1.

Linux Introduction
Why Linux?
• OpenSource.
• Community support.
• Heavily customizable.
• Most Servers runs on Linux.
• DevOps most of the tools implements on Linux only.
• Automation
• Secure.

Architecture of Linux
Diffrent Linux distros
➔ Popular Desktop Linux OS
• • Ubuntu Linux
• • Linux Mint
• • Arch Linux

Fedora
Debian
OpenSuse

➔ Popular Server Linux OS

• • Red Hat Enterprise Linux
• • Ubuntu Server

Centos
SUSE Enterprise Linux
Most used Linux distros currently in IT industry.
RPM based:- RHEL & Centos

Debian based :- Ubuntu Server

Diffrence between RPM based and Debian based.

From user’s point of view, there isn’t much difference in these tools. The RPM and DEB formats
are both just archive files, with some metadata attached to them. They are both equally arcane, have
hardcoded install paths and only differ in subtle details. DEB files are installation files for Debian
based distributions. RPM files are installation files for Red Hat based distributions. Ubuntu is based
on Debian’s package manage based on APT and DPKG. Red Hat, CentOS and Fedora are based on
the old Red Hat Linux package management system, RPM.

DEB or .deb (Debian based softwares)

DEB is the extension of the Debian software package format and the most often used name for such
binary packages. DEB was developed by Bedian.

Example: Google chrome software

Package name:google-chrome-stable_current_amd64.deb

Installation: dpkg -i google-chrome-stable_current_amd64.deb

RPM or .rpm (Red Hat based softwares.)

It is a package management system. The name RPM variously refers to the .rpm file format, files in
this format, software packaged in such files, and the package manager itself. RPM was intended
primarily for Linux distributions; the file format is the baseline package format of the Linux
Standard Base. RPM was developed by Community & Red Hat.
Example: Google chrome software
Package Name: google-chrome-stable-57.0.2987.133-1.x86_64.rpm
Installation: rpm -ivh google-chrome-stable-57.0.2987.133-1.x86_64.rpm

NOTE: You will also encounter diffrent commands, packages and service names while using
both kinds of distros.
 2. Basic Commands
➔ Open Terminal

➔ Know where you are? Present Working Directory

➔ Create a directory/folder in your home directory.

➔ Change your current working directory to linux-practices(Go to linux-practices

folder).

➔ Create some more directories and list them with “ls” command.

➔ Create some empty files with “touch” command and list them.
 ➔ Reconfirm your location in your system.

Absolute path and Relative path

What is a path?
A path is a unique location to a file or a folder in a file system of an OS. A path to a file is

a combination of / and alpha-numeric characters.

What is an absolute path?

An absolute path is defined as the specifying the location of a file or directory from the

root directory(/). In other words we can say absolute path is a complete path from

start of actual filesystem from / directory.

Some examples of absolute path:

/home/imran/linux-practices/
/var/ftp/pub
/etc/samba.smb.conf
/boot/grub/grub.conf
If you see all these paths started from / directory which is a root directory for
every Linux/Unix machines.

What is the relative path?

Relative path is defined as path related to the present working directory(pwd). Suppose I am located

in /home/imran and I want to change directory to /home/imran/linux-practices. I can use relative

path concept to change directory to linux-practices and also devopsdir directory.

If you see all these paths did not start with / directory.

➔ Creating directories in devopsdir directory with absolute and relative path.

➔ Copying files into directory.

➔ Copying directories from one location to another.

➔ Moving files from one location to another.

➔ Removing files and directories.

 VIM EDITOR

➔ Install vim editor.

➔ Open up a file in vim editor

➔ Hit i to enter into insert mode

=> type few lines => hit Esc

=> type :wq

=> Enter.
➔ Read file with cat command.
 VIM EDITOR

VI Visual display editor

VIM Visual display editor improved

This is command mode editor for files. Other editors in Linux are emacs, gedit
vi editor is most popular

It has 3 modes:
1 Command Mode
2 Insert mode (edit mode)
3 extended command mode

Note: When you open the vim editor, it will be in the command mode by default.

Command Mode:

gg To go to the beginning of the page To go to end

G of the page To move the cursor forward, word
w by word To move the cursor backward, word by
b
word
nw
To move the cursor forward to n words
nb (SW)
u
To move the cursor backward to n words
{SB)
u To undo the previous changes (entire line)
To undo last change (word)
Ctrl+R To redo the changes
VY
To copy a line

nyy To copy n lines (Syy or 4yy)

p To paste line below the cursor position

p To paste line above the cursor position

dw To delete the word letter by letter {like Backspace}

X
To delete the world letter by letter (like DEL Key) I·,
dd
To delete entire line \' --
ndd To delete n no. of lines from cursor position{Sdd)
,:::::,-
<::..

I To search a word in the file UA "( _).,

I •. :::., - --
Extended Mode: ( Colon Mode)
Extended Mode is used for save and quit or save without quit using "Esc" Key with":"

Esc+:w To Save the changes j"-', \"" ../

Esc+:q To quit (Without saving)
...-,-..
.....

Esc+:wq To save and quit

r '\

Esc+:w! To save forcefully /_-·.. \.>-:/

Esc+wq! To save and quit forcefully f_l '\7
Esc+:x To save and quit
Esc+:X To give passw or d to the file and r emove password

Esc+:20(n) To go to line no 20 or n

Esc+: se nu To set the line numbers to the file !

Esc+:se nonu To Remove the set line numbers

Is command options
Types of files in linux.

Symbolic links
Symbolic links are like desktop shortcuts we use in windows.
Create a soft link for /var/log directory in our current working directory.
 4. Filter & IO redirection command.

Grep

grep command is used to find texts from any text

input. Passwd file: stores information about all the

users in the system

➔ Finding line which contains word as “root” from /etc/passwd file.

➔ Linux is case sensetive, Root is diffrent that root. Ignoring case in grep with -i option.

➔ To display things except the given word use -v option

Filter Commands
• less: Displays file content page wise or line
wise. Ex: less /etc/passwd
• more

• head

• tail
• cut

• sed
I/O redirection

➔ Create a file named devopstools with below content.

➔ Search for text “tech” replace it with “tools” and redirect output to a new file.

➔ Appending another output in same file with “>>” .

➔ Redirecting only error to a file “2>>”.

➔ Redirecting all the output to a file “&>>”.

Piping
So far we've dealt with sending data to and from files. Now we'll take a look at a
mechanism for sending data from one program to another. It's called piping and the
operator we use is ( | ). What this operator does is feed the output from the program on
the left as input to the program on the right.

Find
 5. Users & Groups.
USERS

Types of user

TYPE EXAMPLE USER ID (ID) GROUP ID HOME DIR SHELL

(GID)
0
ROOT root 0 /root /bin/bash
1000 to 60000
REGULAR imran, vagrant 1000 to 60000 /home/username /bin/bash
1 to 999
SERVICE ftp, ssh, 1 to 999 /var/ftp etc /sbin/nologi
apache n
Passwd file

Group file
2. /etc/group

The file /etc/group stores group information. Each line in this file stores one group entry.

Group name, group password, GID, group members

ADD USER, SET PASSWORD & SWITCH TO USER

ADD USER, GROUP & USER INTO GROUP

DELETE USER & GROUP

3. The /etc/shadow file

This file stores users’ password and password related information. Just like
this file also uses an individual line for each entry. /etc/passwd file,

1. Username
2. Encrypted password
3. Number of days when password was last changed
4. Number of days before password can be changed
5. Number of days after password must be changed
6. Number of days before password expiry date to display the warning message
 7. Number of days to disable the account after the password expiry
8. Number of days since the account is disabled
9. Reserved field

USER & GROUP cheatsheet

COMMANDS DESCRIPTION Creates user in RedHat

useradd Creates user in ubuntu Shows user info

adduser Creates group Adds user to group

id set/reset password removes user with

groupadd home dir removes group shows last login

usermod -G grpnam usrname in system who is logged into system

passwd username

userdel -r List files opened by user

groupdel

last

who

whoami
lsof -u user
6. File permissions
Changing Permissions - Symbolic Method
• To change access modes:
o chmod [-OPTION] ... mode[,mode] filel directory ...
• mode includes:
o u,g or o for user, group and other
o + - or =for grant, deny or set
o r , w or x for read, write and execute
• Options include:
o - R Recursive
o -v Verbose
o --reference Reference another file for its mode
• Examples:
o chmod ugo+r file: Grant read access to all for file
o chmod o-wx dir: Deny write and execute to others for dir
Changing Permissions - Numeric Method
• Uses a three-digit mode number
o first digit specifies owner 's permissions
o second digit specifies group permissions
o third digit represents others' permissions
• Permissions are calculated by adding:
o 4 (for read)
o 2 (for write)
o 1 (for execute)
• Example:
o chmod 640 myfile
 7. Sudo
sudo gives power to a normal user to execute commands which is owned by root user.
Example shown below:

If a user has already full sudoers privilege, it can become a root user anytime.

➔ sudo -i changes from normal user to root user

Note: User imran was already a sudo user with full privilege.
➔ Adding user sam in sudoers list.

➔ Like a user a group can also be added into sudoers list.

➔ Every time you enter sudo command it asks your own password. To turn that off use
NOPASSWD in sudoers file.

➔ Changing to any other user with “su -” command.

➔ Become a root user from sam user login.

 8. Software Management.

➔ Download package from internet.

For CentOS

To install Tree
# curl https://rpmfind.net/linux/centos/7.9.2009/os/x86_64/Packages/tree-1.6.0-10.el7.x86_64.rpm -o tree-1.6.
10.el7.x86_64.rpm
# rpm -ivh tree-1.6.0-10.el7.x86_64.rpm

To install httpd

# curl https://rpmfind.net/linux/centos/7.9.2009/os/x86_64/Packages/httpd-2.4.6-95.el7.centos.x86_64.rpm -o
2.4.6-95.el7.centos.x86_64.rpm

# rpm -ivh httpd-2.4.6-95.el7.centos.x86_64.rpm

Due to Dependencies its failing and it will be installed one we install all the dependencies. But what if we h
Hundreds of dependencies, And that can be solved easily by other package managers like YUM .
repos. d/ directory. It reads each YUM Repository configuration file to get the information required to
download and install new software, resolves software dependencies and installs the required RPM pack
files. YUM Repository configuration files must: be located in /etc/yum.repos.d
# ls /etc/yum.repos.d/

Shows the usage of YUM Command with options

# yum –help

To Update all your packages

# yum update

To install httpd
# yum install httpd -y
To remove httpd

#yum remove httpd -y

For Ubuntu
# wget http://archive.ubuntu.com/ubuntu/pool/universe/t/tree/tree_1.7.0-3_amd64.deb -o tree_1.7.0-
3_amd64.deb
# dpkg -i tree_1.7.0-3_amd64.deb
We have seen YUM Like that for Ubuntu we have a package manager ‘apt’.
The sources. list file is a key factor in adding or upgrading applications to your Ubuntu installation. This is
also used by your system for system updates. The file is basically the roadmap for your system to know wh
it may download programs for installation or upgrade.

# cat /etc/apt/sources.list

Shows the usage of apt Command with options

# apt --help
To update all your package lists
#apt update

TO search for a <package> apache2

# apt search apache2

To install apache2
# apt install apache2 -y
To remove apache2
# apt remove apache2 -y

Commands Description
wget link to download file from
link
access file from link
curl link
access file and store
curl link -o o/p to a file
outputfile

REDHAT RPM commands

rpm -ivh {rpm-file}
Install the package rpm -ivh
mozilla-mail-1.7.5-17
.i586.rpm
rpm -ivh --test
mozilla-mail-1.7.5-17
.i586.rpm

rpm -Uvh {rpm-file} Upgrade package rpm -Uvh

mozilla-mail-1.7.6-12
.i586.rpm
rpm -Uvh --test
mozilla-mail-1.7.6-12
.i586.rpm
rpm -ev {package} Erase/remove/ an rpm -ev mozilla-mail
installed package

rpm -ev --nodeps Erase/remove/ an rpm -ev --nodeps

{package} installed package mozilla-mail
without checking for

dependencies

rpm -qa Display list all installed

rpm -qa
packages
rpm -qa | less
Display installed
rpm -qi {package} information along rpm -qi mozilla-mail
with package version
and short description
Find out what package rpm -qf /etc/passwd
rpm -qf
{/path/to/file} a file belongs to rpm -qf /bin/bash
i.e. find what
package owns the file
Display list of
rpm -qc rpm -qc httpd
{pacakge-name} configuration file(s)
for a package

rpm -qcf Display list of rpm -qcf

{/path/to/file} configuration files /usr/X11R6/bin/xeyes
for a command

rpm -qa --last Display list of all rpm -qa --last

recently installed rpm -qa --last | less
RPMs

rpm -qpR {.rpm-file} Find out what rpm -qpR

rpm -qR {package} dependencies a rpm mediawiki-1.4rc1-4.i5
file has 86.rpm
rpm -qR bash

CentOS_8 Commands

https://www.linuxtechi
DNF
.com/dnf-command-
commands examples-rpm-
cheatsheet management-fedora-
linux/

dnf --help Show the help

dnf search PACKAGE search from available
repositories
dnf install To install the package
PACKAGE -y
dnf install To Install httpd
httpd -y package
dnf install vim -y Installing VIM Editor

dnf reinstall PACKAGE To reinstall PACKAGE

dnf remove PACKAGE To remove PACKAGE

dnf update update all packages

dnf update PACKAGE update only a package

dnf grouplist List all available

Group Packages

dnf groupinstall Installs all the

"GROUPNAME" packages in a group

dnf repolist List Enabled dnf

Repositories

dnf clean all Clean dnf Cache

Additional package
repository that
dnf install epel- provides easy access
to install packages
release for commonly used
software.
dnf history View History of dnf

dnf info package name Shows the information

of package like
version, size, source,
repository etc

https://access.redhat.
com/sites/default/file
YUM Commands s/attachments/rh_yum_c
Cheatsheet heatsheet_1214_jcs_pri
nt-1.pdf

yum –help Shows the help

yum search PACKAGE Search from

available
repositories
To install the
yum install PACKAGE -y package

To install httpd
yum install httpd -y
package

yum install vim -y To install VIM

Editor
yum reinstall PACKAGE To reinstall the
PACKAGE
Yum remove PACKAGE
To Remove PACKAGE

yum update Update all

packages

yum update PACKAGE To Update specific

package
List all available
yum grouplist
Group packages
Install all the
yum groupinstall
“Group Name” packages in a
group
Yum repolist List Enabled YUM
repositories

yum install Additional package

repository that
epel-release provides easy access
to install packages
for commonly used
software.

yum clean all Clean yum cache

yum history View history of

yum
Shows the
information of
Yum info PACKAGE NAME package like
version, size,
source, repository
etc.

Ubuntu20 Commands

https://itsfoss.com/ap
apt
t-command-guide/
commands
cheatsheet

apt search PACKAGE search from available

repositories
apt install To Install Packages
PACKAGE -y
apt install apache2 -y To Install apache2
apt reinstall PACKAGE To reinstall PACKAGE
To remove PACKAGE
apt remove PACKAGE

apt update update all packages

apt update PACKAGE update only a package

apt grouplist List all available
Group Packages

apt groupinstall Installs all the

"GROUPNAME" packages in a group.

apt repolist List Enabled apt

Repositories

apt clean all Clean apt Cache

apt history View History of apt

apt show package name Shows the information

of package like
version, size, source,
repository etc
9. SEARCH

10. LOGIN (SSH AND TELNET)

11. FILE TRANSFER

 12. DISK USAGE

13. DIRECTORY TRAVERSE

14. SERVICES

Centos8
$ sudo systemctl start httpd # Starts httpd on centos

$ sudo systemctl stop httpd # Stops httpd on centos

$ sudo systemctl restart httpd # Restart services

$ sudo systemctl status httpd # shows the current status

$ sudo systemctl reload httpd # Reload conf

$ sudo systemctl enable httpd # starts httpd at boot time

$ sudo systemctl disable httpd # stops httpd at boot time

$ sudo systemctl is-active httpd # shows whether the service is

active or not

$ sudo systemctl is-enabled httpd # shows whether the service is

enabled or not

Ubuntu20
$ sudo systemctl start apache2 # Starts apache2 on ubuntu

$ sudo systemctl stop apache2 # Stops apache2 on ubuntu

$ sudo systemctl restart apache2 # Restart service

$ sudo systemctl reload apache2 # Reload conf

$ sudo systemctl enable apache2 # starts apache2 at boot time

$ sudo systemctl disable apache2 # stops apache2 at boot time

$ sudo systemctl is-active apache2 # Shows whether the service is

active or not

$ sudo systemctl is-enabled # Shows whether the service is

apache2 enabled or not

15. COMPRESSION / ARCHIVES

16. PROCESS RELATED

17. SYSTEM

18. HARDWARE
19. STATISTICS