Journal of Manufacturing Processes 131 (2024) 1179–1201

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Journal of Manufacturing Processes

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/manpro

Review article

Metal additive manufacturing: Principles and applications

S. Patel, Y. Liu, Z. Siddique, I. Ghamarian *
School of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Additive manufacturing (AM) of metals has gained massive attention due to its salient features, such as a tool-
Metal additive manufacturing free process, near-net shape product development, less fabrication time, and no restriction on product size. This
Process parameters paper provides a brief overview of common metal AM processes, including powder bed fusion, binder jetting,
Powder preparation
directed energy deposition, and sheet lamination. The advantages of each metal AM technology and their lim­
Additive manufacturing applications
itations are compared and addressed with examples. Critical steps to ensure the successful 3D printing of metal
structures are discussed for each metal AM approach. The effect of each processing parameter is critically
analyzed to enhance fabrication characteristics. The metal AM mechanisms, optimization of processing param­
eters, powder preparation techniques and their effects on the powder morphology, and applications of metal AM
are discussed.

1. Introduction including process design, programming, thermodynamics, heat transfer,

fluid mechanics, materials science, and computational physics. Metal
Additive manufacturing (AM) creates three-dimensional (3D) objects AM involves an in-depth study from feedstock preparation techniques to
by depositing the material in a layer-by-layer fashion. The first AM part the fabrication of the AM parts with the required dimensional accuracy.
using computer-controlled material deposition was developed in 1980 Different AM methods have unique capabilities in terms of production
to create a rapid prototyping model [1]. Computer-controlled material rate, component strength, dimensional tolerance, part complexity, and
deposition enables AM to create a product on demand, as it significantly material type. While most AM methods involve material fusion (e.g.,
reduces the time to produce a component [2]. ASTM International [3] PBF and DED), part fabrication is also feasible using binding and sin­
has classified the AM processes into seven categories: (i) powder bed tering (e.g., AM binder jetting). Consequently, depending upon the ex­
fusion (PBF), (ii) directed energy deposition (DED), (iii) binder jetting, pected properties and performance (e.g., part properties such as residual
(iv) material jetting, (v) material extrusion, (vi) VAT photo­ stresses, porosity, and dimensional accuracy), various manufacturing
polymerization, and (vii) sheet lamination. options are available via different AM methods.
The feasibility of manufacturing complex integrities with minimum In the present work, metal AM techniques are discussed, offering a
material loss makes it fascinating over conventional manufacturing brief overview of working principles and their capabilities. It explores
techniques. AM enables manufacturing structures with lightweight, the process parameters, feedstock preparation, and applications in
intricate geometries and high functionality. Furthermore, the diverse fields. The recent advancements in metal AM have facilitated the
manufacturing cost of AM parts is irrespective of the production quan­ production of viable products, particularly in the aerospace and medical
tity [4]. AM is highly adopted for the manufacturing of prototypes and sectors. The article provides a comprehensive examination of the oper­
customized products. Nowadays, AM applications are transformed from ational principles underlying metal AM processes and demonstrates how
rapid prototyping to manufacturing functional components [5]. It is these processes are applied to manufacture specialized equipment that
spread over a wide range of fields, including the aerospace [6], auto­ poses challenges for traditional fabrication methods. The concise over­
mobile [7], construction [8], medical [9], and chemical and biochemical view of metal AM methods is discussed in section 2. Section 3 provides a
[10] industries. summary of processing parameters governing the fabrication of AM
AM is suitable for almost all types of materials, including metals, parts, emphasizing the multifaceted nature of these parameters. Section
polymers, ceramics, and composites [11]. A detailed study of AM pro­ 4 investigates feedstock (powder) preparation methods, the powder
cesses requires insightful knowledge of the different fields of science, morphology obtained from these methods, and their effect on the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (I. Ghamarian).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2024.09.101
Received 26 November 2022; Received in revised form 4 December 2023; Accepted 28 September 2024
1526-6125/© 2024 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training,
and similar technologies.
S. Patel et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 131 (2024) 1179–1201

formation of the pores. Section 5 presents the recent applications of the PBF consists very thin layer of powder that is uniformly distributed on
metal AM in the industries, including manufacturing biomedical im­ the base plate. Powder distribution and its layer thickness are essential
plants and functional components in the aerospace, automobile, and oil to ensure the uniform fusion of metal particles.
and gas industries. This article will prove valuable in comprehending Powder delivery and recoated systems are used to achieve uniform
metal AM technology and elucidating the research imperatives crucial powder deposition after processing each layer. A fixed quantity of
for propelling progress in customized high-end applications. It aims to powder is supplied from a reservoir by moving the piston upward, and a
broaden the scope of additive manufacturing and contribute to the recoater is used to uniformly spread the powder over the base plate or
progress in this field. the processed layer. Once the layer is processed, the working platform
moves downward, and the recoater again spreads the powder to build
2. Metal AM methods subsequent layers. Two types of recoaters are common in use: (i) soft
blade recoaters and (ii) hard blade recoaters. Soft blade recoaters are
AM processes can be categorized based on the heat source or material made from rubber or carbon fiber brush, which gently distribute the
supply. The common heat sources are laser [12], electron beam [13], or powder particles with minimum applied forces. Fabricating the com­
arc [14], whereas the raw material is supplied in the form of powder, ponents with significantly greater aspect ratios (up to 300:1) along with
wire feed, or sheets. Powder bed fusion and directed energy deposition the reduced support requirements is reported using soft blade recoaters
are the melting-based metal AM processes and are extensively used for [18]. Soft blade recoaters are so flexible that if the blade collides with
printing metals such as titanium, steel, nickel, and aluminum-based al­ the metal parts/defects, the part would not be damaged and the fabri­
loys, as well as high entropy alloys [15]. In binder jetting, powder cation process can be continued. However, defects are exaggerated
particles are joined using a binding agent, and sintering is performed to during the following layers of deposition resulting in a defective
obtain the desired mechanical properties. In sheet lamination, a 3D component. In contrast, hard blades are made from tool steel or ce­
component is fabricated using stacking of sheets. A brief overview of ramics, which do not allow any deformation of the metal part. The
different metal AM processes is discussed in this section. process has to be stopped if the blade collides with the object, which
avoids further fabrication of defective components [19]. However,
contact of harder recoaters with the build causes vibrations that lead to
2.1. Powder bed fusion uneven powder distribution and decreased dimensional accuracy [20].
A base plate is connected to the build platform to provide support to
In the powder bed fusion process, thermal energy is applied to melt the deposited powder layer. The chemical composition of the base plate
or sinter the selective regions of a powder bed. The powder is entirely is identical to the powder material, or it has good weldability with the
(selective laser melting) [16] or partially (selective laser sintering) [17] feedstock. Preheating the base plate is recommended to reduce the re­
melted in a layer-by-layer fashion to form a 3D structure. Generally, sidual stresses if the material is brittle and prone to cracking [21]. This
melting is common for metals, whereas sintering is commonly used for preheating serves as an additional heat source, enhancing material
polymers. The thermal energy to fuse the powder should be focused to density, especially when the initial laser energy input is insufficient for
get higher dimensional accuracy. Such highly focused energy is attained complete densification [22]. Base plate preheating from 80 ◦ C to 200 ◦ C
using a laser beam or electron beam. Powder bed fusion is further decreases the part distortion by 20 %, and further preheating to 600 ◦ C
classified based on heat sources to the laser powder bed fusion and can fully eliminate the distortion in case-hardening steel 16MnCr5 [23].
electron beam powder bed fusion. The powder material is highly prone to oxidation due to the large
surface-to-volume ratio. Hence, shielding gas such as nitrogen or argon
2.1.1. Laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) is used as an inert atmosphere to prevent oxidation. Generally, nitrogen
L-PBF is one of the most common AM techniques for metals. It allows is preferred for inactive metals such as nickel and cobalt, whereas active
the manufacturing of complex and unique geometries based on the metals such as aluminum and titanium are processed in an argon or
modeled design. L-PBF involves several steps, including CAD model, helium atmosphere [24]. The thermal conductivity of the shielding gas
power deposition, scanning system and strategies, and post-processing. changes the thermal equilibrium due to an increased cooling rate [23].
A workflow and schematic of the L-PBF process are shown in Fig. 1. L-

Fig. 1. Workflow and schematic of laser-based powder bed fusion. Reprinted from Ref. [19] Copyright (2021), with permission from Elsevier.

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In addition to the type of shielding gas, the other factors including directly proportional to the laser power and inversely proportional to
consistency in the flow of shielding gas [25], the rate of gas flow [26], the scanning speed, layer thickness, and hatching distance [50]. The
and gas flow direction [27] affect melt pool geometry and the part processing parameters are optimized to fabricate a product at the min­
quality. imum energy density. The energy density is an essential parameter for
The temperature profile undergoes significant fluctuations during a the geometrical accuracy compared to the model design. Porous struc­
rapid scan of the laser beam, resulting in a substantial thermal gradient tures are fabricated at two energy densities, 111 J/mm3, and 126 J/
arising from the localized high-energy deposition. This phenomenon mm3, as shown in Fig. 2. Laser power, scanning speed, and hatch dis­
subsequently induces elevated residual stresses and non-homogeneous tance are changed to vary the energy density. The variation in the
morphology in the fabricating components. Scanning strategies are geometric dimensions is higher for the higher energy density. Higher
one of the crucial parameters to avoid thermal overload and get a uni­ energy input also increases residual particles and impurities [51].
form heat distribution [28]. Scanning strategies include variables such L-PBF uses fine powder particles (~ 25–45 μm) to deposit very thin
as scanning length [29], hatch spacing [30], rotation in scanning di­ layers and avoid a lack of fusion porosities [43]. The higher laser power
rection [31,32], and scanning sequences [33,34]. The laser melts the increases melt pool depth, but it inversely affects dimensional accuracy.
powder and re-melts the previous layer to achieve good adherence of the L-PBF is suitable for manufacturing small components with complex
current layer with the previous layers. Laser interaction with powder geometries such as heat sinks, biomedical implants, and aerospace
and solidified material involves a large field of science such as computer components. However, L-PBF is limited to small-size components as the
programming [35], thermodynamics to study phase transformation formation of thin layers in each step increases the production time.
[36], heat transfer to study heat conduction [37], convection, and ra­ Other energy sources, such as an electron beam, can be used in place of a
diation, fluid dynamics to study material spattering [38], and chemical laser to improve the production rate.
reactions [39].
L-PBF involves several processing parameters such as laser power, 2.1.2. Electron beam powder bed fusion (EB-PBF)
spot diameter, scanning speed, powder layer thickness, shielding gas, EB-PBF is another metal AM technique in which electron beam
and gas flow rate. These parameters affect phases, liquid metal flow,
surface tension, and Marangoni stresses that define the shape and size of
a melt pool [40]. The optimum processing parameters are selected to
fulfill mainly two criteria: (i) providing sufficient energy to melt the
powder and the previous layer without forming keyholes and (ii)
providing interaction time to create a stable melt pool. Insufficient heat
produces a lack of fusion zone, whereas excessive heat generates keyhole
porosity. Also, higher scanning speeds lead to an unstable melt pool. In
such cases, intensive spattering and balling effects are observed in the
melt pool due to insufficient interaction time [41–43].
The interest in AM is growing in bio-compatible materials such as SS
316, titanium alloys, and CoCrMo [44]. The shape memory character­
istic of nickel‑titanium (Ni–Ti) alloy has put it at the forefront of human
bone replacement. The structural properties of bio-compatible materials
need to be precisely controlled to achieve the required bio-compatible
properties such as superelasticity, permeability, stiffness, and damping
characteristics [45]. The maximum allowable impurities for medical
applications are 500 ppm as per ASTM standards [46]. In powder bed
fusion, despite the provision of an inert atmosphere, impurities like
carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen are introduced into the melt pool due to
the larger surface area of powder particles [47,48]. The incorporation of
these impurities into the melt pool is referred to as impurity pickup, and
it becomes more pronounced as the temperature increases [49]. Energy
density applied to melt powder is considered an important parameter to
Fig. 3. Schematic of EB-PBF. Reprinted from Ref. [53] Copyright (2017), with
control such impurities. The higher energy input increases the product’s
permission from Elsevier.
density and impurities pick up during the fabrication. Energy density is

Fig. 2. NiTi porous structure fabricated at (a) lower input energy density (111 J/mm3) and (b) higher input energy density (126 J/mm3). Reprinted from Ref. [48]
Copyright (2016), with permission from Elsevier.

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energy is used to melt the powder [52]. A schematic of EB-PBF is shown as an adhesive material to join the powder particles [59]. Binder jetting
in Fig. 3. The energy source and its supply in EB-PBF are quite similar to offers the advantage of rapid production of complex structures, resulting
scanning electron microscopy. An electron gun acts as a beam energy in isotropic properties in 3D-printed samples. It can fabricate prototypes
source, and electromagnetic coils are used to focus the beam, similar to with similar material characteristics and surface finish achieved through
the SEM. The movement of the focused electron beam is controlled by conventional powder metallurgy. The ability to use various powdered
the deflection coils. The processing is performed in a vacuum chamber materials makes binder jetting a promising additive manufacturing
as electrons are used as an energy source. The metal powder is supplied technique [60]. An interest in binder jetting is growing in different in­
differently compared to L-PBF. Powder-filled hoppers are kept inside the dustrial sectors, including electrochemical storage cells [61], solid fuel
vacuum chamber, and a racking blade is used to spread the powder on cells [62], electronic devices [63], thermal management systems [64],
the base plate or previously solidified layer. biomedical [65], and construction industries [66]. A schematic of the
The electron beam energy is an important processing parameter in binder jet AM process is shown in Fig. 4. Solid powder particles are
EB-PBF, similar to the laser power in L-PBF. The electron beam can be spread uniformly on the build platform. Different recoating mechanisms
manipulated by varying electron beam parameters, including electron such as stiff blade, compliant blade, and roller are used to spread the
beam power and spot size [54]. Beam current and accelerating voltage powder after the layer formation [67]. A binding agent is applied based
control beam power, whereas electromagnetic coils control spot size. on the CAD model to join the powder particles selectively. The process is
Usually, maximum electron beam power and spot sizes are 3500 W and repeated until the entire component is printed.
200–1000 μm, respectively, for the titanium alloys [55]. On the other Binder jetting can be used for any kind of powder metal as the joining
hand, laser beam power and spot size for titanium alloys are limited up of the particles is attributed to the binder, unlike the PBF, where joining
to 120 W and 30–150 μm, respectively [55]. Hence EB-PBF can fuse is performed by melting the metal powders [68]. The printing process
larger powder particles and produce a higher layer thickness compared using an inkjet is carried out at room temperature. Therefore, high-
to L-PBF. The average layer thickness is 30–60 μm for the L-PBF, temperature issues are avoided, including oxidation, residual stresses,
whereas 50–200 μm for the EB-PBF [11]. However, a higher processing and phase transformation. Lower distortions due to less residual stresses
rate using an electron beam is achieved by compromising shape details make binder jetting a suitable technique to fabricate overhanging
[56]. Electron beam melted specimens have lower spatial resolution and components [69]. The remaining powder quality after the printing
higher surface roughness. The angular geometries are severely affected process is also better compared to the PBF method.
by the stair-step effects that occurred due to a higher layer thickness An as-processed binder jet component is considered a green body
[57]. [70] or a green part. The strength of these green parts is insufficient for
EB-PBF differs from L-PBF in different contexts other than the energy real engineering applications. Post-processing of green parts is necessary
source. Semi-sintering of powder particles is one of the crucial feathers to enhance the density and mechanical properties of the final compo­
of EB-PBF that is not necessary for the L-PBF process. Charging of nent. The post-processing steps involved in the binder jetting process are
powder specimens is common when the high-energy electron beam hits shown in Fig. 5. The bed is removed from the printer and allowed to dry
loose powder. Consequently, small-sized powder particles come out in the ambient environment. An excessive loose powder surrounding the
from the powder layer and form a cloud inside the vacuum chamber. part geometry is now removed using a vacuum or manual brushing.
Such cloud formation is prevented by pre-sintering and pre-heating Curing time is allowed to dry the binder during the process and to obtain
powder particles before regular scanning. Pre-sintering of powder par­ dimensional accuracy. The curing time is controlled by multiple pa­
ticles reduces the requirement of support structures. However, removing rameters including vacuum, heat, or pressure based on the binder and
the sintered powder is a difficult task after processing. Pre-sintering powder properties [71]. Curing slightly improves the strength of the
negatively affects EB-PBF for complex shapes such as crevices, cooling component [72].
channels, and lattice structures [11]. The charging effect can also be After curing, a green part gets sufficient strength to be handled
mitigated by increasing the pressure inside the vacuum chamber. without support. However, cured components have lots of porosity that
Typically, the pressure inside the vacuum chamber is 10− 2 Pa. Helium need to be removed to improve mechanical properties. The relative
gas can be added to the chamber to increase the pressure up to 1 Pa [58]. density of the part is limited to 50–60 % after the curing. The chemical
composition of the binding agent includes impurities in the final
component. Therefore, the binder is removed by burning out the
2.2. Binder jetting component at 170–450 ◦ C [73]. A component after the debinding pro­
cess is considered a brown part.
Binder jetting is a powder-bed AM process that uses a binding agent

Fig. 4. Schematic of binder jet AM mechanism. Reproduced from Ref. [67] with permission from Springer Nature.

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Fig. 5. Processing steps of metal binder jetting process. Reproduced from Ref. [72] with permission from ASME.

Infiltration [74] or sintering [75] is performed at an elevated tem­

perature to improve the part density. For infiltration, the driving force is
the capillary action between the infiltrate material and the pores within
powder particles while in sintering, it is the surface energy of the powder
particles that acts as the driving force [76]. Infiltration minimizes
shrinkage by filling the pores with additional infiltrate material, leading
to improved dimensional accuracy when compared to the sintering
process. In solid-state sintering, densification occurs as particles un­
dergo mass transport until they reach a minimum energy state and
achieve equilibrium in their atomic bonds. Elevated temperatures
augment atomic mobility, thus promoting faster kinetics in the sintering
process. This temperature-induced atomic motion leads to a substantial
reduction in pore sizes, resulting in an increased density during high-
temperature sintering. Super-solidus liquid phase sintering (SLPS) oc­
curs if the sintering temperature surpasses the solidus line [77]. In SLPS,
the introduction of the liquid phase significantly enhances pore filling
and accelerates kinetics by orders of magnitude in comparison to solid-
state sintering. This approach is particularly advantageous for powders
containing slow-diffusing elements, where solid-state sintering faces
significant challenges [60].
The elevated sintering temperature increases the part densification,
resulting in a decrease in dimensional accuracy due to the associated Fig. 6. Schematic of liquid binder flow in homogeneously and heterogeneously
packed powder bed. Reprinted from Ref. [83] Copyright (2014), with permis­
shrinkage. The adverse consequences of high sintering temperatures
sion from Elsevier.
encompass grain coarsening, residual stresses, and distortion of the
components. Sintering temperature and time are selected based on the
size and packing of powder particles, material composition, and desired liquid binder flow in a homogeneously and heterogeneously packed
densification [78]. The thermodynamics of the chemical reaction is powder bed. The agglomeration of fine particles creates a large number
affected by the presence of trace elements or impurities in the powder. of macro-pores within a heterogeneously distributed powder bed. The
The sintering temperature, pressure, and time are selected based on the surface curvature of the flow front is reduced for the larger macro-pores.
solidus and liquidus lines for different metal alloys [79]. Sintering is The liquid binder cannot penetrate such voids and must flow from the
performed in a vacuum or inert atmosphere to prevent oxidation at high remaining micro-pores [83]. Consequently, the liquid binder needs
temperatures. High entropy alloys [80] and superalloys [81] can also be more time to fill the heterogeneously distributed powder bed. The
fabricated using the binder jet AM process. However, binder jetting chance of void formation is also increased for the large powder size
components are not suitable for structural applications for aerospace difference in the heterogeneously packed powder bed. On the other
parts as porosity may remain after the sintering [72]. hand, a homogeneously packed powder bed provides multiple paths to
penetrate the liquid binder into powder gaps. Therefore, the powder bed
2.2.1. Powder properties can be fully penetrated within less time and has lower voids compared to
Powder size and morphology are some critical parameters in the the heterogeneously distributed powder bed.
porosity generation of AM parts. The powder characteristics such as
powder shape and surface features, powder size distribution, packing 2.2.1.2. Powder packing density. Powder packing density defines the
density, and agglomeration behavior are discussed. In binder jetting, arrangement of loose powder particles after being spread in the powder
powder characteristics significantly affect the AM part quality due to its bed. The green body has a weak strength due to the low powder packing
solid-state processing. The common powder shapes are spherical parti­ density. Higher powder packing density gives improved mechanical
cles having smooth surfaces or satellites, elongated, irregular, or den­ strength and reduced porosity in binder jetting components. Interest­
dritic. The highest part density is obtained for the spherical powders ingly, broad particle size distributions show a higher packing density
with smooth surfaces [82]. than narrow particle size distributions [84]. Fine powder particles fill up
the voids formed by the coarse particles and improve the apparent
2.2.1.1. Powder size distribution. Powder flowability and packing frac­ density of the powder bed [85]. For the large particles (diameter > 70
tion of the loose powder depends on the powder size distribution. The μm), packing density is a function of the particle shape and size distri­
fine powder particles have high surface energy due to their extremely bution irrespective of the particle size [86].
high surface-to-volume ratio. Fine powder starts to sinter quickly, Combining previous studies, higher packing density can be obtained
resulting in faster densification than coarse powder particles. The for bimodal particle distributions by mixing coarse and fine powder
powder size distribution and surface morphology variation affect the particles, where coarse particles confirm the flowability and fine parti­
binder penetration during binder jetting. Fig. 6 shows a schematic of cles are used to fill the gap among the coarse particles and increase the

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packing density [87]. The size of coarse and fine powders needs to be the powder particles. The chemical composition of the liquid-jet binder
optimized to maximize powder flowability. In a bimodal mixture, a should not corrode the nozzle [95]. The phase-changing binders perform
maximum packing density of 86.8 % is reported for the coarse-to-fine the binding effect through the solidification of the binders.
powder particle size ratio of 7:1 if the effect of inhomogeneity is Solvent binders are comprised of polymers, where the solvent is
neglected [88]. The packing density For the bimodal mixture of fine and burnt out under heating the component, and the powder particles are
coarse particles is shown in Fig. 7, where fS and fL denote the individual bonded through polymer chains. Organic binders such as polymeric
packing density of fine and coarse particles, respectively. resins and polyvinyl are the most common binders as they easily
decompose with minimum residues during the debinding [96]. Nor­
2.2.1.3. Powder flowability. Powder flowability shows an attribute of mally, organic binders other than carbohydrates are removed by heating
powder to spread over itself and form a uniform layer. Higher powder at 200–300 ◦ C [97]. However, the carbohydrates may remain stable
flowability enables the AM process to fabricate a part with increased even at the sintering temperature. In recent studies, metallic nano­
dimensional accuracy and decreased porosity. The spherical powder particle suspensions are preferred over organic binders [98]. In nano­
shows good flowability, whereas irregular particles show poor flow­ particle suspension, sintered copper particles form bonds in the powder,
ability due to the mechanical interlocking of angular geometries [89]. as shown in Fig. 9(a). The interparticle gap between two powder par­
Powder composition, surface roughness, size, and size distribution also ticles acts as a capillary tube, and nanoparticle suspension fills this gap
affect the flowability other than the particle shape [90]. The flowability and covers the powder surface under the capillary pressure. Sintering
is measured in terms of mass and volumetric flow rates, apparent to tap shrinkage and density variation for the different saturations of organic
density ratio (Hausner ratio), and repose angle measurement [91]. The binders and nanoparticle suspensions are shown in Fig. 9(b). The higher
lower Hausner ratio and lower repose angle are reflected in better content of organic binder hinders the densification process. The organic
powder flowability. The effect of particle size on the powder flowability content between the powder particles inhibits the powder contact dur­
is shown in Fig. 8. The Van der Waals’ forces among the particles in­ ing the sintering and reduces the void shrinkage. The addition of the
crease with a decrease in the powder size. Therefore, fine powder par­ nanoparticles in the binder further reduces the shrinkage as the rear­
ticles show less flowability due to their higher cohesive forces. In rangement of the powder particles becomes difficult during the sinter­
addition, fine powders also agglomerate in the clusters and form irreg­ ing. However, the reduction in shrinkage does not significantly affect
ular shape particles, which further resist the powder flow. densification. Reduced densification during the sintering is balanced by
the increased density of the green body due to the nanoparticles’ binder
2.2.2. Binders [99]. Nanoparticle suspension offers several advantages, such as elimi­
The primary function of the binder is to selectively fill out the gap nating debinding steps, removing carbon residues, and allowing inac­
between the powder particles in the powder bed and generate a green curacy in the sintering profiles [100].
body having the desired geometry. The key features of suitable binders The bond formation in the binder jetting can be accomplished using
are powder wettability, penetration in the powder bed, sufficient bind­ an acidic chemical reaction or salt recrystallization. The powder parti­
ing strength, and chemical stability [60]. Removal of the binder needs to cles are coated with acidic and basic electrolytes in acid-based binding.
be considered as it inversely affects the chemical composition and me­ The powder bed contains one of the acidic or basic components, and the
chanical properties of the AM part. The binders such as chloroform liquid binder possesses the other component. The chemical reaction
evaporate after the binding process [93], while inorganic binders leave between them gives the binding effect [101]. Metal salts can also be used
some residues that may reduce the strength [94]. as binding agents for the metal powders as long as the powder does not
Generally, binding occurs due to the interaction of two binding dissolve in a salt solution. Metal salts recrystallize upon drying and make
components. Binders are classified as (i) in-bend and (ii) phase-changing bonds between powder particles. After the bond formation, metal salts
binders based on the binding mechanism. In in-bend binders, one can be converted back to metal using heat treatment. For example, silver
binding part is mixed with the powder, and the second binding nitrate is converted back to silver by heating at 440 ◦ C [94].
component is applied through the liquid jet from the nozzle. The
interaction of these components results in the bond formation between 2.2.3. Binder jetting parameters
A liquid binder is applied to the powder bed in the form of liquid
droplets at the predefined flow rate, and it follows a predefined track
based on the computer-designed model. The different process parame­
ters affect the binder flow, including printhead speed, binder deposition
rate, the distance between two drops, and line spacing [97]. The diffu­
sion of binder in the powder bed is based on the combined effect of
gravity and capillary pressure [102]. The wetting behavior of the
powder is studied based on the binder interaction with the powder
particles. The hydrophobicity of the surface is measured experimentally
through contact angle measurement and predicted numerically using
sessile drop models [103].
The traverse motion of the inkjet head leads to the non-uniform
dispensing of the binder in longitudinal and transverse directions. Part
fabrication time during the binder jetting is governed by the speed of
each processing step, including the recoater speed, printing speed, and
curing time. If the printing speed is high, the binder hits the powder bed
at a high velocity and splashes out the fine powder particles. The higher
printing speed reduces the part fabrication time but increases the in­
homogeneities and surface roughness [104].

2.2.3.1. Layer thickness and hatch distance. The powder layer thickness
in binder jetting is governed by the binder’s penetration depth and
Fig. 7. Powder packing density in a bimodal mixture. Reproduced from spreading in the powder bed. The penetration depth depends on the
Ref. [88] with permission from Springer Nature.

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Fig. 8. Flowability of powder particles: (a) Repose angle and Hausner ratio, Reprinted from Ref. [92] Copyright (2020), with permission from Elsevier; and (b) Hall
flow [60] for different powder sizes.

Fig. 9. (a) Bond formation in the powder particles through nanoparticles polymer suspension and (b) variation in the shrinkage and sintered density for organic
binder and binder with nanoparticles suspension. Reproduced from Ref. [99] with permission. © IOP Publishing, all rights reserved.

particles’ size, size distribution, and surface chemistry [60]. The hatch [106]. Furthermore, the oversaturation of the binder decreases the
distance in the binder jetting is an important parameter similar to the L- powder content. The pores are formed during the debinding process due
PBF. Low hatch distance can potentially increase the binder jetting time to the removal of the oversaturated binder [73]. In contrast, the higher
and the binder content at the overlapping [105]. An increased binder hatch distance results in the undersaturation of the binder. Here, the
content leads to bleeding where the migration of binder occurs from its binder content will be insufficient to fill the powder gap, leading to non-
prefixed location. The bleeding effect increases dimensional inaccuracy uniform bond formation and void generation [107].

Fig. 10. (a) A schematic illustration of different stacking orientations and (b) a compressive strength of the cylindrical components corresponding to these orien­
tations fabricated using binder jetting (*statistical significance (p) > 0.05). Reprinted from Ref. [108] Copyright (2015), with permission from Elsevier.

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2.2.3.2. Print orientation. The binder jetting component shows aniso­ depicts vertical penetration into the underlying layer for insufficiently
tropic behavior due to the non-uniform bond formation with the pow­ dried binders. The variation of the binder-to-powder ratio in the sub­
der. Porosity is introduced in the part when it is printed at an angle with layers leads to the poor mechanical properties of the binder jet part. If
respect to the direction of powder stacking. Fig. 10(a) shows a schematic too long a period is given between two successive layers, the underneath
representation of cylindrical components manufactured through the layer dries fully without leaving any liquid residues. The excessive
binder jetting. The stacking layers within these components exhibit drying of the sublayer cannot make the interlayer bond with the liquid
orientation angles spanning from 0◦ to 90◦ relative to the vertical (Z) binder. Consequently, the interlayer strength of the green body reduces,
axis of the build chamber. Fig. 10(b) depicts the corresponding and delamination of the layers may take place during a long drying time
compressive strength, revealing that samples featuring a stacking [102].
orientation of 90◦ exhibit the highest compressive strength compared to
the other orientations. The lower compressive strength observed in
2.3. Directed energy deposition
stacking layers oriented at 0◦ and 45◦ is attributed to the increased bulk
porosity associated with these orientations [108]. Similarly, the bending
In DED-based metal AM processes, energy input and feedstock ma­
strength of the martensitic stainless steel is reported two times higher in
terial are supplied simultaneously to generate a 3D object [112]. A
the build direction compared to the transverse direction [109]. Non-
schematic of the DED process is shown in Fig. 12. Unlike PBF, the
uniform binder distribution in the vertical direction is one of the pri­
feedstock is injected into the substrate instead of the powder bed, and
mary reasons for the asymmetric mechanical properties. Binder distri­
the applied energy melts and solidifies the feedstock on the substrate to
bution variation can be controlled by optimizing the curing time
build an object. The heat source can be a laser beam [113], electron
between successive layer formations.
beam [114], or electric arc [115], and feedstock material can be powder
[116] or wire [117]. DED is also known by different names based on
2.2.3.3. Curing time. Curing time is the time provided between two
energy sources and feedstock material, such as direct metal deposition
successive binder jetting layers, allowing the binders to dry and establish
[118] or laser metal deposition [119], electron beam AM [120], wire
bonds with the powder particles present within the binder-deposited
and arc AM [121], and rapid plasma deposition [122]. DED is related to
layers. The curing time depends on the type of binder, binder satura­
metal inert gas (MIG) welding in the aspect of material supply along
tion, powder wettability, powder size distribution, packing density, and
with the shielding gas flow on the melt pool. In laser-based DED, metal
powder material properties [60]. The time increases for the higher
powder with shielding gas is applied through a nozzle. The nozzle is
binder content, larger surface area, and lower thermal conductivity of
directed to the substrate, where a laser beam is focused to melt the metal
the powder. Sometimes, heating of the powder bed is preferred based on
powder. The building platform moves based on the CAD model to
the above parameters to reduce the binder drying time [110]. The
selectively deposit powder. An object is fabricated by successive depo­
heating power is determined to optimize the drying time such that the
sition of these melted and solidified powder layers [123]. In other DED
binder in the previous layer is dried before the binder is applied in the
systems, it is also possible that the build platform is fixed, and the
next layer, and the binder penetration is enhanced up to the underneath
deposition head is moved by a robotic arm [124].
dried layer [111]. If the underneath layer is sufficiently dried, then the
High-speed cameras have been used to monitor the build specimen
binder penetration is restricted by the underneath layer and then the
position. Additionally, the melt pool temperature and powder delivery
binder spreads laterally in the unsaturated area. If the time between the
rate are monitored using an IR pyrometer and real-time sensors,
two layers’ formation is too short, the underneath layer does not dry,
respectively. In a closed-loop control system, such real-time data are
and the binder penetrates the lower layer. The excessive binder pene­
monitored and processed, feedback is generated, and the process pa­
tration in the downward direction rather than the lateral spreading re­
rameters are adjusted accordingly to enhance the part quality. The
sults in dimensional inaccuracy. In Fig. 11, the solid line represents the
experimental parameters defined based on the monitored data include
deposition of binders in consecutive layers. The dashed line in Fig. 11(a)
nozzle size, nozzle distance from the substrate, powder size, and
illustrates the lateral spreading for well-dried binders, while Fig. 11(b),
shielding gas flow rate [45].

Fig. 11. The binder jetting part is subjected to (a) sufficient drying time and (b) too short drying time. Reprinted from Ref. [102] Copyright (2018), with permission
from Elsevier.

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Fig. 12. Schematic of direct energy deposition AM mechanism, (a) Feedstock – powder, and heat source – laser beam (b) Feedstock – wire, and heat source – electron
beam. Reprinted from Ref. [44] Copyright (2020), with permission from Elsevier.

The processing parameters such as laser power, feeding rate, and product quality [140]. An individual study of each processing parameter
deposition speed control melt pool geometry, surface roughness, and is necessary to understand the melt pool formation, microstructure,
mechanical properties [125]. The path velocity inversely affects the melt mechanical properties, and defects.
pool size as the exposure time is less for the higher path velocity. An The primary parameters to optimize the melt pool are the beam
increase in powder flow rate and laser power extends the melt pool size power, scanning speed, and feedstock flow rate [141]. Input energy
[126]. Generally, DED uses larger powder particles and higher energy density is a crucial factor in DED as it exhibits the complete melting of
density as compared to PBF. Unlike PBF, as the component is not the feedstock. In one of the studies, energy density is defined by a
covered with powder bed particles, the cooling rate is faster in the DED comparison parameter, which is the ratio of laser power to the product
than that in the PBF. Therefore, a higher production rate and build of scanning speed and powder flow rate [142]. The higher powder flow
volume can be achieved using DED. However, a higher production rate rate decreases the input energy density. Therefore, laser powder needs
results in a rough surface and dimensional inaccuracy. Additional sur­ to be increased (or scanning speed needs to be reduced) to maintain the
face finishing steps are necessary to improve the surface finish. energy density to confirm the complete melting of the powder. The
DED is one of the common AM techniques to fabricate aluminum deposition rate can be increased using improved material flow at high
[127], titanium [128], steel [129], nickel-based superalloys [130], and laser powder, considering the other parameters constant [143]. How­
high entropy alloys [131]. Nowadays, research is focused on fabricating ever, the higher laser powder increases the residual stress due to the
application-specific functional materials such as porous titanium-based higher thermal gradient [144]. Consequently, part distortion or cracking
implants for human bone replacement [132], biocompatible and anti- may occur at higher laser power and powder flow rates. For example, an
microbial alloys [133], and dental applications [134]. DED produces increase in melt pool width and depth is predicted numerically with an
mid-size components ten times faster and five times cheaper than the increase in laser power during the DED process of Inconel 718 [145].
PBF [135]. Different metal powders or mixtures can be used to fabricate The higher heat input and material flow result in a broader melt pool
a part as the powder is supplied externally in the DED method. Multiple and do not considerably affect the deposition height.
nozzles can be used to add different powders and applied simultaneously In the powder-based DED, scanning speed is defined as the rate of
to form metal composites [136]. DED gives the flexibility to manufac­ deposition head movement during the powder deposition. The material
ture functionally graded materials for desired applications [137]. The added to the melt pool can be controlled using a scanning speed other
unique features of DED make it suitable for repairing functional parts than the powder flow rate [146]. The scanning speed determines the
such as turbine blades which are difficult using other conventional residence time to interact the laser with the feedstock material. The
processes [138]. residence time is an important parameter in the solidification behavior
and microstructure formation [38]. The scanning speed affects the ma­
2.3.1. Process parameters terial flow dynamics, including the surface tension and Marangoni flow
The DED process parameters are selected based on the type of ma­ [147].
terials, part geometry, and application-oriented parameters such as The processing parameters are highly dependent on the material
allowable surface roughness and porosity. Energy input parameters are properties. The optimum process parameters and chances of defect
beam power and spot size, and deposition-related parameters are pow­ formation for the different alloy systems are shown in Fig. 13. When the
der feed rate, hatching distance, and scanning strategy. Similar to PBF, powder feed rate is very low and linear heat input is very high, the
the parameters are interrelated, i.e., an increase in the beam power can resultant high energy density induces the formation of a keyhole-type
lead to an increase in the scan speed to maintain the constant input melt pool. Conversely, when there is a higher powder feed rate and
energy density [139]. The selection of parameters cannot be generalized lower linear heat input, the energy density becomes very low. In such
as the quality of feedstock (i.e., powder shape, size, surface features), cases, the input energy proves inadequate for complete powder melting,
properties of a material (i.e., thermal conductivity, chemical composi­ resulting in the lack of a fusion zone. The combined effects of elevated
tion, viscosity, surface tension, and reflectivity), and working environ­ linear heat input and a high powder feed rate form a mid-porosity zone
ment (vacuum, inert gas, and gas flow rate) affects the melt pool [148].
properties. A feedback control loop is attached to the AM monitoring
systems to control the individual process parameters and maintain

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Fig. 13. Optimum processing parameters and the possibility of defect formations in the DED method [148].

2.4. Sheet lamination

Sheet lamination is a layer-by-layer manufacturing process that in­

cludes both additive and subtractive phenomena to fabricate a compo­
nent. In sheet lamination, the feedstock material is delivered in the form
of sheets using a supply roll. Mechanical cutters or lasers are used to cut
the excessive sheet material and form a layer contour. Sheet lamination
is classified based on lamination and bond formation, such as laminated
object manufacturing (LOM), ultrasonic additive manufacturing (UAM),
and selective deposition lamination (SDL) [149].
Laminated object manufacturing is one of the common techniques
for paper, polymer, metal, ceramics, and composites. A schematic of
LOM is shown in Fig. 14. In LOM, parts are fabricated using the ‘bond-
then-form’ strategy [150] or the ‘form-then-bond’ strategy [151]. In the
bond-then-form strategy, the sheets are first bonded and then cut out the
extra material to form a cross-sectional layer corresponding to the
Fig. 15. A schematic of the form-then-bond strategy sheet lamination. Repro­
designed part. A top layer of the block is melted using a heated roller so
duced from Ref. [152] with permission from Springer Nature.
that the upcoming sheet can join with the previously melted layer. The
process is repeated until the part building is completed [152].
A schematic of a form-then-bond strategy of the sheet lamination computer-aided cutting system for each layer. These layers are precisely
process is shown in Fig. 15. Slice cutting of the sheet is performed using a stacked and then joined using heat, pressure, adhesives, or metallurgical
bonds. Generally, metal sheets are bonded using ultrasonic consolida­
tion [153], diffusion bonds [154], or resistance welding [155]. The LOM
part may have porosity during the lamination. The excess binder is
removed, and sintering is performed to enhance the part density.
However, the distortion of a laminated part may occur due to the
shrinkage during the sintering. The form-then-bond strategy is preferred
in metals and ceramics.
The ©nternal features and channels can be created using the form-
then-bond strategy. The excess material is cut and removed during
each layer lamination, and then layers are bonded to generate a
component. Sometimes, the extra material is not removed, and it acts as
a support for the subsequent layer lamination. This excessive material is
removed after the structure completion. However, LOM is not recom­
mended for manufacturing complex shapes as it is difficult to remove the
excess material after the object formation [156]. Sheet laminated
components have anisotropic properties due to the repetitive joining of
sheets in the vertical direction. Anisotropic properties in laminated
layers lead to swelling where the undesirable expansion or distortion in
the vertical direction results in dimensional inaccuracy [157].
In UAM, sheets are joined using ultrasonic seam welding [158]. A
schematic of UAM is shown in Fig. 16. A rotating sonotrode creates ul­
trasonic oscillation using piezoelectric stacks. The oscillation produces
Fig. 14. Schematic of the laminated object manufacturing [2]. vibration and it forms bonds between the subsequent layers [159].

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of the printed track, respectively. It is a linear function of energy beam

power, scanning speed, and feedstock quantity during the fusion.
Therefore, the variation in one parameter can be balanced by changing
other equivalent parameters to obtain a similar energy density to melt
the feedstock. The processing parameters of different metal AM process
and a generalized effect of each processing parameter is discussed in
Table 1.

4. Feedstock preparation

Fig. 16. A schematic of ultrasonic additive manufacturing. Reproduced from The feedstock material is in powder form for the powder-based AM
Ref. [159] with permission from Springer Nature. processes. Spherical shape powder is the most preferred over the other
shapes as it enhances powder flowability and homogeneous spreading,
Similar to LOM, milling or other machining techniques are used to increasing the packing factor for a higher density. The quality of AM
extract the material and generate desired internal geometries. UAM is components depends on the powder manufacturing process as it affects
used to fabricate metallic interlayer structures [160], shape memory the powder shape, size, size distribution, and oxygen susceptibility
alloys [161], and metal matrix composites [162]. Integral cooling [172]. The common in-use metal powders are aluminum, steel, tita­
channels with different sizes can be easily fabricated using the sheet nium, nickel, and cobalt. Different powders are mixed to produce multi-
lamination method [163]. composition and functional alloys, including superalloys, high entropy
SDL is another lamination-based AM process that uses papers as a alloys, and shape memory alloys.
feedstock material [164]. The variety of colored papers with the pre-cut The schematic of different in-use powder manufacturing processes is
sections is stacked and loaded in the feeding tray. In contrast to the LOM, shown in Fig. 17. Water atomization is one of the most straightforward
the adhesive is only applied to the selected area of the paper, and it is atomizing processes. In this process, the liquid metal is poured into the
glued with the second layer. Heat and pressure are applied to the SDL atomizer chamber through a nozzle. The water is applied at the exit of
layer. The edges of an object are developed by tracing out the superficial the liquid metal stream. The water quickly cools down the liquid metal
material from the sides. However, SDL exhibits a limited intrinsic res­ and disintegrates it into fine particles [173]. The powder particles are
olution, constraining its applications where dimensional precision in irregular in shape with significant size variations due to a faster cooling
parts is not a critical requirement. rate. Furthermore, powder oxidization is critical as the water-atomized
powder has a higher oxygen content [174]. Therefore, water atomiza­
3. Overview of process parameters optimization tion is unsuitable for reactive metals such as titanium [124]. Powder of
active metals is prepared using gas [175], plasma [176], or rotary/
Research of metal AM is multidisciplinary, involving different fields centrifugal [177] atomizers.
of study, including materials science, powder metallurgy, thermody­ The gas atomization method represents an alternative approach
namics, fluid mechanics, computational physics, and programming. employing inert gases, such as argon or nitrogen, in the process of
Optimization of processing parameters in AM is essential as it affects powder preparation. Liquid metal is injected into the atomization
fluid dynamics, heat transfer, chemical reaction, phase transformation, chamber using an induction heated nozzle. The gas is applied at higher
solidification, deformation, and shrinkage. However, the parameters are pressure to atomize and cool down the feedstock metal. The micro­
difficult to optimize as the effect of each parameter is non-linear to structure and phase composition of powder particles depend on the inert
others. This means that changing one parameter will affect several other gas selection during the powder preparation. The variation in the
parameters and result in complicated variations in properties [165]. microstructure of the powder leads to a change in the properties of the
The process parameters are divided into two categories: predefined final AM component. In gas atomization, the corrosion of powder par­
parameters and variable parameters [166]. Predefined parameters cover ticles is less compared to the water atomization process. A shape com­
material properties, energy sources, and processing environment. The parison of powders produced using gas atomization and water
feedstock metal is in the form of powder, wire, or sheet. The metal atomization processes is shown in Figs. 18 (a) and (b), respectively.
properties are density, powder size distribution (or wire diameter/sheet Gas atomization has various constraints, one of which is the gener­
thickness), thermal conductivity, and melting point. The energy source ation of large-sized powder particles accompanied by satellites. Satel­
is selected based on the type of manufacturing processes, such as laser, lites arise from the interaction of fine powder with a liquid droplet
electron beam, or plasma. AM processes are performed in a controlled during the gas atomization process. Satellite particles attached to the
environment. The processing environment determines the type of powder surface are shown in Figur 18(c). Such satellites make irregular
shielding gas (i.e., nitrogen or argon) or vacuum. The variable param­ shapes of powder particles and inversely affect powder flowability.
eters differ based on the AM processes, such as laser power, laser spot Erosion of the ceramic nozzle may occur due to the continuous flow of
size, scanning speed, hatching distance, scanning strategy, the gas flow liquid metal. Therefore, ceramic contamination is added to the powder.
rate for the L-PBF, powder density, and metal flow rate for the DED, Furthermore, the inert gas may be trapped in the atomized powder
powder wettability, and binder viscosity for the binder jetting, and during the liquid metal–gas interaction, generating porosity inside the
bond-forming parameters for the sheet lamination. Numerical simula­ powder particle. Such porosity can not be removed even after a hot
tion is a prevalent method to estimate the process parameters. Non- isostatic pressing [178]. Powder size corresponds to the ratio of inert gas
dimensional numbers such as Peclet, Marangoni, Fourier, and specific flow to the injected liquid metal flow. Higher gas-to-metal flow results in
energy index are calculated to comprehend melt pool characteristics and finer powder.
defects formation [167,168]. Advanced strategies include the mea­ In the rotary/centrifugal atomization process, liquid metal is poured
surement of real-time data, performing machine learning algorithms, into the high-speed rotating disc. Molten metal is sheared into small
and modulating the process parameters to effectively manage imper­ droplets under the centrifugal force of the rotary disc. These droplets
fections in the fabrication process [169–171]. solidify and create a metal powder. Generally, particle size distribution
The energy density plays a pivotal role in regulating the character­ is in a wide range for the rotary atomization process. A very high-speed
istics and quality of AM components. Linear and volumetric energy rotary disc is required to form fine particles [177]. Powder morphology
densities are determined by the energy applied per unit length or volume for the rotary atomization techniques is shown in Fig. 18 (d).
Plasma atomization is another powder preparation process for

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Table 1
Metal AM process parameters and the effect of process parameter variation.
AM process Process parameter Mutually changeable Effect
parameters

L-PBF Laser power Scanning speed Heat source to melt the powder
Powder layer thickness Too low – lack of fusion
Spot size Too high – keyhole mode melting
Scanning speed Laser power Too low – higher processing time
Powder layer thickness Too high – humping and balling effect, melt spattering
Spot size Laser power Controls energy density and resolution
Small spot size – higher dimensional accuracy
Powder layer thickness Laser power Too low – higher processing time, multiple remelting of
Scanning speed sublayers
Too high – higher surface roughness, stair step effect for angular
geometry
Hatch distance (distance between the centerline of two Layer formation
consecutive tracks) Too low – higher overlapping, overheating, higher processing
time
Too high – higher surface roughness
Shielding gas flow Prevent oxidization
Too low – oxidation
Too high –higher denudation zone
Binder Powder layer thickness Powder size Too low – binder oversaturation
jetting Binder saturation Too high – low powder bed density and high shrinkage during
sintering
Binder saturation Hatch distance Green body construction
Undersaturation – poor bond formation and porosity
Oversaturation – excessive bleeding
Curing time Heating rate Drying the liquid binder
Too short – binder penetration in sublayers, dimensional
inaccuracy
Too long – poor interlayer bond formation
Scanning speed Too low – higher processing time
Too high – Higher surface roughness, inhomogeneities
Powder size and size distribution Coarse particles – Good flowability but poor packing density
Fine particles – High packing density but higher particle
agglomeration
Broad particle size distribution – Good flowability with packing
density
DED Laser power Powder flow rate, Too low – insufficient melting, porosity
Scanning speed Too high – keyhole melting, higher residual stresses
Powder flow rate Powder flow rate, Too low – Higher processing time
Scanning speed Two high – broader melt pools, higher deposition rate
Scanning speed Laser power Affect the laser-powder interaction time
Powder flow rate Too low – higher processing time, coarser grains
Too high–balling effect, spattering
Laser spot size Smaller spot size – higher dimensional accuracy, higher energy
density

reactive metals. The feedstock is supplied in the wire form, and plasma is 5. Applications
used to melt the wire feedstock. A high-quality powder can be obtained
using plasma atomization as the liquid metal does not come in contact Metal AM enhances the production capabilities of unconventional
with ceramic or any other metal. It gives fine spherical powder particles metals, including titanium, nickel superalloys, and high entropy alloys.
with few satellites. Plasma atomization increases the cost of powder Alloys with customized elemental compositions can be achieved as the
preparation as it is challenging to get the wire feedstock for metals such feedstock material is in powder form. Besides manufacturing flexibil­
as titanium [172]. High-purity powders can be produced using a plasma- ities, metal AM provides superior mechanical properties over cast alloys
rotating electrode process [179]. In this process, the metal electrode is [15]. Furthermore, the layer-by-layer addition of different powder ma­
rotated at 3000–15000 rpm and melted using a helium torch in a helium terials enables the manufacturing of compositionally graded metal
environment. The centrifugal force created by the high electrode rota­ composites [180]. AM enhances the scope of new alloy development
tional speed converts the liquid metals into droplets. These droplets using different powder compositions [181,182]. The multi-material
solidify during the travel and form powder particles. The powder is components fabricated using such techniques provide immense design
normally coarse in size compared to other atomization processes. opportunities as well. Such exceptional AM qualities can be targeted to
Powder contamination and entrapped porosity are remarkably less for create functional parts having the desired material properties. Some of
the rotating electrode process [123]. The shape and size of the powder the essential AM-enabled applications are biomedical implants [133],
significantly affect the overall porosity of the fabricated component. aerospace components [183], micro-channel heat exchangers [184],
Fine spherical powder in the plasma rotating electrode process results in complex structures [185], or any complex design integrities.
a dense structure with significantly less porosity. Powder with satellites
in the gas atomization process results in higher porosity, as shown in
Figs. 18 (e) and (f). 5.1. Functional components for biomedical application

Biomedical materials need a specific set of properties, including low

stiffness, corrosion resistance, and damping characteristics. Steel, tita­
nium alloys, and cobalt alloys are suitable for biomedical applications.

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Fig. 17. Schematic of the powder manufacturing process (a) water atomization, used with permission of Taylor & Francis Group LLC–- Books, from Ref [173];
permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (b) gas atomization, Reproduced from [123] with permission from Springer Nature. (c) rotary at­
omization, Reprinted from Ref. [177] Copyright (2020), with permission from Elsevier. (d) plasma atomization, and (e) plasma rotating electrode, Reproduced from
Ref. [123] with permission from Springer Nature.

Fig. 18. Powder morphology in different powder manufacturing processes: (a) gas atomization and (b) water atomization, (c) satellite particles attached to the
powder surfaces during gas atomization processes, (d) rotary atomization; comparison of pores in the AM components using (e) gas atomization processed and (f)
plasma rotating electrode processed powders. Reprinted from Ref. [167] Copyright (2018), with permission from Elsevier.

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Titanium is one of the most common materials due to its biocompatible porosity and the outside region (cortical regime) has 55 % porosity as
properties. However, the weight of conventional titanium implants is shown in Fig. 19(c). The compound regime structure leads to variation
almost twice the human cortical bone weight. The elastic modulus of in bone stiffness, which is necessary for lower-stress shielding. EBM-
titanium alloys is also higher than that of bone. The stiffness of human fabricated Ti-6Al-4 V femoral rod is shown in Fig. 19(d). Antibiotic
bone is 0.2–20 GPa, whereas the stiffness of titanium alloys is 210 Gpa seeding can be added to the implant porosity to control surgical
[186]. In biomedical applications, it is necessary to reduce the weight of infection.
titanium alloys to replace human bone. The build implants need to be
designed in a porous structure to achieve a lower weight and stiffness 5.1.2. Shape memory-based implants
equivalent to the bone [187]. Nickel‑titanium (NiTi) alloys exhibit outstanding biocompatibility,
characterized by shape memory effects, super elasticity, corrosion
5.1.1. Titanium-based bone implants resistance, and low stiffness [190]. These remarkable properties have
The fabrication of porous structures is nearly impossible especially in facilitated the utilization of NiTi alloys in various medical applications
titanium alloys before the development of additive manufacturing pro­ such as orthopedics, staples, plates, dental implants, and brain spatulas
cesses [188]. Laser and electron-beam-based AM techniques are capable [191]. The shape memory effect is attributed to the unique ability of
of fabricating complex mesh and open cellular foam structures using a NiTi alloys to undergo a reversible phase transformation between
CAD model. Human bones have complex soft and hard bone regimes: austenite and martensite phases [192]. This feature enables NiTi com­
trabecular (soft) and cortical (hard) in the bone vascular structure. The ponents to recall and restore their initial shape after the deformation.
trabecular regime has larger pores of size 1–2 mm, whereas the cortical The shape memory effect in NiTi enhances its suitability in the fabri­
regime is denser. Cross-sections of the femur regimes and CAD model of cation of self-expanding stents for transcatheter and minimally invasive
the compound mesh structure are shown in Figs. 19(a) and 19(b) solutions. NiTi stents can be compressed to fit through a small catheter
respectively. The center region is soft (trabecular regime) having 85 % during insertion and then self-expanded to gain the original shape at the

Fig. 19. (a) Cross section of trabecular regime (shown as T) and cortical regime (shown as C) in the upper femur bone structure. Reproduced from Ref. [188] with
permission from Taylor & Francis. (b) CAD model of compound regime structure and (c) bone regimes showing 85 % porosity in trabecular (T) regime and 55 %
porosity in cortical (C) regime. (d) Ti-6Al-4 V regimes fabricated using EBM and fixed in the femoral rod. Reproduced from Ref. [189] with permission from
Springer Nature.

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dental implants, and brain spatulas [191].

Generally, higher impurities are added during conventional
manufacturing processes such as casting and powder manufacturing.
These impurities form second phases in the alloy matrix (i.e., carbon and
oxygen-based impurities form titanium-rich phases TiC and Ti4Ni2Ox)
[194]. Such second-phase formation degrades the functional properties
of NiTi alloy. Nowadays, AM is implemented to produce complex NiTi
structures to replace conventional manufacturing processes.
AM fabricated implants have a long life as AM can produce implants
having identical properties to the host bone [195]. The interconnecting
pores in AM-fabricated NiTi alloys allow bone growth along with a low
stiffness [196,197]. The porosity can be introduced in NiTi alloys by
varying process parameters, including beam energy, powder size, and
hatch distance. Lattice-type pores are formed by increasing the hatch
distance, as shown in Fig. 21(a). However, higher Ni-release occurs
during porosity formation at a higher hatch distance. Ni-release should
be minimal as it inversely affects the human body [198]. Ni-release can
be reduced for both types of pores using a highly focused energy source.
Pores are also formed by introducing engineered porosity using different
energy beam diameters (Fig. 21(b)). The focused laser beam reduces Ni-
Fig. 20. Schematic stress-strain behavior of stainless steel and nitinol
release and the number of adherent particles inside the pores, as shown
compared to the human bone. Reproduced from Ref. [191] with permission
from Springer Nature. in Fig. 21(b) [48]. The highly complex porous structures are fabricated
in nitinol as shown in Fig. 22(a). These porous structures are used in
functional applications such as teeth root fixtures in the jaw segment
desired location [193].
(Fig. 22 (b and c)).
Fig. 20 shows the stress-strain behavior of two biocompatible ma­
The functional properties of NiTi alloys depend on the content of
terials – stainless steel and nitinol as an alternative to human bone.
nickel and titanium. Phase transformation in NiTi alloys leads to
Nitinol shows close deformation behaviors to the human bone.
changes in properties over the temperature variation. Titanium-rich
Furthermore, NiTi offers compatibility with magnetic resonance imag­
alloys exhibit a higher shape memory effect due to temperature-
ing and x-ray computed tomography. The exceptional biocompatible
induced phase transformation. In contrast, super elasticity is dominant
properties have enabled NiTi applications in orthopedics, staples, plates,
for Nickel-rich alloys due to the stress-induced phase transformation

Fig. 21. Porosity generated in Ni50.2Ti alloy (a) by increasing hatch distance and (b) by introducing engineered porosity at different laser spot sizes – divergent
beam with spot size 128 μm (left) and focused beam with spot size 61 μm (right). Reprinted from Ref. [48] Copyright (2016), with permission from Elsevier.

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Fig. 22. (a) Fabrication of highly complex porous structure in nitinol (b) CAD model of jaw segment (c) Tooth with porous nitinol root to fix in the jaw segment.
Reproduced from Ref. [199] with permission from ASME.

[200]. For Ni-rich alloys, annealing, and aging heat treatment are per­ drop the part reliability and increase the inspection efforts to confirm
formed above the phase transformation temperature to obtain a the part sustainability [204]. AM allows part fabrication to have a
superelastic behavior [201]. If microstructural defects are present inside complicated design and can fabricate most of the materials used in the
the component, shape memory and super elasticity effect may degrade aerospace and automobile industries. The capability of manufacturing
due to the increase in irreversible strain after each transformation [202]. complex geometries reduces the number of joints and improves part
reliability. For example, AM reduces the number of parts from 80 to 41
5.1.3. Head scalp for the oxidizer turbopump used in a rocket engine [205]. Consequently,
In additive manufacturing, part fabrication based on computer- 18.2 % of AM revenues are generated from the aerospace applications
generated models has enabled the reconstruction of damaged body [206]. Metal AM applications are extended to the rapid tooling [207]
parts. A 3D model of the malfunctioning organ is generated using and damaged part repairing [208] of aerospace and automobile com­
computed tomography (CT) or MRI scan. A 3D model of the scan data is ponents. Aerospace components such as methane injectors, nozzles,
converted into the AM-compatible format to perform the segmentation turbopump stators, cryo heat exchangers, oxidizer and fuel valves,
of the malfunctioning region. A model of a customized implant is created propulsion thrusters, and combustion chambers are fabricated using AM
such that it exactly fits the cranial defect. AM is used to fabricate the [205]. Fig. 24 shows AM parts used in the propulsion system of F-35
implant from the biocompatible material using the CAD model. An lightning. Fig. 25(a) shows a methane gas injector fabricated using PBF
implant acts as a reconstructed skull of the damaged part and generates a featuring a reduced number of parts. AM fabricated complex turboma­
continuous skull. chinery parts for liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen turbopumps are
The cranial defect of the head scalp in the right frontal bone due to a shown in Figs. 25 (b) and (c). The utilization of AM is evident in Figs. 25
bike accident is shown in Fig. 23(a). CT scan is performed to obtain the (d) and (e), depicting the fabrication of advanced designs with intricate
3D digital image and simulate the internal structure. Here, image seg­ internal structures in the cryo heat exchanger and lattice structures in
mentation is performed using InVesalius software, and the CT scan data the regen chamber.
is converted into STL format. A customized implant is designed such that
it ensures the structural integrity of the skull and designed implant. The 5.2.1. Broad material compatibility
computer-generated model and designed implant are shown in Figs. 23 Aerospace-grade materials such as high-end metals including
(b) and (c). The structural integrity of the skull and implant is shown in aluminum, steel, titanium, cobalt, and Ni-superalloys, and refractory
Figs. 23(d) and (e). Reconstruction of cranial defect is performed using materials including tungsten, tantalum, metal matrix composites, and
additively manufactured Ti-6Al-4 V implant as shown in Figs. 23 (f) and multi-metallic alloys can be manufactured using PBF and DED processes
(g). An image of the patient after 8 months of reconstruction surgery is [167,205]. High-strength aluminum alloys are the most common aero­
shown in Fig. 23(h) [203]. space material due to their high strength-to-weight ratio and easy pro­
cessing characteristics. AM further improves design complexities by
5.2. Aerospace and automobile components reducing the number of joints. AM is suitable for alloy development,
including crack-prone aluminum alloys (i.e., Scamalloy and AlSi10Mg),
The automotive and aerospace components need a lower weight and which have higher tensile and fatigue strengths [212].
high strength-to-weight ratio to enhance fuel efficiency. Complex as­ Advanced high-strength steels, including transformation-induced
sembly systems in aerospace applications lead to intricate parts fabri­ plasticity (TRIP) [213] and twinning-induced plasticity (TWIP) [214]
cation with high dimensional accuracy. If conventional manufacturing steels are fabricated using L-PBF. Dual-phase (ferrite and austenite)
processes are used to fabricate aerospace parts, the number of joints steels [215] with uniform microstructure can be fabricated using DED.
significantly increases with an increase in part complexity. The joints Additively manufactured stainless steels are used in aerospace and

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S. Patel et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 131 (2024) 1179–1201

Fig. 23. cranial reconstruction surgery: (a) patient having a cranial defect in the right frontal bone; (b) skull segmentation image using computed tomography
scanning (c) virtual CAD model of the surgical device; (d and e) skull and customized implant reconstruction; (f and g) Ti-6Al-4 V implant fitment in cranial defect
area; (h) forehead of the patient after 8 months of reconstruction surgery. Reprinted from Ref. [203] Copyright (2014), with permission from Elsevier.

Fig. 24. Additively manufactured parts of the propulsion system of the F-35 lightning. Reprinted from Ref. [209] Copyright (2019), with permission from Elsevier.

automobile engine parts, exhaust systems, landing gears, and heat ex­ transition [216]. AM also enables the processing of challenging mate­
changers [183]. Additively manufactured titanium alloys are suitable rials such as GRCop-84 to fabricate a combustion chamber. NASA
for cryogenic application due to their strength and sustainability over a fabricated bimetallic combustion chambers and spark ignition systems
large temperature range, as titanium does not exhibit a ductile to brittle using AM of prestigious materials such as Inco-625 [205].

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S. Patel et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 131 (2024) 1179–1201

Fig. 25. Applications of AM in aerospace applications: (a) methane injector [210], (b) turbomachinery [211], (c) oxidizer turbopump [183], (d) cryo heat exchanger
[211], and (e) lattice structure in regen chamber [205], Courtesy of NASA MSFC.

5.3. Oil and gas industries dependency on supply chain management [217]. The just-in-time
manufacturing feasibility of AM parts gives extra benefits of less in­
Rapid prototyping using AM enhances the design capabilities and ventory, decreased machine downtime, and increased cost-saving by
reduces part development time in the oil and gas industries. The flexi­ reducing time and transportation costs [218].
bility and adaptability of AM parts in a challenging environment are AM is implemented in the oil and gas industries after successfully
beneficial to reducing the dependency on other industries, especially fabricating the engineering nozzles [219]. Nowadays, AM applications
during part failures that occur at isolated locations. AM fulfills the pri­ are extended to oil field sectors, including services of turbomachinery
mary concern of part replacement which has a massive impact on the components and subsea equipment [220]. The well-proven applications

Fig. 26. Proven and speculative applications of AM in oil and gas industries [218].

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and specular uses of AM in the oil and gas industries are shown in and cooling, and surface roughness. AM limitations are restricting the
Fig. 26. The AM is suitable for high-value manufactured components, growth of metal AM applications in industrial applications. The current
including gas turbine nozzles, cleanout tool nozzles, and offshore risers, investigations focus on the comprehensive study of AM processes and
which are lower in size and have high geometric complexity. analyzing the part properties using experimental and computational
The components used in the complex assembly systems need to be results.
traced to confirm product reliability. A lower number of parts in the This review article briefly overviews different metal AM methods
assembly structure reduces the cost associated with part traceability by and applications. PBF and DED are the most common melting-based
minimizing the efforts of compiling each part’s details. AM can simul­ metal AM processes. The feedstock material is in the form of powder
taneously fabricate a large number of moving parts to develop a complex or wire, and a laser or electron beam is used for melting. The remelting
assembly. Fig. 27(a) shows an additively manufactured gearbox having of the previous layers makes fusion bonds, and it creates a 3D compo­
six internal gears freely rotated inside a large planetary gear. The nent using subsequent layer formation. In binder jetting, binding agents
capability of AM to fabricate helical-shaped internal gears (as shown in are used to form the bonds among the powder particles. The density of
Fig. 27(b)) facilitates self-centering and -balancing of the internal gears the binder jet component is improved using high-temperature sintering.
inside the planetary gear. Functional prototypes are developed using AM Sheet lamination combines additive and subtractive processes, where
to reduce product development time. Fig. 27(c) shows 55 components of sheets are cut and stacked using ultrasonic consolidation, diffusion
form and fit functional prototypes produced using AM. The assembled bonds, or resistance welding.
structure of the functional prototype in closed and open positions is The various process parameters are involved in different metal AM
shown in Figs. 27 (d) and (e), respectively [219]. methods. A defect-free AM part with higher mechanical properties can
The growth of AM in the oil and gas industries is limited due to a few be achieved in a certain range of process parameter combinations. In the
challenges. Large components cannot be fabricated due to the size lim­ melting-based AM process, input energy density is one of the crucial
itation of 3D printers. The physical properties of AM metal may be parameters to control defects. A series of steps are involved in the binder
inferior to wrought metals. The equipment used in oil industries is jetting process. The quality of binder jetting components is governed by
supposed to work for long periods. Long-period performance data such the powder properties, selection of binders, and process parameters,
as corrosion resistance is unavailable for the AM components [219]. including print orientation and curing time. The size distribution and
However, several advantages of AM, including lower supply chain cost, surface morphology of powder particles are the primary reasons for
innovative and robust design development, and faster prototype defect formation.
manufacturing, are evident to grow the AM applications in the oil and The immense research in the metal AM field enabled AM applications
gas industries [221]. in the biomedical and aerospace industries. The manufacturing capa­
bility of porous titanium structures with complex geometry and higher
6. Summary strength has proven the AM capabilities to fabricate biocompatible im­
plants to replace human bone. The AM applications in the biomedical
Metal AM gives significant benefits over conventional manufacturing fields are further enthralled due to achieving functional properties such
processes, including fabrication capabilities of internal features and as shape memory effects, super elasticity, and corrosion resistance.
complex geometries, fabrication of small-volume customized products, These days, AM applications are extended to manufacturing aerospace
and lower material wastage. However, layer-by-layer manufacturing has components, including rocket engines, cryo-nozzles, turbo pumps, and
limitations, such as porosity, residual stresses due to repetitive heating heat exchanges. The recent advances in AM are utilized in developing

Fig. 27. (a) Additively manufactured gear assembly, (b) computer-aided cross-section of the gear assembly, (c) additively manufactured parts of a functional
prototype, (d) closed and (e) opened position of fully assembled form and fit the functional prototype. Used with permission of Elsevier, from Ref. [219]; permission
conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.

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service components for oil and gas industries, such as turbine nozzles [26] Reijonen J, Revuelta A, Riipinen T, Ruusuvuori K, Puukko P. On the effect of
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