CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY FOR SUBSTRUCTURE &

SUPERSTRUCTURES (21CV72)
MODULE:4
Prepared by, Prof. ESHWARAJ, Department of Civil Engineering, Sai Vidya Institute
of Technology, Bengaluru

Pile Construction: Piling – Single pile and a group piles (Bored and Driven) bored piles, working
loads and ultimate loads on driven and cast- in-situ piles, Piles in land and marine structures.
Construction details of precast piles, pre stressed piles, steel piles and friction piles. Pile Capacity -
Load test on piles initial and routine for vertical, horizontal, uplift loads and integrity test, failure of
piles and causes, Methods of pile driving by Vibration and Construction of micro piles, Diaphragm
Walls.

Pile Construction:
Pile construction is a method used in foundation engineering to transfer the load of a structure to
deeper, more stable soil or rock layers beneath the surface. Piles are long, slender columns that are
driven or bored into the ground, and they can be used individually (single pile) or in groups (group
piles) to support structures.
There are two common types of piles:
1. Single Pile
2. Driven pile
3. Group piles
4. Bored pile

1. Single Pile
A single pile refers to an individual column-like structural element driven or bored deep into
the ground to support a structure. Single piles are typically used when the load requirements
of a structure are concentrated in a small area.

• Single Pile Design: The design of a single pile depends on several factors, including the type
of soil, the diameter of the pile, the depth to reach stable soil layers, and the applied loads
(compression or tension).
• Materials: Single piles can be made of reinforced concrete, steel, or timber, though concrete
is most common for its strength and durability.

2. Driven pile:
Driven piles are long, slender columns made from materials like steel, concrete, or timber
that are driven into the ground using a pile driver. Driven piles are used in soil conditions
where there is enough stability to allow for the pile to be hammered into the ground.
Construction Method: The process of installing driven piles involves:
❖ Pile Driving: The pile is positioned at the site and driven into the ground using a pile driver
(usually a large machine that strikes the top of the pile with a heavy weight or hammer).
❖ Penetration: The pile is driven until it reaches a layer of soil or rock that can bear the
required load.
❖ Pile Cap: Once the piles are in place, a pile cap (a reinforced concrete platform) is
constructed at the top of the piles to transfer the load from the structure to the piles.

Types of Driven Piles:

1. Timber Piles: Usually used in softer soils or smaller structures.
2. Concrete Piles: Reinforced concrete piles are used for larger loads and deeper depths.
3. Steel H-Piles: Steel piles are used for heavy loads and in deep foundations.

Applications: Driven piles are commonly used for:

• Marine foundations, such as docks and piers.
• High-rise buildings, bridges, or heavy structures requiring deep foundations.
• Infrastructure projects, like highways or railways.

Advantages:
• Faster installation compared to bored piles.
• Suitable for a wide range of soil conditions, especially soft or loose soils.
• Provides immediate load-bearing capacity.

Disadvantages:
• Significant noise and vibration during installation, which can be problematic in urban areas or
near sensitive structures.
• Limited to certain soil conditions (driven piles may not work well in very dense or rocky
soils).
• May cause soil disturbance, which can affect neighbouring structures.

4. Group Piles
 A group of piles consists of multiple piles installed in close proximity to each other to support
a single structure. The piles in a group share the load, and the group as a whole provides
enhanced stability and support compared to a single pile.

• Pile Spacing: Piles in a group are typically spaced between 2 and 3 times their diameter, but
this can vary based on the soil conditions and load requirements.
• Load Distribution: Loads are distributed across the piles, and the behavior of the group is
more complex than a single pile. The interaction between the piles in a group must be
accounted for in the design to ensure proper load sharing and prevent excessive settlement.

Types of Group Piles:

• In-line Group: Piles arranged in a straight line.
• Square or Rectangular Group: Piles arranged in a grid pattern.

5. Bored Piles
In this process, a void is formed by boring or excavation before pile is introduced into the ground.
Piles can be produced by casting concrete in the void. Boring piles are considered as non-
displacement piles.

Construction Method: The process typically involves:

• Drilling: A drilling rig is used to create a hole in the ground, which can be several meters
deep depending on the soil conditions and design.
• Reinforcement: Once the hole is drilled, a reinforcement cage is inserted to provide
additional strength to the pile.
• Concrete Placement: Concrete is poured into the hole to form the pile. The concrete is
typically poured from the bottom upwards using a tremie pipe to prevent segregation and
ensure uniform placement.

Applications: Bored piles are ideal for sites with:

• Difficult soil conditions, like clay, gravel, or rock.
• Limited space, where vibrations from driven piles may cause damage.
• Water-sensitive areas, as they can be constructed with less disturbance to the surrounding
soil.
Advantages Bored piles:
• Minimal noise and vibration, which is beneficial in urban environments or near sensitive
structures.
• Can be installed in areas with low headroom or limited access.
• Suitable for deeper foundations, as they can reach stable layers of soil or bedrock.

Disadvantages Bored piles:

• The construction process is slower than driven piles.
• Requires more specialized equipment and higher costs.
• There is a potential for soil collapse in loose or highly fractured soils without proper support
mechanisms (e.g., bentonite slurry).

Working loads and ultimate loads on driven and cast- in-situ piles:
Piles are deep foundation elements used to transfer the load of a structure to deeper, more stable soil
layers when surface soils are inadequate for supporting the weight of the structure. Both driven piles
and cast-in-situ piles are commonly used, with each type having specific considerations when it
comes to the determination of working loads and ultimate loads

Detailed look at working loads and ultimate loads for these two types of piles
1. Driven Piles:
Driven piles are prefabricated piles (usually made of steel, concrete, or timber) that are driven
into the ground using a pile-driving hammer. These piles can be either end-bearing piles
(which transfer loads to the bedrock or deep strata) or friction piles (which rely on skin
friction along the length of the pile).

Ultimate Load on Driven Piles:

The ultimate load refers to the maximum load a pile can support before failure occurs. This can be
divided into two components for driven piles.

• Skin Friction (Qₛ): Skin friction refers to the resistance provided by the soil around the pile
shaft as the pile is subjected to load. This is especially important in soils like clay and silt.
The amount of friction depends on the soil’s type, cohesion, and the pile's surface roughness.
• End Bearing (Qᵦ): End bearing refers to the load transferred through the base (tip) of the pile
to the soil beneath. It is particularly important when the pile is driven into dense, hard strata,
like rock or stiff clay.

The ultimate load Qu is the sum of the skin friction and the end bearing:

Qu = Qs + Qb
Where:

Qu= Ultimate load on the pile (kN).

Qs= Skin friction load (kN).

Qb= End bearing load (kN).

Factors Affecting the Ultimate Load of Driven Piles:

 • Pile Material: Steel, concrete, and timber piles have different resistances.
• Pile Length and Diameter: Longer and larger diameter piles typically have higher ultimate
load capacities.
• Soil Properties: The type of soil, including its strength, cohesion, and compaction, will affect
both skin friction and end-bearing resistance.
• Pile Driving Resistance: The energy used in driving the pile affects the soil-pile interaction
and ultimate load capacity.

Working Load on Driven Piles

The working load is the maximum load that the pile is designed to carry in normal service conditions,
which is typically a fraction (usually 40% to 60%) of the ultimate load to provide a safety factor.

To ensure safety, the working load for a pile is calculated as

The working load Qw on a driven pile is calculated by dividing the ultimate load Qu by a safety factor
FS.

Where:
Qw = Working load (kN).
Qu = Ultimate load (kN).
FS= Safety factor, typically between 2.5 and 3.0.

The ultimate load Qu on a driven pile is the sum of skin friction and end bearing.

Where:
Qs= Skin friction load (kN).
Qb= End bearing load (kN).

2. Cast-in-Situ Piles
Cast-in-situ piles are formed by drilling a hole into the ground and then pouring concrete into
the hole, often with reinforcement. These piles can either be bored piles or auger-cast piles,
and they can also be either end-bearing piles or friction piles, depending on the depth and
characteristics of the soil.

Ultimate Load on Cast-in-Situ Piles

The ultimate load on a cast-in-situ pile refers to the maximum load the pile can carry before failure
occurs, taking into account both skin friction (resistance from the pile shaft) and end bearing
(resistance from the pile tip).
The ultimate load for a cast-in-situ pile is the sum of the skin friction and end bearing at the pile's
tip, similar to driven piles.
Skin Friction (Qₛ):
 • Skin friction is the frictional resistance between the surface of the pile shaft and the
surrounding soil. For cast-in-situ piles, the soil is often disturbed during installation, which
may change its characteristics.
• In cohesive soils, skin friction depends on the cohesion of the soil (in clays) and the adhesion
between the pile surface and the soil.
• In granular soils, it is influenced by the friction angle and effective vertical stress.

End Bearing (Qᵦ):

• End bearing is the load resisted by the soil at the pile tip. This is particularly important when
the pile is installed in dense or hard soils such as compacted sands, gravel, or rock.
• The ultimate bearing capacity at the pile tip is calculated based on the bearing capacity of the
soil under the tip.

The ultimate load Qu is the sum of the skin friction and the end bearing contributions.

Where:
Qu= Ultimate load on the pile (kN)
Qs= Skin friction load (kN)
Qb = End bearing load (kN)

Working Load on Cast-in-Situ Piles:

The working load on cast-in-situ piles is an essential consideration in the design and performance
evaluation of these piles, ensuring that they can safely carry the loads they will be subjected to over
the long term without failure or excessive settlement. The working load is typically calculated as a
fraction of the ultimate load, which is the maximum load the pile can support before failure.
• Determine the Ultimate Load (Qu ): The ultimate load on a cast-in-situ pile is the sum of the
skin friction along the length of the pile and the end bearing at the base of the pile. The
ultimate load is calculated based on the soil properties, pile dimensions, and installation
method.

Where:
Qu = Ultimate load on the pile (kN).
Qs= Skin friction (load carried by the friction between the pile surface and the
surrounding soil).
Qb= End bearing (load carried by the soil at the pile tip).

Factors Affecting the Ultimate Load of Cast-in-Situ Piles:

• Soil Conditions: The type of soil, including soft clay, sand, or rock, influences both the end-
bearing and skin friction resistance.
• Pile Geometry: The diameter and length of the pile directly affect both the skin friction and
end-bearing capacity.
• Installation Method: The method of boring or auger casting can alter the pile’s bond with the
surrounding soil.
 Concrete Quality: The strength of the concrete used for cast-in-situ piles is critical to the
pile's load-bearing capacity.

Comparison of Driven vs. Cast-in-Situ Piles

Characteristic Driven Piles Cast-in-Situ Piles
Prefabricated piles driven into Concrete poured into a drilled
Installation Method
the ground hole
Faster installation (with pile- Slower installation (requires
Time of Installation
driving rigs) drilling and curing)
Generally higher due to the Depends on the drill depth and
End-Bearing Resistance
pile's rigid nature quality of the base material
Lower than driven piles, but
Skin Friction High (depending on pile type)
depends on soil disturbance
Higher for long piles in weak
Higher for short piles in dense
Load Capacity soils or where deep foundations
soils
are needed
Typically, higher due to more
Cost Relatively low in suitable soils
complex installation
Limited in very hard soils or More adaptable to complex sites
Adaptability
rocks and varying soil conditions

Piles in land and marine structures:

Piles are vertical structural elements used to transfer loads from the superstructure to deeper, more
stable soil or rock layers beneath the surface. They are commonly used in both land and marine
(offshore) structures.
1) Piles in Land Structures:
Piles are long pillars that extend into the ground to support the weight of a building. They are
commonly used when the top layer of soil is not strong enough to support the building. They
can be installed in various ways, depending on the soil conditions, and can be made from
materials like concrete, steel, or timber.

Types of Land-Based Piles:

❖ End-Bearing Piles: These piles transfer the load to a deeper, stronger layer of soil or rock
beneath the surface.
❖ Friction Piles: These piles rely on the friction between the surface of the pile and the
surrounding soil to transfer the load.

❖ Combination Piles: These piles use both end-bearing and friction mechanisms to carry the
load.

❖ Bored Piles: Installed by drilling a hole and filling it with concrete. Suitable for areas with
restricted space.
❖ Driven Piles: These are pre-fabricated piles driven into the ground using a pile driver. They
are faster to install and ideal for solid ground
❖ Steel piles: These are very strong and can be driven through hard soil or rock. They can be
reused or recycled.

❖ Timber piles: These are made of wood and are suitable for smaller structures. They are
most effective in soils with low bearing capacity and high-water table.
Applications:
• Building foundations: For high-rise buildings or structures with heavy loads.
• Bridges: Especially where soft or unstable ground is present.
• Retaining walls: To ensure structural stability.

2) Piles in Marine Structures:

Piles are structural elements used in marine construction to create foundations, support
structures, and retaining walls. They are driven into the seabed or river bed to provide a stable
base for marine structures like piers, jetties, and pontoons.
These piles are subjected to more challenging environmental conditions such as water, tides,
waves, and corrosion. Therefore, marine piles are designed to resist these forces and maintain
their integrity over time.

Types of Marine Piles:

• Steel Piles: These are commonly used due to their strength and resistance to corrosion. They
can be hollow or solid.
• Concrete Piles: Precast concrete piles can be used for marine structures, particularly in deep-
water installations. Concrete piles are durable and resistant to corrosion when protected
appropriately.
• Timber Piles: Used in shallower water or environments where conditions allow for it. Timber
piles are often cheaper but require more maintenance due to environmental degradation.
• Screw Piles: These piles have a helix shape and are screwed into the seabed. They are often
used for smaller marine structures.

• Monopiles: A large single pile used for offshore wind turbines and platform.
Applications in Marine Structures:
• Offshore Platforms: Oil and gas rigs, and renewable energy platforms (e.g., wind farms).
• Docks and Harbors: For supporting piers, wharfs, and loading platforms.
• Bridges: For connecting land to islands or across waterways, supported by piles driven into
the seabed.
• Coastal Protection: For preventing erosion and stabilizing shorelines.

Construction details of precast piles, pre stressed piles, steel piles and
friction piles:
Construction details of precast piles: Precast concrete piles are manufactured in a controlled
environment and then transported to the site. They are commonly used due to their durability, high
load-bearing capacity, and resistance to environmental factors.

❖ Precast concrete pile is a rectangular pile cast in a bile bed.

❖ Circular precast concrete piles are made in a vertical form.
❖ Most precast piles are reinforced with steel to keep them from breaking when moved from the
place of casting to the site of the foundation.
❖ After being casted, precast concrete piles need to be cured.
❖ The curing period for such piles is between 21 to 28 day.

Types of Precast Piles:

• Solid Precast Piles: Simple concrete piles without reinforcement (less common).
• Precast Prestressed Piles: Concrete piles with internal prestressed reinforcement to improve
their strength and load-bearing capacity.

Applications of Precast Piles:

 • Building foundations (for heavy structures).
• Bridge piers and other large infrastructure projects.

Advantages of Pre-cast Piles

• Offers a high level of protection against chemical and biological cracks.
• These piles are very strong.
• If the piles are cast and ready to be driven before the installation phase, it can speed up the
work.
• If a problem is found, it can be fixed or replaced before the pile can be driven.
• These piles can be used in underwater constructions.
• After the piles are driven to a sufficient depth, they can be loaded right away.
• Quality of Pre case piles can be controlled.
• Confinement of Reinforcement is possible in the case of Precast piles.

Disadvantages of Pre-cast Piles

• Once the length of the pile is determined, it is difficult to alter the length afterward.
• These piles offer poor mobility and cause difficulty in transportation and handling.
• These piles are difficult to be driven and are uneconomical.
• Precast piles are not readily available.
• When these piles are moved or driven into the ground, there is a likelihood that they may
break or get damaged.
Construction details of pre stressed piles: Precast concrete piles are reinforced concrete piles
shaped in circular, square, rectangular, or octagonal forms. These piles are manufactured and cured in
a casting yard before being transported to the construction site for installation Prestressed concrete
piles are a type of deep foundation that are used in a variety of construction projects, including
bridges, marine structures, and buildings.

• Prestressed concrete piles are similar to precast piles but include additional reinforcement
through prestressing, enhancing their ability to bear heavier loads and resist bending and
cracking.
• The diameter of these piles typically ranges from 35 cm to 65 cm, while their lengths vary
between 1.1 meters and 30 meters.
• Prestressing is done by applying a tensile force to the steel strands or tendons placed inside
the concrete. The tendons are stretched before the concrete is poured, ensuring that the pile is
under compression after the concrete cures.
• The pile is cast in a precast yard, with prestressed steel tendons embedded within the pile to
handle tensile forces, thereby increasing the pile’s overall strength.
Advantages pre stressed piles:
• Higher load-bearing capacity than conventional piles.
• Resistance to cracking and bending due to the prestressing.
• Can be used in areas with weak soils, since they can transfer loads to deeper and
stronger layers.
• Prestressed concrete piles are durable, strong, and economical. They are also crack
resistant and have a high load capacity

Applications pre stressed piles:

• Foundations for high-rise buildings, bridges, and large industrial facilities.

Construction details of steel piles: Steel piles are often used in marine and land-based
structures, especially where high load-bearing capacity and resistance to corrosion are critical. Steel
pipe pile is used to create a strong foundation for large, heavy structures such as buildings, bridges
and roads.

Steel piles can be either I-shaped or hollow. The diameter of such piles can be anywhere between 10
and 24 inches, and the thickness is 0.75 inches. The piles are easy to drive because they only take up a
small area. These piles can be employed as end-bearing piles.
• Steel piles are typically made from structural steel shapes (H-sections, pipe piles, or sheet
piles) depending on the application.
• They are usually either rolled or welded into the required shape.
• Steel piles can be driven directly into the ground, or they can be installed by drilling (if a
larger diameter is needed).
• Coating: Steel piles often require protective coatings (such as epoxy or bitumen) or cathodic
protection to prevent corrosion, especially in marine environments.

Advantages of Steel Piles

• High load-bearing capacity and strength.
• Can be used in deep foundations and for marine structures.
• Steel piles can easily penetrate hard soil strata.
• These piles can be conveniently spliced.
• Can sustain heavy loads.

Disadvantages of Steel Piles

• Steel piles can get damaged due to corrosion.
• These piles can deviate during installation.
• Steel piles are costly.
Applications of Steel Piles:
• Marine structures (docks, piers, and offshore platforms).
• Heavy industrial structures (factories, warehouses).
• Bridge foundations

Construction details of friction piles: Friction piles are piles that rely on the friction
between the surface of the pile and the surrounding soil to support the load. Friction piles are made of
long, slender elements, much like columns. They are typically crafted from steel or reinforced
concrete, though they can also be made of timber. The piling extends below a structure by at depth
that is at least three times the structure's width.

• The friction pile uses the frictional force between its surface and the soil surrounding it to
transfer load from the structure to the earth. On the basis of the underlying layers, friction
may develop over the entire pile length or up to a specific length of the pile.
• Friction piles can be made from concrete, steel, or timber. The choice of material depends on
the soil conditions, load requirements, and environmental factors.
• The piles are typically long and slender, designed to be driven or drilled into the ground.
• In general, the entire surface of the pile facilitates the transmission of loads from the structure
the bottom.
• The capacity of friction piles can be obtained by taking the product of the surface area and the
safe friction force acting per unit area.
• While constructing a skin friction pile, it is important to consider an appropriate safety factor
as well as the skin friction that will occur at the pile surface. In addition, to improve the
capacity of the pile, the pile dimension, number, and surface roughness should be increased.

Advantages of friction piles:

• Ideal for weak or soft soils where end-bearing piles are not feasible.
• Often used in areas with limited space where pile driving cannot reach deeper rock layers.
• Can be more economical than end-bearing piles in some conditions.

Applications of friction piles:

• Foundations for buildings, especially in areas with weak or compressible soils.
• Tall structures (skyscrapers) and bridges where the depth of stable soil or rock is too deep for
end-bearing piles.

Failure of piles and causes:

CAUSES OF FAILURE OF PILES:
• Load on the pile is more than the designed load.
• Displacement of reinforcement during casting.
 • Bearing pile resting on a soft strata.
• Improper choice of the type of pile.
• Insufficient reinforcement in the pile.
• Decay of timber piles due to attack by insects.
• Buckling of piles due to inadequate lateral support.
• Defective method adopted for driving the pile.
• Incorrect assessment of the bearing capacity of the pile. Lateral forces not considered in the
design of piles.
• Dislocation of reinforcement while casting.
• Inappropriate characterization of soil.
• Corrosion of the timber pile because of assault by insects.
• Buckling of the piles because of insufficient lateral support.
• Defective techniques used while driving the pile. Collapse of the thin shell of the piles.
• Overweight due to earth fill.
• Inaccurate determination of the bearing capacity of the pile

Methods of Pile Driving by Vibration and Construction of micro piles

Pile Driving by Vibration:
Pile driving by vibration, also known as “vibratory pile driving, is a construction technique that uses
vibrations to drive a pile into the ground”. This method is different from impact pile driving, which
uses a large weight to strike the pile.
Vibratory pile driving uses a vibratory hammer to transmit high-frequency vibrations to the pile. This
loosens the surrounding soil particles, reducing the resistance to the pile's penetration. The result is
less force and disturbance than impact pile driving, which leads to less noise and vibration. This
makes vibratory pile driving a good choice for projects in residential areas or near sensitive structures.

Methods of Pile Driving by Vibration:

Pile driving by vibration is a method used to install piles into the ground by using vibratory equipment
to reduce soil resistance, allowing piles to penetrate more easily. It is commonly used in situations
where speed and reduced noise or vibration impact are crucial.

Methods and types of vibratory pile driving

1. Vibratory Pile Driving (Vibratory Hammers).
2. Hydraulic Vibrators.
3. Electromagnetic Vibrators.
4. Impact of Vibration Pile Driving Method.
 1) Vibratory Pile Driving (Vibratory Hammers).
The most common method of vibration-based pile installation is vibratory pile driving. This
method utilizes a mechanical device called a vibratory hammer to apply high-frequency
vibrations to a pile, reducing the friction between the pile surface and the surrounding soil.
The hammer’s vibrations help the pile to move downward through the soil, overcoming
resistance.
a) Vibratory pile drivers are especially effective when the files are driven into water
saturated noncohesive soils. Fig(a)
b) Vibratory hammers use exciting shafts rotating in opposite directions. Fig(b)
c) Vibratory hammer can be driven by hydraulic or electric motors. Fig (C)

Fig(a) Fig(b) fig(c)

How Vibratory Pile Driving Works:

1. Vibratory Hammer: The pile is attached to a vibratory hammer, which generates high-
frequency, low-amplitude oscillations.
2. Pile Installation: The vibratory hammer is mounted on a crane or other lifting device, which
lowers the pile into the ground. The hammer applies vertical oscillations to the pile, which
reduces friction between the pile and soil, enabling it to penetrate deeper.
3. Vibration Frequency and Amplitude: The frequency and amplitude of the vibrations are
adjusted based on the soil conditions and the size of the pile. Generally, a higher frequency is
used for loose soils, while lower frequencies are used for dense soils or harder materials.

Vibratory Hammer Types:

• External Vibratory Hammer: This hammer type applies external vibrations to the pile. It is
typically used for installing large-diameter steel or concrete piles and is attached to the top of
the pile.
• Internal Vibratory Hammer: In some cases, an internal vibrator may be inserted into a
casing or pile shaft to drive the pile, reducing the need for external equipment.

2) Hydraulic Vibrators:
 Hydraulic vibrators are an essential tool in the process of vibratory pile driving. They use
hydraulic power to generate high-frequency vibrations that assist in the installation of piles
into the ground. They can be used for both deep and shallow pile installations. These vibrators
are particularly useful for driving piles through different soil types, including both soft and
dense materials, and are widely used in various construction and foundation projects

How Hydraulic Vibrators Work:

Hydraulic vibrators work by using hydraulic energy to generate vertical oscillations (vibrations) that
reduce the friction between the pile and the surrounding soil. The vibrations help the pile penetrate
deeper into the ground with less force.
The mechanism works as follows:
• Hydraulic Power: Hydraulic systems drive the vibrations, creating a rotational force that
applies to the pile, reducing the friction and allowing it to penetrate into the ground.
• Frequency Control: Similar to external vibratory hammers, hydraulic vibrators can adjust
their frequency to suit the soil type. For loose, sandy soils, a higher frequency is effective,
while denser soils require lower frequencies to penetrate.
• Pile Type: Hydraulic vibrators are commonly used for steel piles or pre-cast concrete piles
but can also be used for certain types of timber piles.
• Oscillating Motion: The hydraulic system produces oscillations at a specific frequency and
amplitude. These oscillations are applied to the pile, which helps to reduce the resistance
encountered by the pile during installation.

Types of Hydraulic Vibrators

❖ External Hydraulic Vibrators: These vibrators are mounted on the top of the pile. They are
most commonly used for driving steel piles, pre-cast concrete piles, and timber piles. External
vibrators are versatile and can be used with a variety of pile types.

❖ Internal Hydraulic Vibrators: These vibrators are inserted directly into the pile or casing,
generating vibrations from within. Internal hydraulic vibrators are used for specialized
applications where external vibration equipment is not feasible. They are especially useful in
situations involving bored piles or cased piles.
 ❖ Vibratory Pile Driver (VPD): This is a machine that integrates a hydraulic vibrator with a
pile-driving rig. The rig is used to control the placement and depth of the pile, while the
hydraulic vibrator applies the necessary vibrations to reduce soil resistance.

Advantages of Hydraulic Vibrators in Pile Driving

❖ Higher Efficiency: Hydraulic vibrators provide efficient installation, allowing piles to be
driven faster than traditional impact hammers, particularly in softer soils.
❖ Adaptability to Different Soil Types: Hydraulic vibrators can be adapted to a variety of soil
conditions. They are effective in soft to medium soil, but their adjustable frequencies allow
them to handle denser soils too, making them versatile for different ground types
❖ Control and Precision: Hydraulic vibrators allow for better control over the installation
process. The frequency and amplitude of vibrations can be fine-tuned, enabling more precise
pile installation
❖ Less Noise and Vibration: Compared to impact pile driving, hydraulic vibrators generate
significantly less noise and vibrations, making them suitable for use in urban areas or noise-
sensitive environments
❖ Less Ground Disturbance: The method produces less lateral soil displacement, causing less
disruption to the surrounding area
❖ Reduced Energy Requirements: Hydraulic vibrators require less energy than traditional
pile-driving methods, as the hydraulic system only needs to generate vibrations, not the
impact force associated with conventional pile drivers.

Limitations of Hydraulic Vibrators:

• Soil Limitations: Hydraulic vibrators are less effective in very dense or hard soils, such as
bedrock or highly compacted clays, where vibration energy may not be sufficient to drive the
pile.
• Pile Size: While hydraulic vibrators are effective for medium-sized piles, they may not be
suitable for very large piles (such as those used in heavy foundations or deep piers), where the
vibrator’s capacity might not provide enough force to drive the pile to the desired depth.
• Vibration Effects: Although hydraulic vibrators are generally quieter than impact hammers,
the vibrations can still affect surrounding structures and utilities, particularly in sensitive or
urban environments.
• Cost of Equipment: The equipment for hydraulic vibrators (including hydraulic rigs, power
sources, and vibrators themselves) can be expensive to acquire and maintain.
• Installation in Harder Materials: In soils that contain large boulders or very compacted
material, the vibratory method may not be as effective, requiring additional methods such as
angering or pre-drilling to help install the piles.

Applications of Hydraulic Vibrators:

❖ Foundation Pile Driving: Used in the construction of building foundations, especially for
high-rise buildings and infrastructure projects in urban areas.
❖ Marine and Coastal Structures: Ideal for projects such as piers, docks, and jetties, where
piles need to be driven into soft to medium seabed conditions.
 ❖ Bridge Construction: Hydraulic vibrators are used to install piles for bridge foundations,
especially in locations with variable soil conditions.
❖ Seismic or Vibration-Resistant Foundations: In seismic zones, hydraulic vibrators can be
used to install piles that are specifically designed to withstand dynamic loads.
❖ Retrofitting and Foundation Repair: Used in foundation repair projects for strengthening or
stabilizing existing foundations in urban or built-up environments where minimal ground
disturbance is required.

5. Electromagnetic Vibrators:
An electromagnetic vibrator is less commonly used but can be effective for certain pile
installation projects. This method uses electromagnetic forces to generate vibration.
How Electromagnetic Vibrators Work:
• Electromagnetic Forces: These vibrators create oscillating magnetic fields that cause the pile
to vibrate. The process is relatively smooth and quiet compared to other pile driving methods.
• Controlled Vibration: The electromagnetic vibrator’s vibration is highly controlled, and its
frequency can be adjusted to suit specific soil conditions.
While this method is less common due to equipment complexity and cost, it can be effective for
specific applications in urban areas with strict noise regulations.

6. Impact of Vibration Pile Driving Methods

Each method of vibratory pile driving has varying levels of vibration and noise, which need to
be considered for environmental and structural reasons. The vibrations generated during the
pile installation can affect adjacent structures, the surrounding soil, and underground utilities.
Therefore, vibration monitoring is essential to minimize impact.

Environmental Considerations:
• Noise: Vibratory pile driving is generally quieter than impact pile driving, but the noise still
depends on the soil type and the energy levels used.
• Soil Liquefaction: Vibrations can cause loose or saturated granular soils to become
temporarily liquefied, which may affect the surrounding ground stability and increase
settlement.
• Damage to nearby structures: Vibrations from pile driving can damage nearby structures
with shallow foundations, or cause cracking or deformation in underground utilities.
• Adjacent Structures: Vibrations from vibratory pile driving can cause oscillations in nearby
buildings or foundations. Proper precautions such as vibration monitoring and pile design
adjustments are taken to mitigate this risk.

Applications of Vibratory Pile Driving:

• Urban and Sensitive Areas: Vibratory pile driving is particularly advantageous in urban
settings or near sensitive buildings where noise and vibration need to be minimized.
• Coastal and Marine Works: In marine environments, vibratory hammers are used to drive
piles into the seabed for docks, piers, or offshore platforms.
• Rehabilitation Projects: For foundation repairs or strengthening of existing structures,
vibratory pile driving is often used for its speed and minimal disturbance.

Advantages of Vibratory Pile Driving:

1. Speed: Vibratory pile driving is faster than traditional impact hammer driving, allowing for
quicker installation of piles.
 2. Less Noise and Vibration: Compared to impact hammers, vibratory methods produce
significantly less noise and ground vibration, making them suitable for sensitive
environments.
3. Efficiency: Reduced friction allows for easier penetration of piles, even in dense or stiff soils,
although it may not be effective in very hard rock or impenetrable layers.
4. Minimal Ground Disturbance: The vibrations help reduce soil disturbance, preserving the
surrounding ground integrity and minimizing excavation requirements.
5. Suitability for Various Pile Types: Steel, concrete, and even timber piles can be driven
using vibration methods.

Limitations of Vibratory Pile Driving:

1. Not Suitable for All Soil Types: Vibratory pile driving is less effective in very dense soils,
rock layers, or if there is resistance from large boulders or hard strata. The method is most
effective in sandy, loose, or soft soils.
2. Potential for Liquefaction: In loose sandy soils, vibrations may cause temporary
liquefaction, making the surrounding ground unstable, especially in areas prone to seismic
events.
3. Pile Size Limitations: Very large or deep piles may not be suitable for vibratory installation
due to insufficient energy to drive them into place.
4. Adjacent Building Impact: In areas with nearby structures, vibrations could cause
unintended settlements or damage if not properly managed

Construction of Micro Piles:

• Micro piles are small-diameter piles typically (less than 300mm) used for foundation support
in areas with restricted access or poor soil conditions.
• It is a drilled and grouted non displacement pile which is heavily reinforced and carries most
of its loading on the high-capacity steel reinforcement.
• Reinforcement and cement grout are the major component of micro pile.
• It also known as mini pile. They are usually made from steel casings or grout-filled reinforced
concrete

Construction Process of Micro Piles:

The construction of micro piles involves several typical procedure micro piles:
1. Site Preparation and Access
• Site Survey: Before installation, a site survey is conducted to assess the soil conditions and
determine the necessary design parameters for the micro piles. A geotechnical engineer may
conduct tests to evaluate the strength and composition of the soil.
• Access Setup: Micro piles can be installed in areas with limited access. A drilling rig
designed for confined spaces, such as a rotary drilling machine or auger rig, is used for the
 installation. Smaller rigs can be used for installations in tight spaces, such as around existing
structures, basements, or in locations where traditional equipment cannot reach.
2. Drilling the Borehole
• Drilling: A specialized drill is used to create a hole in the ground where the micro pile will be
placed. The diameter of the hole is typically smaller than that of the pile, leaving room for the
pile casing and grout. The depth of the hole depends on the design requirements and the
required load-bearing capacity of the pile.
• Casing: In some cases, a steel casing is inserted into the borehole to prevent collapse during
drilling and to help stabilize the surrounding soil. This casing can also serve as the structure
for the micro pile.
3. Insertion of Reinforcement Cage (if applicable)
• Reinforcement Cage: After drilling, a reinforcement cage (usually made of steel bars) is
inserted into the borehole. The cage provides structural support to the pile and improves its
strength, allowing it to withstand compression and tensile forces.
• Cage Design: The design of the reinforcement cage will depend on the size of the pile, the
expected load, and the overall pile design. For larger micro piles, the cage will be larger and
contain more reinforcement to support the intended load.
4. Grouting
• Grouting: Once the reinforcement cage is in place, grout (usually a cement-based mixture) is
injected into the borehole under pressure. The grout fills the voids between the pile casing (or
the borehole wall) and the reinforcement cage, forming a solid column of concrete that
provides support to the pile.
• Grouting Equipment: The grouting process is typically done using a grout pump and hoses.
A tremie pipe is often used to ensure that the grout is placed from the bottom of the hole
upward, which prevents the grout from segregating and ensures a uniform fill.
• Setting Time: The grout needs time to cure and harden, which can take several hours or more
depending on environmental conditions. During this time, the pile should be left undisturbed
to ensure proper bonding between the grout and the surrounding soil.
5. Pile Testing and Inspection
• Load Testing: After the grout has set, the micro pile is subjected to load testing to ensure it
meets the required design specifications. The testing can include both static load testing (to
measure the pile’s ability to resist compression or tension) and dynamic load testing (to
evaluate the pile’s performance under varying loads).
• Integrity Testing: Sometimes, a pile integrity test (PIT) is carried out to check for any voids
or weaknesses in the pile. This test ensures that the pile is sound and that the grout has
properly bonded to the surrounding soil.
• Inspection: The construction process includes regular inspections to ensure that the pile
installation is proceeding as planned, including checking the alignment, grout quality, and
overall integrity of the pile.
6. Completion and Connection to the Structure
• Pile Cap or Head: Once the micro pile has been tested and confirmed to meet the design
requirements, a pile cap or pile head is installed at the top of the pile to connect it to the
structure. This connection can be achieved through a steel plate or concrete cap.
• Load Transfer: The load from the structure is then transferred to the micro pile. Micro piles
can be used to support various types of structures, including buildings, bridges, and retaining
walls.
Types of Micro Piles
• Grouted Micro Piles: The most common type, where grout is used to bond the reinforcement
cage with the surrounding soil.

• Cased Micro Piles: In some cases, the pile casing remains in place after installation,
providing additional structural support.

• Self-Drilling Micro Piles: These piles combine the drilling and casing steps into one
operation. The pile casing is threaded into the ground as it is drilled, making it suitable for
difficult-to-drill soils.

Advantages of Micro Piles

1. Suitable for Difficult Soil Conditions: Micro piles are ideal for sites with poor or weak soil,
such as loose sands, clays, or areas with high groundwater levels.
2. Small Access Requirements: The installation equipment is compact and can be used in
locations with limited access, such as around existing buildings or in areas with restricted
space.
 3. Minimal Vibration: Micro pile construction generates minimal vibration, which makes it
suitable for use in urban areas or near sensitive structures where vibration could cause
damage.
4. High Load-Bearing Capacity: Despite their small diameter, micro piles can support
substantial loads. They can reach deeper into more stable soil or bedrock layers, ensuring
strong support for the structure.
5. Flexibility in Installation: Micro piles can be installed at varying angles, including vertically
or inclined, depending on the specific load-bearing requirements.

Disadvantages of Micro Piles

1. Cost: Micro piles can be more expensive than traditional shallow foundations, primarily due
to the specialized equipment, materials, and labor required for installation.
2. Slower Installation: The installation process for micro piles can take longer than other
foundation types, especially for larger projects that require many piles.
3. Limited to Specific Soil Conditions: While micro piles can work in a wide range of soil
conditions, extremely hard or rocky conditions might make installation difficult and costly.
4. Potential for Clogging: If grout quality is poor or installation is rushed, the pile may develop
voids, compromising its strength.

Applications of Micro Piles

a) Supporting new loads in congested areas.
b) Seismic retrofit.
c) Arresting structural settlement.
d) Resisting uplift/dynamic loads.
e) Underpinning.
f) Excavation support in confined areas.

Diaphragm Walls:
Diaphragm walls are a type of deep foundation wall used in the construction of structures, primarily
in areas with difficult soil conditions, or where excavation needs to be carried out without disturbing
the surrounding environment. These walls are commonly used in projects like underground structures,
basements, tunnels, and waterfront structures. These walls serve as both retaining structures and
water barriers and are commonly used in basement construction, underground facilities, and deep
foundation works.

“Diaphragm walls are reinforced concrete walls built in place (in situ) to support deep excavations or
serve as cut-off walls”
• Diaphragm walls are underground structural elements commonly used
 i) Retention systems
ii) Permanent foundation walls
• The wall is usually designed to reach very great depth, sometimes up to 50m.
• Diaphragm walls are ideal for soft clays and loose sands below the water table where there is
a need to control lateral movements
• Diaphragm walls of shallow depths are often left unsupported since they are classed as semi
rigid structures.

Construction Process of Diaphragm Walls

The construction of diaphragm walls typically involves the following steps:
1. Trenching:
o A trench is excavated using hydraulic grabs or hydraulic excavators. The trench is
typically about 0.6 to 1.2 meters in width, and the depth can extend to several tens of
meters (often reaching depths of 30 to 40 meters or more).
o In normal soil condition excavation is done using a clamshell or grab suspended by
cables to a crane. In case of encountering boulders, a gravity hammer will be used to
break the rock and then take the spoil out using the grab.
o Slurry (a mixture of bentonite or polymer slurry) is used during the excavation
process to prevent the trench walls from collapsing due to soil pressure and to
stabilize the trench. The slurry also helps remove excavated material.

2. Reinforcement:
o Once the trench is excavated to the required depth, a reinforcing cage (steel
reinforcement) is lowered into the trench. This reinforcement typically consists of
vertical steel bars and horizontal layers of reinforcement (mesh or bars), designed to
carry bending moments and shear forces.

3. Concrete Pouring:
 o After placing the reinforcement, concrete is poured into the trench. The concrete
displaces the slurry, which is pumped back out of the trench.
o The concrete is often pumped in using a tremie pipe, ensuring that the concrete is
placed continuously to avoid any segregation of the mix and to prevent air pockets
from forming.
o Curing is necessary to ensure that the concrete reaches the required strength and
durability.

4. Finishing:
o After the concrete has cured, the trench is backfilled, or the wall is left exposed,
depending on the project's requirements.
o The wall may be finished with additional coatings or waterproofing depending on its
intended use.

APPLICATIONS
❖ As permanent and temporary foundation walls for deep basements.
❖ In earth retention schemes for highway and tunnel projects.
❖ As permanent walls for deep shafts for tunnel access.
❖ As permanent cut-off walls through the core of earth dams.
❖ In congested areas for retention systems and permanent foundation walls.
❖ Deep ground water barriers through and under dams.

Advantages of Diaphragm Walls

1. Waterproofing: One of the primary advantages of diaphragm walls is their ability to act as a
waterproof barrier. When constructed correctly, they can significantly reduce water
infiltration, making them ideal for underground or submerged structures.
2. Support for Deep Excavations: Diaphragm walls provide lateral support to the surrounding
earth during excavation, making them suitable for deep, narrow excavations that would
otherwise be unstable.
3. Space Efficiency: Since diaphragm walls are typically constructed in situ (on-site), they
require less space for assembly compared to other foundation methods like piling.
4. Minimal Vibration: Compared to driven piles, the construction of diaphragm walls causes
much less vibration, making them a good choice in urban environments where nearby
structures must be protected.
5. Flexible and Adaptable: Diaphragm walls can be designed to handle a wide range of loads,
including lateral forces, water pressure, and soil pressure, making them adaptable to various
types of soil and site conditions.

Disadvantages of Diaphragm Walls

1. High Cost: Diaphragm wall construction can be costly due to the specialized equipment,
materials, and labor required for installation. The process is time-consuming, which further
increases costs.
2. Environmental Impact: The bentonite slurry used in the construction process can sometimes
result in environmental concerns, especially if not handled properly. Spillage or improper
disposal of slurry can lead to soil contamination.
3. Limited to Specific Soil Conditions: Diaphragm walls are more effective in certain soil
conditions, especially in cohesive soils (e.g., clays), and may not be as effective in loose
sands or gravel. Additional stabilization methods might be required in such cases.
4. Need for Specialist Equipment: The need for specialized equipment (e.g., hydraulic grabs,
tremie pipes, and concrete pumps) and materials (e.g., slurry and reinforcement) adds to both
time and cost.