [30]. With
regard to the criteria guiding corpus construction, Hu classified them into extralin-
guistic and intra-linguistic factors [25]. The former refers to non-linguistic aspects
external to the corpus such as the publication timeframe, the effect of the texts,
224 L.-H. Vo and T.-M. B. Nguyen

the author and translator’s social status, gender and impact. On the other hand, the
latter is concerned with the internal characteristics of the corpus itself, including
the corpus size, subject matter, text genres, translation direction and mode. Another
quality worth mentioning is the distinctiveness of texts within the same comparable
corpus. In contrast to translations in parallel corpora, these texts are not involved in
any translation relationships.
A common approach to categorizing comparable corpora is by examining the
number of languages represented in the texts. A comparable corpus is termed
monolingual when it consists of texts exclusively in one language. These texts are
gathered from two separate sources, with one subset including original texts in a
target language and the other including translations into that language from source
languages [19]. Without the interference of translation effects, the chosen subsets
must share certain characteristics mentioned earlier to ensure comparability. The
Translational English Corpus (TEC), established and currently managed by Baker
at the Centre for Translation and Intercultural Studies, is the first corpus of this type
[31]. It consists of written texts translated into English from a variety of European
and non-European source languages. While following similar principles of corpus
construction with monolingual comparable corpora, bilingual and multilingual coun-
terparts do not include translated texts. Instead, they contain texts that are indepen-
dently generated in two or more languages. The establishment of comparability in
these corpora, therefore, stems from the shared characteristics of the texts, such as
subject matter, genre, and time span.
The driving force behind the construction of monolingual comparable corpora
is closely tied to theoretical considerations [32]. When Baker first proposed devel-
oping corpora of this type, she highlighted several research investigations that could
be undertaken with their assistance [13]. The central focus among these inquiries
is to “capture patterns which are either restricted to translated texts or which occur
with a significantly higher or lower frequency in translated text than they do in
originals” [19, p. 235]. In other words, the availability of both translated and non-
translated texts in one language within a comparable corpus serves as a baseline
for valuable comparisons. By analyzing these distinct sub-corpora, researchers can
pinpoint specific features and patterns that are potentially inherent in the transla-
tion process. Additionally, monolingual comparable corpora can be instrumental in
examining various factors that influence translation, such as translators’ preferences
and styles, target audience, and cultural and societal norms. As opposed to monolin-
gual comparable corpora, their bilingual and multilingual counterparts are designed
and implemented to accommodate practical requirements. One of their most preva-
lent applications is in the training of translation trainees and practitioners, especially
those who work in specific domains like legal, medical, or technical fields. The
investigation into multiple facets in original languages allows these stakeholders to
deliver more natural and standard translated versions [33]. These corpora have also
proven useful in the extraction of terminology. Through the analysis of different
texts in the same domain across different languages, scholars can identify special-
ized vocabulary that are consistently used. This process, in turn, facilitates a uniform
and standardized collection of terminology.
Using Corpora in Translation Studies and Translation Education 225

5 Pros and Cons of Using Corpora in Translation Studies

5.1 Strengths of Using Corpora in Translation Studies

The infusion of corpora into translation studies has profoundly contributed to

reshaping the field. Besides marking a substantial transition from prescriptive to
descriptive approach, this powerful tool has also introduced a novel perspective in
research methodology and therefore unveiled a variety of potentials within translation
studies [25].
The main reason behind corpora’s revolutionary impact lies in its ability to provide
an extensive and authentic collection of translated texts or bilingual texts [34]. This
enables the execution of more rigorous and thorough empirical analyses in translation
studies. Such an innovative approach has provided scholars with valuable insights
into multiple facets of the translation process and products [25]. A case in point is the
crucial contribution of corpora in the research into translation universals, for example,
[35–37], among others. By examining large data sets, researchers can identify recur-
rent features that are typical of translated texts across various linguistic, cultural,
and temporal contexts. Significantly, this method ensures potentially well-founded
findings since they are derived from empirical evidence.
The strength of corpora is further underscored by its quantitative methodology,
which was referred to as “the systematic investigation of an object or a phenomenon
via statistical, mathematical, or numerical data or computational techniques” [25,
p. 224]. Within the scope of translation studies, this approach allows researchers to
methodically and scientifically explore translation phenomena with the assistance of
corpus linguistics tools [25]. As the size of corpora and the number of users continue
to grow, these potent tools have gradually evolved into multifunctional instruments
with a range of features such as concordance analysis, frequency counts, collocation
analysis, and more [38]. For instance, in the analysis of shifts in an English translation
of a Spanish novel, Munday adopted the basic word statistics (type-token ratio and
frequency lists) and the KWIC (keyword in context) concordance using Wordsmith
program [39]. These analytical tools facilitated the extraction of quantitative infor-
mation, and thus contributed to fulfilling the research objectives. Such an arduous
task, as asserted by [39], could not be easily accomplished through manual analysis
alone.
By employing empirical analysis on large-scale data and utilizing quantitative
tools, the corpus-based approach has significantly enhanced the objectivity of trans-
lation research. According to Jantunen, individuals engaged in translations, such as
researchers, publishers and general readers, often have an intuitive sense of what
translations are and should be like [40]. Consequently, their interpretations of trans-
lation phenomena are likely to be affected by personal perspectives or biases. This
inherent subjectivity can direct the analyses to certain viewpoints, thereby hindering
the validity and reliability of the findings. Corpus-based methodology can be useful
in such situations as it grants access to objective information about the true nature
of translations and translated language.
226 L.-H. Vo and T.-M. B. Nguyen

In addition to its major methodological contributions to translation studies, the

corpus-based approach has progressively opened up a vast array of research possibil-
ities in the field over the past decades. Beginning with fundamental lines of inquiry
such as translation universals, translation norms and conventions, and translator style,
corpora have made it possible to explore emerging domains like translation practice
and translator training, audiovisual translation and machine translation evaluation,
to name a few. The utilization of this tool has not only expanded the existing body
of literature but also paved the way for investigating previously uncharted topics
in translation studies. This, in turn, has promoted a more holistic understanding of
translation phenomena.

5.2 Limitations of Using Corpora in Translation Studies

The emergence of corpus resources and tools in translation studies has indeed brought
about significant advancements, offering remedies to deep-rooted issues found in
traditional approaches. Having said that, there still exist certain methodological and
technical limitations intrinsic to CTS that need to be acknowledged and resolved.
One of the biggest constraints of corpus-based methodology lies in the repre-
sentativeness of translated or bilingual texts within the corpus. A collection of
observed language use is characterized as representative when “the findings based
on its contents can be generalized to a larger hypothetical corpus” [41, p. 27]. This
quality has obtained general consensus among researchers as significantly influ-
encing the usefulness of a corpus in linguistic studies (e.g., [13, 25, 42]). Simultane-
ously, several techniques and procedures for corpus compilation have been proposed
with the goal of maximizing representativeness. Nevertheless, to achieve such a status
is still largely perceived as “an act of faith” [41, p. 27], and it remains an ideal to
strive for rather than to fully accomplish [34]. Within the field of translation studies,
this task is further complicated due to the diverse nature of translation activities. For
instance, a crucial aspect of constructing a “representative” translational corpus is
to establish clear boundaries for its target population. This process, however, can
be demanding as it requires considering several factors such as translation modes,
text types, range of source languages, language direction (into the mother tongue
or into a foreign language), and the expertise of the translators [40]. Another chal-
lenge that scholars have long grappled with is sampling, which involves making
decisions about the composition of the corpus to ensure that it accurately reflects
the linguistic features of the entire population. Still, as noted by Hu, no matter how
different sampling techniques are applied, the chosen texts can only represent the
target domain to a certain extent [25]. Additionally, most sampling methods, such as
convenience sampling or purposive sampling, are still susceptible to some degree of
subjectivity and thus can lead to the underrepresentation of translational corpora. This
might subsequently compromise the reliability of the findings to wider translation
contexts. The last methodological concern in CTS stems from its heavy emphasis on
quantitative analyses, which potentially results in a one-sided approach to studying
Using Corpora in Translation Studies and Translation Education 227

translation processes and phenomena. Although quantitative methodology undeni-

ably provides a wealth of data, it cannot instantly disclose implications and connota-
tions behind such data [25]. Therefore, researchers should strike a balance between
quantitative findings and qualitative interpretations to fully capture the intricate and
context-dependent nature of translation such as cultural nuances, pragmatic choices,
and individual translator styles.
On the technical front, constraints attached to CTS mostly revolve around the
issues of resources. The compilation of a corpus is described as both “time-
consuming” and “labor intensive” since it involves various stages [25, p. 226], each of
which demands precision and great attention to detail. As an example, constructing
parallel corpora, which entails aligning source and target texts at the sentence or
phrase level, requires rather substantial efforts. Even with relevant software at hand,
this work can only be completed semi-automatically as manual editing and proof-
reading are still required to ensure statistical accuracy [43]. Moreover, with different
research objectives and scopes, researchers may find themselves undertaking a range
of tasks that demand advanced computational capabilities. According to Vidler et al.,
it is almost unattainable to conduct core operations like corpus indexing, computing
n-grams, and building collocations on current desktop computers within a reason-
able timeframe, not to mention other technical problems with corpora and software
updates [44].

6 Exploring Aspects of Translation Through Corpora

Since its integration into translation studies, the corpus-based approach has signifi-
cantly contributed to both theoretical insights and practical applications in the field.
Accordingly, CTS itself is no longer viewed as a mere translation theory but rather
an independent discipline within the broader scope of translation studies [25].

6.1 Descriptive Translation Studies

Initially incorporated into descriptive translation studies, corpora have opened up

new avenues for researchers by providing extensive data sets and robust method-
ologies for systematically analyzing different aspects of translation. One translation
phenomenon that has generated widespread scholarly interest within this framework
is translation universals. Toury characterized these features as transfer operations
and shifts that emerge as a result of translators’ interventions [45]. They are dictated
by certain norms that express prevalent and standard practices based on informal
social consensus. Although this notion had long been acknowledged, the endeavors
to elucidate such qualities of the translated texts were largely unsystematic or insuf-
ficient. It was not until Baker proposed the hypothesis of universal features in trans-
lation as well as the accompanying corpus techniques [13], that investigations into
228 L.-H. Vo and T.-M. B. Nguyen

them truly flourished. Since then, researchers have examined corpora across various
language pairs, genres, and domains to explore whether or not universals such as
explicitation, implicitation, simplification, and normalization, operate consistently in
varied contexts (e.g., [35, 37, 46–49]). To illustrate, Nguyen adopted a corpus-based
approach in combination with qualitative analysis to investigate explicitating shifts
arising from the translation of English nominals into Vietnamese [50]. With the assis-
tance of advanced search capacities of the Sketch Engine corpus tool, the researcher
was able to locate all instances of English nominals in the corpus. She then quanti-
fied the occurrences of each identified nominalization type by means of frequency
counts, enabling a more in-depth description of this linguistic pattern. Furthermore,
integrating corpus excerpts in KWIC format, along with aligned bi-texts displayed
in parallel windows, allowed the researcher to examine the surrounding linguistic
context of explicated nominals while drawing connections between source and target
language expressions. Another area of interest that has been significantly enhanced by
the corpus-based approach involves investigating translator’s style. Huang and Chu
identified two commonly used models for this inquiry: the monolingual comparable
corpus and the parallel model [51]. The former model, referred to as a ‘target text-
exclusive approach’ [52], concentrates on examining textual features solely within
the translations (e.g., [21, 46, 53, 54]). On the other hand, as pointed out by Meng
and Pan [52], corpus-based studies that employ the latter option seek to compare two
or more target texts of the same source text first and then proceed to compare them
with the source text itself (e.g., [55–57]). In addition to this, in line with Baker’s
prediction [13], corpora have made considerable contributions to the exploration of
translation norms (e.g., [49, 58, 59]), an important subject in empirical descriptive
studies. The use of corpus-based approach has also stimulated prolific investigations
into multiple research strands such as contrastive analysis (e.g., [60, 61]), stylistic
variation (e.g., [21, 62, 63]), translation’s impact on language change (e.g., [64, 65]).

6.2 Applied Translation Studies

With regard to applied translation studies, corpora have brought about remarkable
transformations in research, teaching, and practice across diverse linguistic domains.
This paradigm shift is particularly evident in translator training and translator educa-
tion [66]. Studies within this specific interest go beyond theoretical discussions,
aiming to improve comprehension of language patterns, encourage evidence-based
learning, enhance teaching methods, and contribute to the development of more
effective translation skills (e.g., [34, 67–69]). What is more, the use of corpora in
translation studies for translation quality assessment has become an increasingly
valuable approach. As corpora supply a rich source of linguistic data, several inves-
tigations have leveraged them to analyze translation quality in a more systematic and
objective manner (e.g., [70, 71]). Furthermore, corpora have been widely utilized in
Language for Specific Purposes (LSP) to examine language within specific profes-
sional, academic, or technical fields [72, 73]. Numerous works belonging to this
Using Corpora in Translation Studies and Translation Education 229

topic highlight the pivotal role of corpora in unraveling nuanced language use in
different professional and academic contexts (e.g., [74, 75]). It is also essential to
highlight that corpora serve as a foundational tool in translation studies into termi-
nology, lexicography (e.g., [76, 77]), and computational linguistics (e.g., [78, 79])
among various other applications.

7 Conclusion

This chapter addresses the fundamentals of corpus linguistics and the application of
corpora in Translation Studies. It comprises a historical overview of corpus linguistics
and the definition of a corpus in linguistics through time. In this chapter, types of
corpora are presented with discussion about their characteristics and awareness of
the pros and cons of using corpora in research in Translation Studies was raised
for researchers and practitioners. However, within the scope and purpose of the
present chapter, there is no description of step-by-step corpus building [80]. The
chapter closes with recommendations for approaches relevant to issues in research
in Translation Studies.

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Using Corpora in Translation Studies and Translation Education 233

Lien-Huong Vo (Ph.D. in Linguistics) is a senior lecturer of Linguistics and Translation Studies

at the University of Foreign Languages and International Studies (HUFLIS), Hue University,
Vietnam. Her research expertise pertains to Theoretical Linguistics, Educational Linguistics, and
Translation Studies.

Thuy-Minh B. Nguyen (M.A. in English Studies) is a lecturer of Translation Studies at the

University of Foreign Languages and International Studies (HUFLIS), Hue University, Vietnam.
Her research interests include the translation of culture-specific terms, using corpora in Translation
Studies and machine translation.
Technological Advancements and L2
Motivational Self System

Viet Quoc Hoang

Abstract This chapter provides a view of the intersection between technological

advancements and the second language (L2) motivational self system in second
language acquisition (SLA). It first reviews aspects of the L2 motivational self system,
with three main components: (1) the ideal L2 self, (2) the ought-to L2 self, and (3) the
L2 learning experience. Then, the characteristics of technology-enhanced language
learning are examined to support an argument that the use of technology in SLA
presents a transformative paradigm, fostering personalized, inclusive, and engaging
learning environments for the generation of learning motivation. It emphasizes the
need for the alignment between technological tools and the L2 motivational self
system for effective language education. To conclude, avenues for future research,
particularly focusing on the nuanced relationship between emerging technologies
and motivational aspects in language learning, are outlined to give implications for
language teaching and learning.

Keywords CALL · Digital era · L2 motivational self system · Language

education · SLA · Technological advancements

1 Introduction

Second language acquisition (SLA) has long captivated scholars [1, 2]. This long-
standing interest stems from the increasingly interconnected nature of our global
society (e.g., global cooperation and economic globalisation), where the compe-
tence to communicate in multiple languages transforms from a valuable skill into a
critical necessity [3]. However, this is not a trivial issue as the journey for learners to
acquire a second language (L2) is influenced by a myriad of factors, from individual
learner characteristics to the broader sociocultural context in which the learning
process occurs [4, 5]. One of the key factors of this “seeking Buddhist scriptures

V. Q. Hoang (B)
University of Economics Ho Chi Minh City (UEH University), Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 235
H. P. Bui and E. Namaziandost (eds.), Innovations in Technologies for Language
Teaching and Learning, Studies in Computational Intelligence 1159,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-63447-5_13
236 V. Q. Hoang

journey” (a long, challenging journey regarding the famous Journey to the West) is
the adventurers’ motivation, which keeps them going over the long term. This aspect
of the learning journey is also the heart of the L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS)
concept, which was introduced by Zoltán Dörnyei in 2003 [6]. This theoretical
framework has contributed to comprehending learning motivation [7–9].
While understanding learners’ motivation through the L2MSS is crucial, it’s
equally important to consider how recent technological advancements have revo-
lutionized how these motivational strategies are implemented in language learning
[10, 11]. The rise of technology in language learning has reshaped not only the
methodologies and resources available but also the very nature of how, where, and
when language learning can take place [12]. From mobile apps, visual aids, and
online courses to virtual reality (VR) environments, technology has expanded the
boundaries of language education [13–15]. This makes it more accessible, interac-
tive, and tailored to individual needs [16]. Technology has also opened new avenues
for applying the L2MSS, which provides fresh insights into how technological tools
can enhance the motivational aspects of language learning [13].
This chapter delves into the dynamic relationship between technology and the
L2MSS. Specifically, it shows how these developments impact both the theoret-
ical understanding and practical applications of SLA. The chapter also provides the
implications for English teaching and learning within the digital context of globalized
language learning.

2 L2 Motivational Self System and Technological

Advancements in Second Language Acquisition

2.1 The L2 Motivational Self System

The L2MSS, conceptualized by Zoltán Dörnyei in 2003 [6], represents a significant

shift in understanding the motivation behind SLA. Moving beyond traditional views
that often emphasise external factors, Dörnyei’s framework integrates the role of
the learner’s self-concept and future self-guides [17]. This approach is rooted in
the psychological theory of possible selves [18], which posits that individuals are
motivated by their visions of their future selves. The system comprises three key
components: the ideal L2 self , the ought-to L2 self , and the L2 learning experience.
The Ideal L2 Self : This component is predicated on the learners’ vision of them-
selves as competent speakers of the L2. It is a powerful motivator, encompassing
personal aspirations, desires, and the perceived joy of achieving language proficiency
[2, 19]. The ideal L2 self drives learners to bridge the gap between their current and
desired states of language competence [17].
The Ought-to L2 Self : This aspect reflects the attributes and behaviours denoting
learners believe they should possess, often influenced by external expectations and
societal norms [20]. It includes the sense of duty, obligation, and the avoidance of
Technological Advancements and L2 Motivational Self System 237

negative outcomes [8]. While it can be a significant motivator, its external orientation
means it might not always align with the learner’s internal desires and interests [21].
The L2 Learning Experience: This component addresses the immediate learning
environment and situation. It includes the quality of the educational experience, the
impact of teachers, the curriculum, peer dynamics, and the overall atmosphere of the
learning setting [17, 22]. Positive experiences in this domain can greatly enhance
motivation, making the process of language learning more enjoyable and effective
[23].
In general, the L2MSS offers a comprehensive perspective on SLA motivation.
Dörnyei’s model synthesizes psychological insights and educational contexts, under-
scoring the complex interplay between a learner’s self-concept, future aspirations,
and the learning environment (the ideal L2 self, the ought-to L2 self, and the L2
learning experience). Contemporary studies [2, 8, 14, 19] have also implied the
multifaceted impact of the L2MSS on learners’ language acquisition, highlighting
the importance of self-motivation, teacher support, and technology in optimizing
language learning outcomes.

2.2 Technological Advancements in Language Learning

The pattern of language learning has been significantly reshaped by technological

advancements [11, 24]. It is considered a new trend that has accelerated notably in the
past decade [25]. Innovations in digital technology have introduced new dimensions
to language education [26, 27], which “breaks way” from traditional, classroom-
based methods. According to [28], mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) has
emerged as a dominant trend, allowing learners to engage with language content
anytime and anywhere. Similarly, Godwin-Jones [12] emphasizes the growing role
of artificial intelligence (AI) in providing personalized learning experiences. Put
simply, for instance, individual learners have adaptive learning systems tailored to
their needs and proficiency levels.
It can be seen that a variety of technology-enhanced environments have emerged.
Each of them offers unique benefits. To demonstrate, mobile language learning apps
like Duolingo and Babbel exemplify the use of gamification and AI to create person-
alized, engaging learning experiences [29]. These apps often incorporate speech
recognition technology to aid pronunciation practice, a feature highlighted by Carrier
[30]. Another example is virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) technolo-
gies create immersive language learning environments. Accordingly, VR simula-
tions allow learners to practice language skills in a simulated real-world setting,
enhancing the practicality of learning [31]. Besides, online language learning plat-
forms like Rosetta Stone and Coursera offer comprehensive courses, often led by
native speakers. These platforms facilitate not only language learning but also cultural
immersion [32].
Technology has significantly democratized language learning, which improves its
accessibility. As highlighted by Warschauer and Healey [33], technology in language
238 V. Q. Hoang

education has the potential to bridge socio-economic gaps by providing low-cost or

free resources. Similarly, Demouy et al. [34] investigate how mobile apps can aid in
SLA. The study found that mobile learning environments provide flexible, personal-
ized learning experiences that can be particularly beneficial for adult learners. This
accessibility is essential in under-resourced areas or for individuals who may not
have access to traditional forms of education.
Furthermore, technology facilitates a more diverse and inclusive learning envi-
ronment. As noted by Warschauer [35], online platforms can cater to a wide range
of learning styles and needs, including those of learners with disabilities, through
adaptive technologies. Son [15] also examines the role of various technologies,
which include social media and gaming, in English language teaching and learning.
This study shows that these tools can significantly increase motivation and engage-
ment among learners, particularly younger generations. The global nature of the
internet also means that learners can access a vast array of language resources
from different parts of the world. Therefore, it can promote a more diverse and
comprehensive understanding of languages and cultures [36].
Overall, technological advancements have transformed the methodologies and
tools available for language learning and made language education more accessible,
personalized, and inclusive. This shift towards technology-enhanced learning envi-
ronments aligns with contemporary educational needs, which offers a pathway to
more equitable and effective language learning experiences.

2.3 Alignment of Technology with L2 Motivational Self

System

The alignment of technology with L2MSS has received a growing body of research.
This research line primarily examines the effects of technological advancements on
the system. The findings indicate that visual aids (e.g., videos, 2/3D animations, VR),
ePortfolios, informal/formal digital learning, language massive open online courses,
and CALL tools impacted the three core components, such as the ideal L2 self, the
ought-to L2 self, the L2 learning experience.
It is well documented that technology, particularly, visual aids, significantly
contributes to shaping the ideal L2 self. To illustrate, Adolphs and associates [37]
delved into the role of digital representations (e.g., video clips, multi-dimensional
animations, facial technology) in boosting motivation for L2 learning. Focusing on
nine Chinese postgraduate students in the UK, the study explored the creation of
digital representations of learners’ ideal L2 self through a three-stage interview
process. The first stage involved discussing the ideal L2 self and language goals,
utilizing a language goals tree to detail professional and social objectives. In the
second stage, participants viewed video clips reflecting these goals to assess their
alignment with their ideal L2 self. The third stage presented digital representations
using three approaches: 2D and 3D animations, facial overlay, and facial mask.
Technological Advancements and L2 Motivational Self System 239

The feedback indicated a preference for 3D animations for their realism, while the
other two approaches faced challenges in identity representation and naturalness.
The participants expressed a range of language goals, from academic proficiency
to fluency in everyday interactions, focusing on achieving fluency, naturalness, and
an unaccented speech akin to native English speakers. The study underscored the
potential of technology in enhancing L2 learning motivation, highlighting the effec-
tiveness and limitations of current digital methods in representing learners’ ideal L2
self.
Concerning impacts on the ought-to L2 self, contemporary literature acknowl-
edges the ePortfolios and informal/formal digital learning of English. For instance,
Mujico and Lasagabaster [38] investigated the impact of ePortfolios and L2 possible
selves in a higher education English for Academic Purposes (EAP) context. It
employed a mixed-methods approach, including questionnaires and focus group
interviews, to explore the effects of L2 possible self-imagery strategies and ePortfo-
lios on L2 motivation, self-regulation, and language learning outcomes. The partici-
pants were 205 undergraduate students enrolled in an EAP course at a British univer-
sity, predominantly aged 20–25 and of Chinese nationality. The study design included
a control group and an experimental group, with the latter engaging with ePortfolios.
Data collection involved a pre-test and post-test method, with the intervention lasting
six weeks during the summer EAP programme. Quantitative data were gathered
through a questionnaire measuring learner motivation and self-regulation, while L2
acquisition gains were assessed through EAP summative course assessments. Qual-
itative data were collected from focus group interviews, which included 30 students
reflecting on their experiences with the intervention. The data were analyzed in three
ways: examining the overall effects of the intervention, analyzing quantitative data
concerning the degree of ePortfolio implementation, and incorporating qualitative
data to provide deeper insights into the participants’ perceptions of the intervention.
The findings revealed that the majority of the participants who fully engaged with
the ePortfolios (the ePortfolio complete group) showed greater optimism about the
motivational and ePortfolio benefits of the intervention and less aversion to self-
regulation and the use of digital technologies. This implied that ePortfolios have an
impact on both the ideal L2 self and the ought-to L2 self. Similarly, Lee and Lee [39]
also examined the relationship between informal digital learning of English (IDLE),
the L2MSS (comprising the ideal L2 self and the ought-to L2 self), and foreign
language enjoyment (FLE). This interdisciplinary research encompassed areas such
as computer-assisted language learning, SLA, and positive psychology. The study
involved a purposive sampling of 661 EFL learners in South Korea, including middle
school, high school, and university students. The research utilized a cross-sectional
design, gathering data through a comprehensive questionnaire that included sections
on the L2MSS, IDLE practice, FLE, and demographic information. The data collec-
tion and analysis were conducted during the 2018–19 academic year, with partici-
pants completing an online questionnaire in computer labs or classrooms. The IBM
SPSS 25 program was used for data analysis, involving descriptive analysis, Pearson’s
correlation analysis, and hierarchical regression analyses. The results showed that
both IDLE and the ideal L2 self significantly predicted FLE across all groups, while
240 V. Q. Hoang

the ought-to L2 self only predicted middle school students’ FLE. These findings indi-
cate that students’ engagement in digital activities outside the classroom and their
motivational mindset significantly influence their emotions in learning a foreign
language. The study highlighted that fostering students’ ideal L2 self-images and
supporting their language learning in digital settings can enhance their enjoyment of
learning a second language. For middle school students, particularly in test-oriented
Asian contexts, setting higher L2 learning expectations may further enhance their
learning enjoyment.
To explore the influence of the educational potential of CALL tools (e.g., VR
game-based English mobile learning application) on the L2 learning experience,
the study conducted by Chen and Hsu [13] focused on assessing the effectiveness
of student English learning, game engagement, and self-regulated learning (SRL)
from cognitive and psychological perspectives. A total of 274 students from the
Taiwanese University of Science and Technology, aged 18 to 20, participated in
the study. The research employed a quasi-experimental design and used pre-tests
and post-tests to measure students’ learning effectiveness in vocabulary, listening,
and reading comprehension. The study’s instruments included a survey question-
naire based on Brockmyer et al.’s (2009) game engagement questionnaire (GEQ)
and Pintrich and Groot’s (1990) motivated strategies for learning questionnaire
(MSLQ). The research lasted two months, during which students used the VR mobile
learning app and completed a post-intervention questionnaire. Data analysis revealed
that both game engagement and game experience were significantly influenced by
self-efficacy, intrinsic value, and test anxiety. Additionally, immersion, flow, and
presence enhanced self-efficacy, while absorption and immersion enhanced self-
regulation. The study concluded that student performance improved significantly
in the VR game-based mobile learning environment. Furthermore, the VR applica-
tion’s interaction features and the game-based design challenges facilitated students’
entry into a state of flow and enhanced their motivation to learn. Rad and Alipour
[14] aimed to assess if vision-inspired instruction could enhance the ideal L2 self,
ought-to L2 self, and L2 learning experience and to explore the indirect effects of
these changes on students’ writing skills. The study focused on the role of moti-
vation in acquiring L2 writing skills within a CALL context. Participants included
51 upper-intermediate L2 students in a quasi-experimental setting, utilizing CALL
tools for teaching writing skills over eight weeks. Research methods involved pretest
and posttest writing tasks and questionnaires measuring students’ motivation. The
study adopted a quasi-experimental design with two intact upper-intermediate-level
EFL classes, integrating vision-inspired instruction into the existing curriculum. The
results indicated significant improvements in the ideal L2 self and L2 learning expe-
rience for the experimental group exposed to vision-inspired instruction compared to
the control group. However, the ought-to L2 self increased significantly in the control
group. The study also found that vision-inspired L2MSS instruction resulted in higher
writing gains. The findings highlight the importance of incorporating vision-inspired
instruction in L2 learning, demonstrating its positive impact on students’ L2MSS and
writing achievement. The study contributes to the CALL and L2 writing literature by
showing the effectiveness of L2MSS in enhancing students’ motivation and writing
Technological Advancements and L2 Motivational Self System 241

skills in a technology-enhanced learning environment. In addition, [40] focused on

L2MSS and technology acceptance of EFL learners through language massive open
online courses (LMOOCs). The research involved 336 Iranian EFL learners from
17 language institutes and seven schools participating in three LMOOC platforms.
The study spanned from the summer semester of 2018 to the spring semester of
2021. The research utilized a three-part questionnaire: demographic data, a seven-
point Likert scale for assessing the technology acceptance model within the Iranian
EFL and LMOOC context, and indicators related to learners’ L2 selves. The instru-
ments were questionnaires for evaluating the authenticity gap among other constructs.
Data analysis was conducted using SPSS and partial least square structural equation
modelling. Results indicated that learners with positive future images of language
learning (aligning with the ideal L2 self) and intrinsic interests in the target English
culture were more likely to engage in LMOOCs. LMOOCs were found to be useful
and comfortable systems that enabled learners to fulfill obligations and meet others’
expectations (aligning with the ought-to L2 self). A significant authenticity gap
was found, showing learners’ preference for unstructured language contexts over
structured ones.
Generally, contemporary literature has shown a positive correlation between tech-
nological advancements and L2MSS. Such digital tools as visual aids, IDLE, VR-
based learning, LMOOCs, and CALL tools/apps contribute to shaping the motiva-
tional system, particularly its components. Also, it is evident that the ideal L2 self
aligns more with technological advancements than the other two components, the
ought-to L2 self and the L2 learning experience.

3 Implications for Language Education

The literature has emphasized the importance of L2MSS in language learning [13,
41]. The concept of the ideal L2 self plays a critical role in influencing students’
motivation and attitudes towards language learning. Educators can leverage this by
encouraging students to envision their future selves as proficient language users,
thus enhancing their intrinsic motivation and commitment to learning. However,
it is unfair if we neglect the ought-to L2 self and L2 learning experience. Recent
studies, even though there are a few, partly indicate their impacts on SLA. Teachers
can consider employing strategies to enhance L2 learners’ obligation and learning
experience (e.g., with the assistance of technology) to achieve greater efficiency.
Language educators can adopt some potential approaches concerning the align-
ment of L2MSS with technology. First, they can provide learners with a personal-
ized learning path. The integration of technology with the L2MSS opens avenues
for educators and curriculum designers to create highly personalized learning paths
[12, 28, 42]. These paths can be tailored to align with learners’ ideal L2 self. There-
fore, this greatly fosters motivation and engagement [16]. By utilizing digital tools
like adaptive learning systems and AI-driven content, educators can design courses
that reflect individual learner’s aspirations and language proficiency goals [13, 30].
242 V. Q. Hoang

Personalization not only makes the learning experience more relevant to each learner
but also boosts a deeper connection between the learner and their target language [14].
This enhances the likelihood of sustained motivation and effective learning. Second,
educators can incorporate technological literacy into increasing the ought-to L2 self.
As technology becomes more integral to language learning, the ought-to L2 self might
be inevitably influenced. This aspect necessitates the incorporation of technological
literacy into language learning curricula [3, 33, 35]. By doing so, educators can help
learners navigate the digital aspects of language acquisition more effectively. This
incorporation involves teaching learners how to effectively use language learning
apps, online resources, and digital communication tools, now essential components
of language learning. If learners are equipped with these skills, educators can ensure
that the technology used in language learning supports learners’ goals and aligns
with external expectations and societal norms related to language proficiency [42,
43]. Last but not least, educators should also create engaging learning environments
with technological mediums. The use of diverse technological tools has the potential
to transform traditional language learning environments into spaces that are more
engaging, interactive, and effective [31, 32, 39]. For example, including VR and
AR in language learning can create immersive experiences that simulate real-world
language use, making learning more exciting and practical. Additionally, online
platforms and mobile apps introduce elements of gamification and social interaction,
which can increase learner engagement and motivation [13, 31]. These engaging envi-
ronments cater to various learning styles and needs [40], making language learning
more inclusive and effective [28, 29].

4 Conclusion

In conclusion, the intersection of technological advancements and the L2MSS in

SLA presents a transformative paradigm for language education. The integration
of technology reshapes learning environments, making them more personalized,
inclusive, and engaging. Studies also highlight the dynamic impact of technology on
three components of L2MSS, namely the ideal L2 self, the ought-to L2 self, and the
L2 learning experience, emphasizing the need for intentional alignment.
Future research may delve deeper into the nuanced relationship between tech-
nology and the L2MSS, which explores how emerging technologies (e.g., AI, AR, and
immersive simulations) further influence motivational aspects in language learning.
These studies may concentrate on the alignments of the ought-to L2 self and L2
learning experience with technological enhancements, which gained less researchers’
attention than the ideal L2 self. Understanding how technology can optimize the
L2MSS will contribute valuable insights to the ongoing evolution of effective and
motivating language education in a rapidly advancing digital era.
Technological Advancements and L2 Motivational Self System 243

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Viet Quoc Hoang specializes in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages and currently
serves as a lecturer at the University of Economics Ho Chi Minh City. He has been teaching
English for over seven years. His research interests mainly focus on communicative language
teaching, second language learning motivation, and willingness to communicate.