1 In «y = ax + b» equation, there are two sets of values:
Constant: fixed values in the equation;
slope (a) and intercept (b)
Variable: “x” and “y”;
x: time, y: concentration .
2 Variables may be classified as independent and dependent variables:
Independent variable: Fixed variable in an experiment, . Represented by “x,” Example: time
Dependent variable: Measurable variable in an experiment Represented by “y” Stands alone on one side of an equation. Example: Concentration (vitamin conc., pigment conc., the number of m.o.’s etc). 3 Example 2.1: The loss of ascorbic acid in orange juice during storage (at 10oC) will be studied. For this experiment, define the dependent and independent variables. Independent variable (x): ……… Dependent variable (y): ………
4 Graph Graph shows the relation between dependent and independent variables.
Independent variable is plotted on
horizontal axis (abscissa, x).
Dependent variable is plotted on vertical
axis (ordinate, y).
5 Experimental data can be fitted to an equation using the following techniques
Graphical method (practical, but not concise)
Linear regression (statistical meth, very concise)
In both methods, slope and intercept are
determined.
6 Equation of straight line The equation of straight line which passes at least two points is expressed by the following equation:
y = a (x) + b
a : Slope, b : Intercept. 7 Slope: Ratio of the change in “y” variable to the change in “x” variable.
In terms of the deterioration kinetic of foods;
slope is the change in the quality factor
(concentration) in question (interest) over time.
8 Slope is calculated by placing the (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) coordinates in the following equation:
y 2 – y1 ∆y Slope (a) = ———– = —–— x 2 – x1 ∆x
9 Intercept (y-intercept); The point on the ordinate, when x=0.
To find y-intercept, straight line is
extrapolated to the point to cross the ordinate, when x=0.
10 Graphical method Original experimental data are plotted to form a straight line. Best-fitting line is passed through the data points by using «the freehand method of curve fitting.» Two points are marked on the straight line, and the coordinates are determined; (x1, y1) and (x2, y2), and then, the slope is calculated from these coordinates The intercept is calculated from the straight line. 11 Plotting the experimental data
First step: Determine the independent (x)
and dependent variable (y)
Second step: The titles of axes are
written on the center of each scale.
12 Third step: Determine increments for both “x” and “y” scales. For that, take into consideration of the smallest and largest values and then determine increments.
For example; in an experiment, orange juice
samples were taken in 0, 5, 9, 16, 22, 28 days from storage and analyzed for ascorbic acid content (55, 51, 44, 40, 37 and 30 mg/100 mL, respectively). Find out the increments in «x» and «y» axes.
13 Fourth step: Experimental data are plotted on a arithmetic or semi-log graph paper depending on the relationship between «x» and «y» values. (our purpose is to obtain the best straight line)
Experimental data are marked in cartesian
system by using circle, square, rectangular, triangle or asterix symbols, not using point, 14 Fifth step: Draw straight line which takes into consideration of all points (not necessarily passing the most points)
Sixth step: Mark two points on straight line
and determine coordinates of these points ((x1 y1) and (x2 y2)). Calculate slope using these coordinate values. Extrapolate straight line to “y” axis to determine y-intercept. 15 Seventh step: Determine the equation of straight line by using slope and intercept values.
y = a (x) + b
16 Example 2.2: Plotting the experimental data
The change in ascorbic acid (aa) content of
pasteurized orange juice during storage at 30°C was studied. AA contents of periodically drawn samples from storage were determined by HPLC method and results are given in Table 2.1.
17 Plot the experimental data in an arithmetic graph paper.
Determine slope, intercept and the
equation describing aa degradation during storage of orange juice at 30°C.
Give the units of slope and intercept.
Calculate «% aa degraded» and «% aa
retained» after 3 and 7 days of storage at 30°C. 18 Table 1 AA contents of orange juice stored at 30°C
Time (days) AA concentration (mg L–1)
2 457
4 305
5 251
6 148
19 Solution First step: Determine the independent (x) and dependent variable (y) x → y →
Second step: The titles of axes are
written on the each scale by centering the scale.
20 Third step: Determine the increments for both “x” and “y” scales.
For that, take into consideration of the smallest
and the largest values and then determine the increments.
21 For esthetical reason, «y» axis should not be started from «0.»
Although there was no need for starting «x»
from «0», «x» axis should be started from «0» in order to calculate intercept.
22 Fourth step: Experimental data are plotted on an arithmetic graph paper.
23 Fifth step: Draw straight line which «almost includes all the points» by using the freehand method of curve fitting (Figure 2).
24 Figure 2.3 Drawing straight line by the freehand method of curve fitting Askorbik asit konsantrasyonu (mg/L) 600
500
400
300
200
100 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Depolama süresi (gün)
25 Sixth step: Mark two points on straight line and determine coordinates of these points; (300, 4.10) ve (400 2.75) By using these coordinate values, calculate slope from the equation.
36 After 7 days of storage at 30oC: 85% of aa was degraded.
15% of aa was retained.
After 3 days of storage at 30oC:
36.4% of aa was degraded.
63.6% of aa was retained.
37 Example 2.3:
When the «Y» kg of water is added to 1 kg
of food material containing (X) kg of water, water content of the material is raised to 35%. Determine the equation defining this situation.
38 Solution: Water ratio of food material is defined with the following equation.
……… –––––– (100) = 35 ……..
39 Solution: Water ratio of food material is defined with the following equation. x + y –––––– (100) = 35 1+ y
This equation is rearranged to show the
“slope-intercept” form:
40 y = -1.538 x + 0.538
This is the equation which describes the
relationship between the water needed to be added to 1 kg food and the mositure content (%) of this food, which will contain 35% moisture after water addition.
41 «x» and «y» variables
x: Moisture content of food (%)
y: Amount of water needed to be added to 1 kg
food (kg)
42 This equation is plotted to the arithmetic graph paper
y = -1.538 x + 0.538
First point: Clue; y-intercept value.
x= ?, then y = ? (?, ?).
Second point: Clue; x-intercept value.
y= ?, then x = ? (?, ?). 43 y = -1.538 x + 0.538
First point: Clue; y-intercept value.
x= 0, then y = ???.
Second point: Clue; x-intercept value.
y= 0, then x = ???.
44 y = -1.538 x + 0.538
First point: Clue; y-intercept value.
x= 0, then y = 0.538.
Second point: Clue; x-intercept value.
y= 0, then x = 0.35.
45 Negative sign of slope shows that straight line will go straight down.
Of course, straight line must pass from these
two data points (Figure 2.4).
46 Figure 2.4 Graph for the equation of «Y = -1.538 X + 0.538» 0,6 Materyalin 1 kg'ına eklenemsi gereken su
47 Interpretation of the graph At any point on the straight line, the food will contain 35% water …….. kg water should be added to 1 kg food material containing 0% water, then the water content of food material will be 35%. ……. kg water should be added to 1 kg food material containing 10% water, then the water content of food material will be 35%.
48 0.538 kg water should be added to 1 kg food material containing 0% water (x=0), then the water content of food material will be 35%.
0.384 kg water should be added to 1 kg
food material containing 10% water (x=0.1), then the water content of food material will be 35%.
