Journal of Integrated Pest Management, (2019) 10(1): 12; 1–9

doi: 10.1093/jipm/pmz010
Issues

The New Integrated Pest Management Paradigm for the

Modern Age
Surendra K. Dara
Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California Cooperative Extension, San Luis Obispo, CA 93401 (skdara@
ucdavis.edu)

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Subject Editor: Thomas Kuhar

Received 14 December 2018; Editorial decision 31 March 2019

Abstract
Earlier models of integrated pest management (IPM) focused on ecological aspects of pest management. With
the recent developments in agricultural technology, modern communication tools, changing consumer trends,
increased awareness for sustainably produced food systems, and globalization of trade and travel, there seems
to be a need to revisit the IPM paradigm as appropriate for modern times. A new model, built on earlier models
based on ecological and economic aspects, is expanded and reconfigured to include management, business, and
sustainability aspects and emphasize the importance of research and outreach. The management aspect contains
four components of IPM that address the pest management options, the knowledge and resources to develop
management strategies, the management of information and making timely decisions, and the dissemination
or sharing of information. With the business aspect that includes the producer, consumer, and seller, and the
sustainability aspect that covers economic viability, environmental safety, and social acceptability, the new model
presents the human, environmental, social, and economic factors that influence the food production.

Key words: economic viability, environmental safety, IPM, new model, pest management

The concept of integrated pest management (IPM), a sustainable overall economic, health, and environmental risks. Several other
strategy for managing pests, has been in practice for a long time. definitions also focus on minimizing or eliminating the reliance on
Although multiple sources define IPM in different ways, previous chemical control options, adopting a number of other options with
models primarily focused on the ecological, and to some extent on the emphasis on environmental and human health. However, some
the evolutionary, aspects of pest management (Peterson et al. 2018). practitioners interpret IPM as rotating chemicals from different
A recent IPM pyramid presented by Stenberg (2017) identified a lack mode of action groups to maintain pest control efficacy and reduce
of a holistic IPM approach that uses both traditional and modern pesticide resistance with an emphasis on reducing pest damage.
tools. However, his conceptual framework mainly dealt with the These definitions and interpretations represent a variety of objectives
ecological aspects of pest management with an emphasis on inter- and strategies for managing pests including vertebrate and inverte-
disciplinary research approach. Several reports indicated that IPM brate pests, diseases, and weeds. IPM is not a principle that strictly
implementation depends on numerous factors including the level of and uniformly applies to every situation, but a philosophy that can
education, economic and social conditions, environmental aware- guide the practitioner to use it as appropriate for their situation.
ness, rational thinking, moral values, regulatory aspects, government For example, host plant resistance is effectively used in some crops
policies, availability of IPM tools, extension education, consumer with pest and disease resistant or tolerant varieties, but not in other
preference, and retail marketing (Parsa et al. 2014, Lefebvre et al. crops. Pheromones are widely used for mating disruption, mass trap-
2015, Jayasooriya and Aheeyar 2016, Rezaei et al. 2019). However, ping, or monitoring of certain lepidopteran and coleopteran pests,
there is no IPM model that encompasses all these factors and pro- but not for several hemipteran pests. Biological control is commonly
vides a comprehensive description. used for greenhouse pests, but not to the same extent in the field.
The interpretation of IPM also varies among those who develop, Mechanical tools such as bug vacuums are used in high-value crops
promote, or practice IPM strategies. For example, according to the such as strawberry, but they are not an economical option in non-
United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research specialty crops and are not carbon efficient because of fossil fuel con-
Service (USDA-ARS 2018), IPM is a sustainable, science-based, sumption. While chemical pesticides should be used as the last resort,
decision-making process that combines biological, cultural, physical, in principle, sometimes they are the first line of defense to prevent the
and chemical tools to identify, manage, and reduce risk from pests area-wide spread of certain endemic or invasive pests and diseases or
and pest management tools and strategies in a way that minimizes to protect the seed and transplants from common and persistent pest
© The Author(s) 2019. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/ 1
licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. For
commercial re-use, please contact [email protected]
2 Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1

problems. Seed treatment with chemical pesticides, e.g., has become • Minimize potential negative impact of the non-IPM-based con-
a popular prophylactic measure in many crops in recent years. ventional practices or those perceived to be sustainable alterna-
Crop production is an art, a science, and an enterprise, and by tives on the environment and challenges associated with managing
adding environmental and social factors, IPM—an approach used certain pests
in crop production—is also influenced by a number of factors. Each
grower has their own strategy for producing crops, minimizing
losses, and making a profit in a manner that is acceptable to the re- Management Aspect
tailer, safe for the consumers, and less disruptive to the environment. There are four major components in the new IPM model that address
In other words, IPM is an approach to manage pests in an econom- various pest management options, the knowledge, and resources the
ically viable, socially acceptable, and environmentally safe manner. grower has to address the pest issue, planning and organization of in-
Keeping this short, but complex, definition in mind and considering formation to take appropriate management actions, and maintaining
recent advances in crop production and protection, communication good communication to acquire and disseminate knowledge about
technology, and globalization of agriculture and commerce, a new pests and their management.
paradigm of IPM (Fig. 1) is presented with its management, busi-

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ness, and sustainability aspects having the following direct or in-
Pest Management
direct objectives:
The concept of pest control has changed to pest management over
• Update the IPM concept as appropriate for modern times and en- the years knowing that a balanced approach to managing pest popu-
courage re-evaluation of what is perceived as sustainable lations to levels that do not cause economic losses is better than
• Build consumer confidence and education in an IPM-based pro- eliminating or eradicating (except for newly introduced invasive
duction system that is ideal for all crops and situations, ensures pests), for environmental and economic reasons. Although the term
global food security, and eliminates food-based social inequality control is frequently used in literature and conversations, it generally
• Ensure profitability for the producers while allowing informed refers to management. A thorough knowledge of general IPM prin-
consumers, rather than special interest groups or retailers, to make ciples and various management options for all possible pest prob-
their food choice lems is important as some are preventive and others are curative.

Fig. 1. New IPM paradigm with its various components and influencing factors for economically viable, socially acceptable, and environmentally safe pest
management.
Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 3

Some of the recommended practices may not be practical in all situ- rotation with non-host or tolerant crops will break the pest cycles
ations and the grower or the pest control professional has to choose and reduce their buildup year after year. Crop rotation tactic has
the option(s) appropriate for their situation. It is also essential to been used for insect, disease, and weed management in many crop-
understand inherent and potential interactions among these manage- ping systems (Curl 1963, Wright 1984, Liebman and Dyck 1993,
ment options to achieve desired control. The following are common Mohler and Johnson 2009). Intercropping of non-host plants or
control options that can be used at different stages of crop produc- those that deter pests or using trap crops to divert pests away from
tion to prevent, reduce, or treat pest infestations. Each of them may the main crop are some of the other cultural control strategies in
provide a certain level of control, but their additive effect can be IPM (Pretty and Bharucha 2015, Nielsen et al. 2016).
significant in preventing yield losses.
Biological Control
Host Plant Resistance Natural enemies such as predatory arthropods and parasitic wasps
A strategy that involves the use of pest-resistant and pest-tolerant can be very effective in causing significant reductions in pest popula-
cultivars developed through traditional breeding or genetic engin- tions in certain circumstances (Hajek and Eilenberg 2018). Periodical
eering (Douglas 2018, Kennedy 2008, Nelson et al. 2018). These releases of commercially available natural enemies or conserving nat-

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cultivars possess physical, morphological, or biochemical characters ural enemy populations by providing refuges or avoiding practices
that reduce the plant’s attractiveness or suitability for the pest to that harm them are some of the common practices to control endemic
feed, develop, or reproduce successfully. These cultivars resist or tol- pests. Biological control has been successfully used in greenhouses
erate pest damage and thus reduce the yield losses. This option is the (van Lenteren 1988) and specialty crops such as strawberries grown in
first line of defense in IPM. the field (Zalom et al. 2018). To address invasive pest issues, classical
biological control approach is typically used where natural enemies
Cultural Control from the native region of the invasive pest are imported, multiplied,
Adopting good agronomic practices that avoid or reduce pest infest- and released in the new habitat of the pest (Kenis et al. 2017, Heimpel
ations and damage refers to cultural control. Choosing clean seed or and Cock 2018). The release of irradiated, sterile insects is another
plant material is critical to avoid the chances of introducing pests biological control technique that has been effectively used against a
right from the beginning of the crop production. Adjusting plan- number of pests (Klassen and Curtis 2005).
ting dates can help escape pest occurrence or avoid most vulnerable
stages. Early planting of cowpea reduced aphid, thrips, and pod bug
Behavioral Control
infestations in Uganda (Karungi et al. 2000) and the legume pod-
The behavior of the pest can be exploited for its monitoring and con-
borer (Maruca vitrata), the legume flower thrips (Megalurothrips
trol through baits, traps, and mating disruption techniques (Heinz et
sjostedti), and the pod sucking bug (Clarigralla tomentosicollis) in
al. 1992, Shorey and Gerber 1996, Foster and Harris 1997, Vladés et
Nigeria (Asante et al. 2001). Plant density or row spacing will also
al. 2005, El-Sayed et al. 2009, Morrison et al. 2016). Baits containing
have an impact on pest infestations. High plant density reduced
poisonous material will attract and kill the pests when distributed
root maggot (Delia spp.) infestations in canola in Canada (Dosdall
in the field or placed in traps. Pests are attracted to certain colors,
et al. 1996) and aphid infestations in cowpea in Uganda (Karungi
lights, odors of attractants or pheromones. Devices that use one or
et al. 2000). Modifying irrigation practices, fertilizer program, and
more of these can be used to attract, trap or kill pests. Pheromone
other agronomic practices can create conditions that are less suit-
lures confuse adult insects and disrupt their mating potential, and
able for the pest. Micro-sprinklers are installed on the strawberry
thus reduce their offspring.
beds as a spider mite control strategy especially in organic straw-
berries in California (personal observation). Strawberry plots with
Physical or Mechanical Control
micro-sprinklers also appeared to have less severe powdery mildew
This approach refers to the use of a variety of physical or mechanical
(caused by Podosphaera aphanis) and botrytis fruit rot (caused by
techniques for pest exclusion, trapping (in some cases similar to the
Botrytis cinerea) infections compared with the plots with overhead
behavioral control), removal, or destruction (Webb and Linda 1992,
aluminum sprinklers (Dara et al. 2016). Low potassium content
Gamliel and Katan 2012, Gogo et al. 2014, Dara et al. 2018). Pest
in plants induces jasmonic acid synthesis in plants and helps with
exclusion with netting or row covers, handpicking or vacuuming to
plant’s ability to withstand insect pests and certain diseases (Davis
remove pests, mechanical tools for weed control, traps for rodent
et al. 2018). Increased plant nitrogen can exacerbate arthropod in-
pests, modifying environmental conditions such as heat or humidity
festations (Hodson and Lampinen 2018). High (Mitchell et al. 2003)
in greenhouses, steam sterilization or solarization, visual or physical
or low nitrogen (Snoeijers et al. 2000) content in the plant can also
bird deterrents such as reflective material or sonic devices are some
contribute to some disease problems. Destroying crop residue and
examples of physical or mechanical control.
thorough cultivation will eliminate breeding sites and control soil-
inhabiting stages of the pest. Sanitation practices to remove infected/
infested plant material, regular cleaning field equipment, avoiding Microbial Control
accidental contamination of healthy fields through human ac- Using entomopathogenic bacteria, fungi, microsporidia, nematodes,
tivity are also important to prevent the pest spread. For example, or viruses, and fermentation byproducts of some microbes against
winter plowing of orchard floors reduced the pistachio psyllids arthropod pests, plant parasitic nematodes, and plant pathogens
(Agonoscena pistaciae) overwintering in the leaf litter and weeds in generally come under microbial control (Mankau 1981, Paulitz and
Iran (Mehrnejad 2018). Plowing is also an important control option Bélanger 2001, Dong and Zhang 2006, Lacey 2017).
to destroy the crop residue and expose the soil-inhabiting stages of
several vegetable pests (Kunjwal and Srivastava 2018). Sanitation Chemical Control
practices such as bagging unmarketable berries or even changing the Chemical control typically refers to the use of synthetic chemical pes-
harvest schedule from every 3 d to 1–2 d reduced spotted-wing dros- ticides (Pimental 2009). However, to be technically accurate, chem-
ophila (Drosophila suzukii) infestations (Leach et al. 2017). Crop ical control should include synthetic chemicals as well as chemicals
4 Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1

of microbial or botanical origin. Although botanical extracts such as to make a decision appropriate for their situation. Conversations
azadirachtin and pyrethrins, and microbe-derived toxic metabolites with growers in different parts of United States and other countries
such as avermectin and spinosad are regarded as biologicals (Lasota revealed that IPM implementation is limited by the lack of sufficient
and Dybas 1991, Sarfraz et al. 2005, Dodia et al. 2010), they are still knowledge, resources, or immediate economic benefit. It is also evi-
chemical molecules, similar to synthetic chemicals, and possess many dent from many conversations with growers and pest control pro-
of the human and environmental safety risks as chemical pesticides. fessionals in California that resistance management seen as rotating
Chemical pesticides are categorized into different groups based on pesticides among different mode of action groups is commonly per-
their mode of action (IRAC 2018) and rotating chemicals from dif- ceived as IPM, although resistance management is only a part of
ferent mode of action groups is recommended to reduce the risk of IPM. IPM implementation is especially a challenge in developing
resistance development (Sparks and Nauen 2015). Government re- countries or with low-income growers in developed countries. Socio-
gulations restrict the time and amount of certain chemical pesticides psychological factors including rational and moral considerations
and help mitigate the associated risks. were found to the drivers in IPM implementation in Iran (Rezaei et
The new ribonucleic acid interference (RNAi) technology where al. 2019). A survey of vegetable growers in Sri Lanka showed that
double-stranded RNA is applied to silence specific genes in the nearly 50% of them practiced calendar-based chemical pesticide ap-

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target insect is considered as biopesticide application (Gordon and plications before pest or disease occurrence and only 20% had some
Waterhouse 2007). Certain biostimulants based on minerals, mi- understanding of IPM (Jayasooriya and Aheeyar 2016). A survey
crobes, plant extracts, seaweed or algae impart induced systemic re- conducted by Parsa et al. (2014) also showed that a lack of qualified
sistance to pests, diseases, and abiotic stressors, but are applied as IPM experts and extension educators was an impediment for IPM
amendments without any claims for pest or disease control (Larkin implementation in developed countries.
2008, Vleesschauwer and Höfte 2009, Sharma et al. 2014, López-
Bucio et al 2015, Dara 2018a). These new products or technolo- Pest
gies can fall into one or more abovementioned categories of pest Identification of the pest, understanding its biology and seasonal
management. population trends, damaging life stages and their habitats, nature of
All the pest management options need careful consideration and the damage and its economic significance, the vulnerability of each
application to avoid potential risks. For example, several pests de- life stage for one or more control options, host preference and al-
veloped resistance to transgenic crops with Bacillus thuringiensis ternate hosts, predictability of pest occurrence based on the envir-
toxic proteins (Tabashnik et al. 2013) and planting non-transgenic onment, cropping trends, farming practices, and other influencing
plants along with resistant plants has been recommend, among factors, and all the related information is critical for identifying an
other strategies, to reduce the resistance development (Tang et al. effective control strategy.
2001, Huang et al. 2011). The western corn rootworm, Diabrotica
virgifera virgifera, adapted to the cultural practice of rotating soy-
Available Control Options
bean with corn (Gray et al. 2013) and gut bacteria, among other
Because not all control options can be used against every pest, the
factors, appears to facilitate this adaptation (Chu et al. 2013). Pests
grower has to choose the ones that are ideal for the situation. For ex-
can also develop resistance to botanical and microbial pesticides if
ample, systemic insecticides are more effective against pests that mine
they are overused (Dara 2017). While mating disruption is success-
or bore into the plant tissue. Pests that follow a particular seasonal
fully used for controlling several pests, factors such as migration of
pattern can be controlled by adjusting planting dates. Commercially
mated females and alternative mate recruitment strategies of some
available natural enemies can be released against some, while mating
species could affect the efficacy of this technique (Cardé and Minks
disruption works well against others. Entomopathogenic nematodes
1995). Pesticide resistance in arthropod pests is a longtime problem
can be used against certain soil pests, bacteria, and viruses against
in pest management (Georghiou 1983) and one of the key factors
pests with chewing mouthparts such as Lepidoptera and Coleoptera,
for developing IPM strategies. As required by the crop and pest situ-
while fungi are effective against a variety of pests. Although planting
ation, one or more of the control options can be used throughout the alfalfa strips in strawberry fields to attract and vacuum the western
production period for effective pest management. When used effect- tarnished plant bug, Lygus hesperus, has been recommended as an
ively, nonchemical control options delay, reduce, or eliminate the use IPM tactic by Swezey et al. (2007), the idea did not take off because
of chemical pesticides. growers were not ready for such an intercropping arrangement.
Although pest management decisions are supposed to be based Growers are reluctant to lose some of the land for alfalfa and con-
on economic injury levels and thresholds, in many situations they cerned that alfalfa might attract more L. hesperus into strawberry
are either not available, difficult to determine, not applicable to fields. In some areas, where agricultural land is in shortage or there
all geographic regions or seasons, or existing ones need revalid- is a continuous demand for specialty crops, certain IPM practices
ation (Poston et al. 1983). Some of the established thresholds are such as allocating space for natural enemy habitats or crop rotation
also questionable. Because crop production is highly precise due are not always possible. For example, on some farms, strawberries
to modern technologies on one hand, as well as highly variable de- are grown year after year without a rotation with vegetables or cover
pending on a myriad of biotic and abiotic factors and the proprietary crops on the California Central Coast (personal observations).
practices of different farming operations, information management
and decision-making parts play a critical role in IPM. One cannot Tools and Technology
offer a one-size-fits-all solution and the pest control efficacy depends A particular pest can be controlled by certain options, but they may
on several factors in addition to the option used. not all be available in a particular place, for a particular crop, or
within the available financial means. For example, the release of nat-
Knowledge and Resources ural enemies may be possible in high-value specialty crops, but not
The knowledge of various control options, pest biology and damage in large acreage field crops. A particular pesticide might have been
potential, and suitability of available resources enables the grower registered for a pest on some crops, but not on all. Use of netting,
Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 5

row covers, or tractor-mounted vacuums can be effective, but very management will allow the grower to act in a timely manner. These
expensive limiting their availability to those who can afford. actions are not only necessary to prevent damage on a particular
This is an important component where diagnostic and preventive farm, but also to prevent the spread to neighboring farms. When
or curative decisions are made based on available and affordable pest management is neglected on a farm, it can spread to neighboring
control options. With more regulations on pesticide use and a re- farms and become an area-wide problem with larger regulatory, so-
duction in the number of active ingredients in some crops, there cial, and economic implications.
is a higher emphasis on better understanding of available control
options (Hillocks 2012). Regulatory guidelines that limit the use of Communication
certain pesticides or promote the use of others can have a major in- Good communication to transfer the individual or collective know-
fluence on IPM implementation. Many countries have phased out ledge for the benefit of everyone is the last component of the new
broad-spectrum pesticides and fumigants. Recent concern for pollin- IPM model. Modern and traditional communication tools can be
ator health has also led to restrictions on the use of certain pesticides. used for outreach as researchers develop information about endemic
While these factors in the knowledge and resources component and invasive pests, emerging threats, and new control strategies.
cover the implementation part of IPM, having sufficient resources

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to develop IPM strategies is a critical part in the whole equation
Staying Informed
that is often ignored. Shortage of IPM specialists, limited financial
Growers and pest control professionals should stay informed about
resources for research and extension, and inherent challenges in
existing and emerging pests and their management options. Science-
conducting time-consuming applied agricultural research are some
based information can be obtained by attending extension meetings,
of the hurdles in developing and disseminating IPM strategies. Too
webinars, or workshops, reading the newsletter, trade, extension, or
often, many of the IPM tools and technologies do not reach the im-
scientific journal articles, and keeping in touch with researchers and
plementation stage due to practical limitations such as a high cost of
other professionals through various communication channels. There
commercialization or lack of interest in its adoption.
are several online resources from universities and other reputed in-
stitutions and smartphone applications that provide regular updates
Planning and Organization (Dara 2016). Well-informed growers can be well prepared to address
This component deals with the management aspect of the new IPM pest issues. Keeping abreast with pest issues and their management
model for data collection, organization, and actual actions against trends is also very important for researchers and extension profes-
pest infestations. sionals as they develop and disseminate new strategies.

Pest Monitoring Communication Within the Group

Regularly monitoring the fields for pest occurrence and spread is Educating farm crew through periodical training or communica-
a basic step in crop protection. Early detection in many cases can tion will help with all aspects of pest management, proper pesticide
help address the pest situation by low-cost spot treatment or re- handling, ensuring worker safety, and preventing environmental
moval of pests or infested or infected plant material. When pest in- contamination. Knowledgeable field crews will be able to identify
festations continue to grow, regular monitoring is necessary to assess and monitor pest problems and effectively execute the management
the damage and determine the time to initiate farm-wide control. strategies.
Monitoring is also important to avoid calendar-based pesticide ap-
plications especially at lower pest populations that do not warrant
Communication Among Growers
treatments. For example, sampling-based fumigation along with im-
Although certain crop production and protection strategies are con-
proved sanitation and other practices can be an economical alterna-
sidered proprietary information, sharing knowledge and resources
tive to calendar-based fumigation of wheat in elevators (Adam et al.
with each other will improve pest control efficacy and benefit the en-
2010). During many conversations with growers and colleagues in
tire grower community. Pests do not have boundaries and can spread
extension, it appeared that thorough scouting or decision-making to multiple fields when they are not effectively managed throughout
solely based on scouting are not possible due to the lack of re- the region. Growers in developing countries feel that collective ac-
sources. However, drone-assisted aerial imagery for pest detection tion is required for IPM implementation as there is a lack of suffi-
and identification or to locate areas that are exposed to biotic or cient knowledge (Parsa et al. 2014).
abiotic stressors can improve the monitoring efficiency and precision
(Vanegas et al. 2018, Yue et al. 2018). Some of these tools are already
Communication With the Public
available for commercial use.
Public demand is influenced by retail marketing strategies, concerns
for food safety based on pesticide regulations in their region, and a
Managing Information lack of knowledge on food production among other factors. During
A good recordkeeping about pests, their damage, effective treat- multiple outreach meetings and field tours organized exclusively
ments, seasonal fluctuations, interactions with environmental for the public in Southern California during the past few years, it
factors, irrigation practices, plant nutrition, and other related infor- was evident that a majority was not aware of farming systems, had
mation from year to year will build the institutional knowledge on a misunderstanding about sustainable agriculture, and believed that
farm and prepares the grower to take preventive or curative actions. organic food is pesticide-free (Dara personal observations and un-
published survey data). They indicated a change in their knowledge
Corrective Actions and a potential change in their behavior in making food choices fol-
Taking a timely action is probably the most important aspect of lowing the discussions and field tours. Educating public will help
IPM. Even with all the knowledge about the pest and availability their understanding of and preference for organic, conventional, or
of resources for its effective management, losses can be prevented sustainably produced food as well as influence policy and regulatory
only when corrective actions are taken at the right time. Good farm decisions in their regions to ensure food safety and security.
6 Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1

Research and Outreach Although organic food production is generally perceived as safe
Research and outreach are an integral part of the IPM model to and sustainable, the following examples can explain why it is not
identify and anticipate pest problems, develop preventive and cura- necessarily true. Organic food production is not pesticide-free and
tive strategies, and effectively disseminate the information through some of the pesticides used in an organic system are as harmful to
traditional and modern communication tools and strategies. United humans and nontarget organisms as some chemical pesticides. For
States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA 2018) recognizes example, pyrethrins are highly toxic to honey bees, fish, and aquatic
education and outreach as the key factors in IPM implementa- invertebrates (NPIC 2014). Certain organically accepted pesticides
tion. A study conducted by Parsa et al. (2014) involving IPM have toxins or natural chemical molecules that are very similar to
professionals and practitioners from 96 countries revealed that in- those in synthetic pesticides. In fact, some synthetic pesticides (e.g.,
adequate training and technical support as major obstacle for IPM synthetic pyrethroids vs pyrethrins and neonicotinoids vs nico-
implementation. Cameron (2007) identified that science-based so- tine) are manufactured imitating the pesticidal molecules of natural
lutions and extension services are critical for IPM implementation origin. Pests develop resistance to biopesticides just as they develop
in vegetables and fruits in New Zealand. Developing science-based resistance to chemical pesticides. Arthropod resistance to abamectin
information through applied research, effective outreach based (Stumpf and Nauen 2002), B. thuringiensis formulations or its cry

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on the socioeconomic and demographic structure of the clientele, toxins in genetically modified crops (Hama et al. 1992, Tabashnik et
networking and communication skills of extension educators, and al. 2013), spinosad (Scott 2008), and other biopesticides (Dara 2017)
reputation of researchers and extension educators play an important are well documented. Kaolin particle films used in organic farming
role in educating IPM practitioners. might control some pests, but can negatively impact natural enemies
In addition to the research and outreach foundation and the four and cause other pests to proliferate (Markó et al. 2008). Organic
components of management, factors that influence profitable, safe, farming practices might encourage natural enemy populations, but
and affordable food production at a larger scale and their impli- a higher number of natural enemies does not always result in pest
cations for global food security should also be included in an IPM suppression (Dara 2014). Mechanical pest control practices such as
model. There are two layers surrounding these four components ad- vacuuming or tilling utilize fossil fuels and indirectly have a negative
dressing the business and sustainable aspects of food production. impact on the environment. For example, diesel-powered tractors
are operated for vacuuming western tarnished bug in strawberry 2–3
times or more each week while a pesticide application typically re-
Business Aspect quires the use of tractor once every 7–14 d. To control certain pests,
Consumers want nutritious, healthy, and tasty produce that is free multiple applications of organic pesticides might be necessary with
of pest damage at affordable prices. Growers try to meet this de- associated costs and risks, while similar pest populations could be
mand by producing food that meets all the consumer needs, while controlled by fewer chemical pesticide applications. It is very diffi-
maintaining environmental and human safety, and still being able cult to manage certain plant diseases and arthropod pests through
to make a profit. Sellers evaluate the market demand and strategize nonchemical means in some crops (Flinckh et al. 2006). Inadequate
their sales to satisfy consumers while making their own profit to stay control not only leads to crop losses, but can result in their spread to
in the business. In an ideal system, consumer, producer, and seller larger areas making their control even more difficult. Manure com-
would maintain a harmonious balance of food production and sale. monly used in organic farms can have a bigger carbon footprint, and
In such a system, food is safe and affordable to everyone, there will be nitrate shortage in the root zone and nitrate leaching are common in
food security all over the world, and both growers and sellers make organic farms (Tal 2018). A meta-analysis of European research by
a good profit with minimal risk to the environment in the process Tuomisto et al. (2012) identified both positive and negative impacts
of food production. However, this balance is frequently disrupted of organic farming in terms of nutrient management and empha-
due to 1) consumers’ misunderstanding of various food production sized the need to improve both organic and conventional systems
systems, their demand for perfectly shaped fruits and vegetables at for reducing negative environmental impacts and increasing yields.
affordable prices, or their willingness to pay a premium price for Many growers prefer a good IPM-based production to an organic
food items that are perceived to be safe, 2) growers trying to find production for the ease of operation and profitability. However,
economical ways of producing high-quality food while facing with they continue to produce organic food to stay in business. Multiple
continuous pest problems and other challenges, and 3) sellers trying conversations with the strawberry and vegetable growers in the
to market organic food at a higher price as a safer alternative to con- Central Coast region of California indicated that they produce
ventionally produced food. If growers implement good IPM strat- organically to meet the market demand, but they prefer a system
egies to produce safe food and consumers are aware of this practice where they can use nonorganic options when and as needed (Dara
and have confidence in food produced in an IPM-based system, then unpublished data). Growers in Bangladesh, Haiti, Moldova, and
sellers would be able to market what informed-consumers demand. Myanmar, during training programs organized by the U.S. Agency
Extension traditionally focused on educating the growers and those for International Development, shared that organic farming is more
involved in food production, but public education on the importance challenging than conventional farming especially for pest manage-
of IPM can have a significant influence on the way food is produced. ment, but they produce organically because of high returns (personal
communication). A small study conducted in the United Kingdom
reported that organic growers had ecocentric reasons for protecting
Sustainability Aspect the environment while conventional growers had anthropocentric
IPM is an approach to ensure economic viability at both consumer reasons to ensure food security (Kings and Ilbery 2011). However,
and producer level (seller is always expected to make a profit), envir- a more recent review article thoroughly compared organic and con-
onmental safety through a balanced use of all available pest control ventional farming approaches at the global level (Tal 2018). When
options, and social acceptability since IPM-based food is safe and the productivity, biodiversity, water quality, off-site environmental
affordable. impacts, carbon footprint, climate change, and other aspects were
Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 7

compared, carefully run conventional farming appears to be more Apaolaza, V., P. Hartmann, C. D’Souza, and C. M. López. 2018. Eat organic
sustainable than organic farming. Compared to organic farming or a – feel good? The relationship between organic food consumption, health
conventional farming with non-ecocentric approach, a conventional concern and subjective wellbeing. Food Qual. Preference 63: 51–62.
Asante, S. K., M. Tamo, and L. E. N. Jackai. 2001. Integrated management of
system based on IPM principles and focused on sustainability is safe,
cowpea insect pests using elite cultivars, date of planting and minimum
profitable, and practical (Dara 2018b).
insecticide application. Afr. Crop Sci. J. 9: 655–665.
While middle and upper-class consumers may be willing to
Bourn, D., and J. Prescott. 2010. A comparison of the nutritional value, sen-
pay higher prices for organically produced food, many of the sory qualities, and food safety of organically and conventionally produced
low-income groups in developed and underdeveloped countries foods. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 42: 1–34.
cannot afford such food. Organic food production can lead to so- Cameron, P. J. 2007. Factors influencing the development of integrated pest
cial inequality and a false sense of well-being for those can afford. management (IPM) in selected vegetable crops: a review. N.Z. J. Crop
Nutritional quality of organic foods is more for certain nutrients, Hort. Sci. 35: 365–384.
while it is more for conventional foods for others (Worthington Cardé, R. T., and A. K. Minks. 1995. Control of moth pests by mating disrup-
2001, Dangour et al. 2009, Bourn and Prescott 2010, Popa et al. tion: successes and constraints. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 40: 559–585.
Chu, C.-C., J. L. Spencer, M. J. Curzi, J. A. Zavala, and M. J. Seufferheld. 2013.
2018). Although subjective well-being is reported from organic
Gut bacteria facilitate adaptation to crop rotation in the western corn

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food consumption (Apaolaza et al. 2018), the evidence of health
rootworm. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 110: 11917–11922.
benefits from the nutritional quality of organic foods is yet to be
Curl, E. A. 1963. Control of plant diseases by crop rotation. The Botanical
validated (Dangour et al. 2009, Bourn and Prescott 2010). Food Review 29: 413–479.
security for the growing world population is necessary through Dangour, A. D., S. K. Dodhia, A. Hayter, E. Allen, K. Lock, and R. Uauy. 2009.
optimizing input costs, minimizing wastage, grower adoption of Nutritional quality of organic foods: a systematic review. Am. J. Clin.
safe and sustainable practices, and consumer confidence in food Nutr. 90: 680–685.
produced through such practices. IPM addresses all the economic, Dara, S. K. 2014. Comparing lygus bug and natural enemy popula-
environmental, and social aspects and provides safe and affordable tions in organic and conventional strawberry fields in Santa Maria.
food to the consumers and profits to producers and sellers, while University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources eJournal
Strawberries and Vegetables. https://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/postdetail.
maintaining environmental health.
cfm?postnum=14030
Dara, S. K. 2016. Android version of the IPMinfo app with new features just
Conclusions released. University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources
Earlier IPM models are designed from the scientific perspective with eJournal Strawberries and Vegetables. https://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/
a focus on ecological, environmental and evolutionary aspects of postdetail.cfm?postnum=22223
pest management to reduce or prevent economic losses. There was Dara, S. K. 2017. Insect resistance to biopesticides. University of California
limited scope to include the human, social, business, and commu- Agriculture and Natural Resources eJournal Strawberries and Vegetables.
https://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/postdetail.cfm?postnum=25819
nication aspects of the total equation in the previous models that
Dara, S. K. 2018a. Evaluation of additive, soil amendment, and biostimulant
may be deficient in effective promotion and implementation of IPM.
products in Santa Maria strawberry. CAPCA Adviser 21: 44–50.
Several examples discussed in this paper showed the influence of
Dara, S. K. 2018b. Safe, profitable, and practical label for sustainable produc-
these factors on development, outreach, and successful implemen- tion and food security. Progressive Crop Consultant 3: 20–23.
tation of IPM practices around the world. Since IPM is a part of Dara, S. K., S. Sandoval-Solis, and D. Peck. 2016. Improving strawberry ir-
agriculture, which is a consumer-oriented enterprise, and agriculture rigation with micro-sprinklers and their impact on pest management.
is a part of global trade, which is influenced by several other factors, Agricultural Sciences 7: 859–868.
IPM is redefined for the modern times where advanced agricultural Dara, S. K., D. Peck, and D. Murray. 2018. Chemical and non-chemical options
technologies and communication tools play a critical role in food for managing twospotted spider mite, western tarnished plant bug and
production and consumption. Although the two outer layers in the other arthropod pests in strawberries. Insects 9: 156.
Davis, J. L., P. Armengaud, T. R. Larson, I. A. Graham, P. J. White, A. C.
new model can be applicable to more than pest management, they
Newton, and A. Amtmann. 2018. Contrasting nutrient-disease relation-
do have a significant influence on IPM within the entire crop produc-
ships: potassium gradients in barley leaves have opposite effects on two
tion and are the driving force for farming operations. Agricultural
fungal pathogens with different sensitivities to jasmonic acid. Plant. Cell
researchers, educators, sociologists, economists, business analysts, Environ. 41: 2357–2372.
managers, growers, pest management professionals, agricultural Dodia, D. A., I. S. Patel, and G. M. Patel. 2010. Botanical pesticides for pest
input manufacturers, retailers, and consumers play a critical role in management. Scientific Publishers (India), Jodhpur, India.
food production. By reconfiguring the components and including Dong, L. Q., and K. Q. Zhang. 2006. Microbial control of plant-parasitic
various factors that influence them, the new IPM model provides a nematodes: a five-party interaction. Plant Soil 288: 31–45.
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spp. (Diptera: Anthomyiidae), in canola. Can. J. Plant Sci. 76: 169–177.
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Douglas, A. E. 2018. Strategies for enhanced crop resistance to insect pests.
implement sustainable agricultural practices to ensure profitability
Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 69: 637–660.
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