SAMPLING DESIGN & Data Collection: Sampling Design - Steps in sampling design -

Characteristics of a good sample design - Types of sample designs-Measurement and scaling

techniques- Methods of data collection – Collection of primary data - Data collection instruments.

INTRODUCTION
The research work cannot be undertaken without use of sampling. All items in any field of
inquiry constitute a ‘Universe’ or ‘Population.’ A complete enumeration of all items in the
‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal
of time, money and energy. Therefore, when the field of inquiry is large, the study of the total
population is not possible and it is also impracticable. The practical limitation: cost, time and
other factors in the way of studying the total population. Further, many a time it is not
possible to examine every item in the population, and sometimes it is possible to obtain
sufficiently accurate results by studying only a part of total population. In such cases there is
no utility of census surveys.
The selected respondents constitute what is technically called a ‘sample’ and the
selection process is called ‘sampling technique.’ The survey so conducted is known as
‘sample survey’.

Definition of sampling
W.G. Cocharn defined the term sampling
“In every branch of science we lack the resources, to study more than a fragment of the phenomena that might advance our
knowledge.”
“In the social sciences, it is not possible to collect data from every respondent relevant to our study but only from some fractional
part of the respondents. The process of selecting the fractional part is called sampling.”– David S. Fox
‘Sampling design’ means the joint procedure of selection and estimation. Sampling should
be such that error of estimation is minimum.

SAMPLE DESIGN
“A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population”. It refers to the technique or the

procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample. Sample design may as
well lay down the number of items to
be included in the sample i.e., the size of the sample. Sample design is determined before data
are collected.

STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN

While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the following
points:
1. Type of universe
The developing of any sample design,
a. The set of objects called the Universe to be studied to be clearly defined.
b. The universe can be finite or infinite.
c. In finite universe the number of items is certain.
Ex.: The population of a city, the number of workers in a factory and the
like are examples of finite universes.
d. In case of an infinite universe the number of items is infinite.
Ex.: The number of stars in the sky, listeners of a specific radio programme,
throwing of a dice etc. are examples of infinite universes.
2. Sampling unit
A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting sample.
Sampling unit may be
a. A geographical one such as state, district, village, etc., or
b. A construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or
c. It may be a social unit such as family, club, school, etc., or
d. It may be an individual.
The researcher will have to decide one or more of such units that he has to select for
his study.
3. Source list
It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be drawn. It contains
the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe only). If source list is not
available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be comprehensive, correct, reliable
and appropriate. It is extremely important for the source list to be as representative of the
population as possible.
4. Size of sample
a. Size of sample refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe
to constitute a sample.
 b. The size of sample should neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should
be optimum.
c. An optimum sample is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency,
representativeness, reliability and flexibility.
d. To decide the size of sample, researcher must determine the desired precision
as also an acceptable confidence level for the estimate.
e. The size of population variance needs to be considered as in case of larger
variance usually a bigger sample is needed.
f. The size of population also limits the sample size.
g. The parameters of interest in a research study are important while deciding the
size of the sample. Costs too dictate the size of sample that we can draw.
h. The budgetary constraint must be taken into consideration when we decide the
sample size.
5. Parameters of interest
In determining the sample design,
a. One must consider the question of the specific population parameters which are
of interest.
b. For instance, we may be interested in estimating the proportion of persons with
some characteristic in the population, or we may be interested in knowing some
average or the other measure concerning the population.
c. There may also be important sub-groups in the population about whom we
would like to make estimates.
All this has a strong impact upon the sample design we would accept.
6. Budgetary constraint
a. Cost considerations have a major impact upon decisions relating to not only
the size of the sample but also to the type of sample.
b. This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.
7. Sampling procedure
Finally,
a. The researcher must decide the type of sample he will use i.e., he must decide
about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample.
b. In fact, this technique or procedure stands for the sample design itself.
c. There are several sample designs (explained in the pages that follow) out of
which the researcher must choose one for his study.
 d. Obviously, he must select that design which, for a given sample size and for a
given cost, has a smaller sampling error.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN

From what has been stated above, we can list down the characteristics of a good sample
design as under:
a. Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
b. Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
c. Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research
study.
d. Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better
way.
e. Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in
general, for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.

TYPES OF SAMPLE DESIGNS

There are different types of sample designs based on two factors viz., the representation basis
and the element selection technique.
On the representation basis, the sample may be probability sampling or it may be non-
probability sampling.
a. Probability sampling is based on the concept of random selection,
b. Non-probability sampling is ‘non-random’ sampling.
On element selection basis, the sample may be either unrestricted or restricted.
a. The each sample element is drawn individually from the population at large, is
known as ‘unrestricted sample’.
b. All other forms of sampling are covered under the term ‘restricted sampling’.
Thus, sample designs are basically of two types’ viz., non-probability sampling and
probability sampling. We take up these two designs separately.
 The chart exhibits the sample designs.
Element selection Representation basis
Technique

Unrestricted sampling
Probability sampling Non-probability sampling
Restricted sampling Simple random sampling Haphazard sampling or
convenience sampling
Complex random sampling Purposive sampling (such as
(such as cluster sampling, quota sampling, judgement
systematic sampling sampling)
stratified sampling etc.)

Non-probability sampling
Characteristics of Non-probability Sampling
The following are the main characteristics of nonprobability sample:
1. There is no idea of population in non-probability sampling.
2. There is no probability of selecting any individual.
3. Non-probability sample has free distribution.
4. The observations of non-probability sample are not used for generalization
purpose.
5. Non-parametric or non-inferential statistics are used in non probability sample.
6. There is no risk for drawing conclusions from non-probability sample.
Types of Non-probability Sample
There are the following four types of non-probability sample:
1. Incidental or accidental sample.
2. Purposive sample.
3. Quota sample.
4. Judgement sample.
1. Incidental or Accidental Assignment
The term incidental or accidental applied to those samples that are taken because they
are most frequently available, i.e. this refers to groups which are used as samples of a
population because they are readily available or because the researcher is unable to employ
more acceptable sampling methods.
Advantages
a. It is very easy method of sampling.
b. It is frequently used in behavioural sciences.
 c. It reduces the time, money and energy i.e. it is an economical method.
Disadvantages
a. It is not a representative of the population.
b. It is not free from error.
c. Parametric statistics cannot be used.
2. Purposive Sampling
The purposive sampling is selected by some arbitrary method because it is known to
be representative of the total population, or it is known that it will produce well matched
groups. The Idea is to pick out the sample in relation to some criterion, which are considered
important for the particular study. This method is appropriate when the study places special
emphasis upon the control of certain specific variables.
Advantages
a. Use of the best available knowledge concerning the sample subjects.
b. Better control of significant variables.
c. Sample groups data can be easily matched.
d. Homogeneity of subjects used in the sample.
Disadvantages
a. Reliability of the criterion is questionable.
b. Knowledge of population is essential.
c. Errors in classifying sampling subjects.
d. Inability to utilise the inferential parametric statistics.
e. Inability to make generalization concerning total population.
3. Quota Sampling
This combined both judgement sampling and probability sampling. The population is
classified into several categories: on the basis of judgement or assumption or the previous
knowledge, the proportion of population falling into each category is decided. Thereafter a
quota of cases to be drawn is fixed and the observer is allowed to sample as he likes. Quota
sampling is very arbitrary and likely to figure in Municipal surveys.
Advantages
a. It is an improvement over the judgement sampling.
b. It is an easy sampling technique.
c. It is most frequently used in social surveys.
Disadvantages
a. It is not a representative sample.
 b. It is not free from error.
c. It has the influence of regional geographical and social factors.
Since research design is a plan by which research samples may be selected
from a population and under which experimental treatments are administered and
controlled so that their effect upon the sample may be measured. Therefore, a second
step in the establishment of an experimental design is to select the treatments that will
be used to control sources of learning change in the sample subjects.
4. Judgement Sampling
This involves the selection of a group from the population on the basis of available
information thought. It is to be representative of the total population. Or the selection of a
group by intuition on the basis of criterion deemed to be self-evident. Generally investigator
should take the judgement sample so this sampling is highly risky.
Advantages
a. Knowledge of the investigator can be best used in this technique of sampling.
b. This technique of sampling is also economical.
Disadvantages
a. This technique is objective.
b. It is not free from error.
c. It includes uncontrolled variation.
d. Inferential statistics cannot be used for the observations of this sampling, so
generalization is not possible.
Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure which does not afford any basis
for estimating the probability that each item in the population has of being included in the
sample.

Probability sampling
Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance sampling’.
Characteristics of Probability Sampling
The following are the main characteristics of probability sampling:
1. In probability sampling we refer from the sample as well as the population.
2. In probability sampling every individual of the population has equal
probability to be taken into the sample.
3. Probability sample may be representative of the population.
 4. The observations (data) of the probability sample are used for the inferential
purpose.
5. Probability sample has not from distribution for any variable.
6. Inferential or parametric statistics are used for probability sample.
7. There is a risk for drawing conclusions from probability sample.
8. The probability is comprehensive. Representativeness refers to characteristic.

Types or Techniques Probability Sampling

There are a number of techniques of taking probability sample. But here only six
important techniques have been discussed as follows:
1. Simple random sampling.
2. Systematic sampling.
3. Stratified sampling.
4. Multiple or double sampling.
5. Multi-stage sampling.
6. Cluster sampling.
1. Simple Random Sampling
A simple random sample is one in which each element of the population has an equal
and independent chance of being included in the sample i.e. a sample selected by
randomization method is known as simple-random sample and this technique is simple
random-sampling. Aandomization is a method and is done by using a number of techniques
as :
a. Tossing a coin.
b. Throwing a dice.
c. Lottery method.
d. Blind folded method.
e. By using random table of ‘Tippett’s Table’.
Advantages
a. It requires a minimum knowledge of population.
b. It is free from subjectivity and free from personal error.
c. It provides appropriate data for our purpose.
d. The observations of the sample can be used for inferential purpose.
Disadvantages
a. The representativeness of a sample cannot be ensured by this method.
 b. This method does not use the knowledge about the population.
c. The inferential accuracy of the finding depends upon the size of the sample.
2. Systematic Sampling
Systematic sampling is an improvement over the simple random sampling. This
method requires the complete information about the population. There should be a list of
informations of all the individuals of the population in any systematic way. Now we decide
the size of the sample.
Let sample size = n
and population size = N
Now we select each N/nth individual from the list and thus we have the desired size of
sample which is known as systematic sample. Thus for this technique of sampling population
should be arranged in any systematic way.
Advantages
a. This is a simple method of selecting a sample.
b. It reduces the field cost.
c. Inferential statistics may be used.
d. Sample may be comprehensive and representative of population.
e. Observations of the sample may be used for drawing conclusions and
generalizations.
Disadvantages
a. This is not free from error, since there is subjectivity due to different ways of
systematic list by different individuals. Knowledge of population is essential.
b. Information of each individual is essential.
c. This method can’t ensure the representativeness.
d. There is a risk in drawing conclusions from the observations of the sample.
3. Stratified Sampling
It is an improvement over the earlier method. When employing this technique, the
researcher divides his population in strata on the basis of some characteristics and from each
of these smaller homogeneous groups (strata) draws at random a predetermined number of
units. Researcher should choose that characteristic or criterion which seems to be more
relevant in his research work.
Stratified sampling may be of three types:
1. Disproportionate stratified sampling.
2. Proportionate stratified sampling.
3. Optimum allocation stratified sampling.
Disproportionate sampling means that the size of the sample in each unit is not
proportionate to the size of the unit but depends upon considerations involving
personal judgement and convenience. This method of sampling is more effective for
comparing strata which have different error possibilities. It is less efficient for
determining population characteristics.
Proportionate sampling refers to the selection from each sampling unit of a
sample that is proportionate to the size of the unit. Advantages of this procedure
include representativeness with respect to variables used as the basis of classifying
categories and increased chances of being able to make comparisons between strata.
Lack of information on proportion of the population in each category and faulty
classification may be listed as disadvantages of this method.
Optimum allocation stratified sampling is representative as well as
comprehensive than other stratified samples. It refers to selecting units from each
stratum should be in proportion to the corresponding stratum the population. Thus
sample obtained is known as optimum allocation stratified sample.
These three types are clear from the table as given below:

Advantages
a. It is (more precisely third way) a good representative of the population.
b. It is an improvement over the earlier.
c. It is an objective method of sampling.
d. Observations can be used for inferential purpose.
Disadvantages
a. Serious disadvantage of this method is that it is difficult for the researcher to
decide the relevant criterion for stratification.
b. Only one criterion can be used for stratification, but it generally seems more
than one criterion relevant for stratification.
 c. It is costly and time consuming method.
d. Selected sample may be representative with reference to the used criterion but
not for the other.
e. There is a risk in generalization.
4. Multiple or Double or Repetitive Sampling
Generally this is not a new method but only a new application of the samplings we
discussed above. This is most frequently used for establishing the reliability of a sample.
When employing a mailed questionnaire, double sampling is sometimes used to obtain a
‘more representative sample. This is done because some randomly selected subjects who are
sent questionnaires may not return them. Obviously, the missing data will bias the result of the
study, if the people who fail to reply the’ query differ in some fundamental way from the others
in respect to the phenomena being studied. To eliminate this bias, a second sample may be
drawn at random from the non-respondents and the people interviewed to obtain the desired
information. Thus this technique is also known as repeated or multiple sampling. This double
sampling technique enables one to check on the reliability of the information obtained from the
first sample. Thus, double sampling, wherein one sample is analysed, and information
obtained is used to draw the next sample to examine the problem further.
Advantages
a. This sampling procedure leads to the inferences of free determine precision
based on a number of observations.
b. This technique of sampling reduces the error.
c. This method maintains the procedure of the finding evaluate the reliability of
the sample.
Disadvantages
a. This technique of sampling cannot be used for a large sample. It is applicable
only for small sample.
b. This technique is time consuming, costly, and requires more competition.
c. Its planning and administration is more complicated.
5. Multi-Stage Sampling
This sample is more comprehensive and representative of the population. In this type
of sampling primary sample units are inclusive groups and secondary units are sub-groups
within these ultimate units to be selected which belong to one and only one group. Stages of a
population are usually available within a group or population, whenever stratification is done
by the researcher. The Individuals are selected from different stages for constituting the
multi-stage sampling.
Advantages
a. It is a good representative of the population.
b. Multi-stage sampling is an improvement over the earlier methods.
c. It is an objective procedure of sampling.
d. The observations from multi-stage sample may be used for inferential purpose.
Disadvantages
a. It is a difficult and complex method of samplings.
b. It involves errors when we consider the primary and secondary stages.
c. It is again a subjective phenomenon.
6. Cluster Sampling
To select the intact group as a whole is known as a Cluster sampling. In Cluster
sampling the sample units contain groups of elements (clusters) instead of individual
members or items in the population.
Rather than listing all elementary school children in a given city and randomly selecting 15
per cent of these students for the sample, a researcher lists all of the elementary schools in the
city, selects at random 15 per cent of these clusters of units, and uses all of the children in the
selected schools as the sample.
Advantages
a. It may be a good representative of the population.
b. It is an easy method.
c. It is an economical method.
d. It is practicable and highly applicable in education.
e. Observations can be used for inferential purpose.
Disadvantages
a. Cluster sampling is not free from error.
b. It is not comprehensive.
All these above are techniques of probability sampling.

MEASUREMENT SCALES
Statistical information, including numbers and sets of numbers, has specific qualities that are
of interest to researchers. These qualities, including magnitude, equal intervals, and absolute
zero, determine what scale of measurement is being used and therefore what statistical
procedures are best. Magnitude refers to the ability to know if one score is greater than,
equal to, or less than another score. Equal intervals mean that the possible scores are each an
equal distance from each other. And finally, absolute zero refers to a point where none of the
scale exists or where a score of zero can be assigned.
The most widely used classification of measurement scales are:
a. Nominal
b. Ordinal
c. Interval
d. Ratio
Properties of Scales
● Distinctive classification
● Order
● Equal distance
● Fixed origin
a. Nominal scale
In research activities a YES/NO scale is nominal. It has no order and there is no distance between YES and NO.
1. A nominal scale is the simplest scale. In nominal scale the numbers or letters
assigned to objects serve as labels for identifying and classifying objects. The
numbers are just for namesake, and they do not carry any value or order or
meaning.
Ex.: A list of students in alphabetical order, a list of favorite cartoon
characters, or the names on an organizational chart. Classification like STD
codes for cities, codes for various subjects in a university etc.
2. Nominal scales provide convenient ways of keeping track of people, objects
and events. One cannot do much with the numbers involved.
3. Nominal scale is the least powerful level of measurement. It indicates no order
or distance relationship and has no arithmetic origin.
4. The data collected through a nominal scale is known as a nominal data.
5. In spite of all this, nominal scales are still very useful and are widely used in
surveys and other ex-post-facto research when data are being classified by
major sub-groups of the population. Nominal scale is used in marketing
research.
b. Ordinal scale
The simplest ordinal scale is a ranking.

1. An ordinal scale is more powerful than a nominal scale. The ordinal data has
magnitude only. Any set of data that can be placed in order from greatest to
lowest but there is no absolute zero and no equal intervals.
2. The use of an ordinal scale implies a statement of ‘greater than’ or ‘less than’
but not able to state how much greater or less, big or little, strong or weak.
3. An ordinal scale indicates relative position.
4. In this scale type, the numbers assigned to objects or events represent the rank
order (1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc) of the entities assessed.
Ex.: In a class of students, the highest mark is 95, next is 85 and the next is 84, converting marks
to ranks will lead to 1, 2, and 3. Incidentally, it may be noted that the difference in the performance
of the 1st ranker and 2nd ranker is not the same as the 2nd ranker and 3rd ranker. Thus, one can only
conclude that 1st ranker has performed better than 2nd ranker and 2nd ranker better than 3rd ranker
5. A Likert scale is a type of ordinal scale and may also use names with an order
such as:“Bad”, “medium” and “good” “very satisfied”, “satisfied”, “neutral”,
“unsatisfied”, “very unsatisfied”
Ex.: The result of a horse race, which says only which horses arrived first,
second, or third but include no information about race times.
6. In marketing research ordinal scale used to measure relative attitude, opinions,
perceptions and preference.
c. Interval scale
The standard survey rating scale is an interval scale.

In the case of interval scale,

1. An interval scale possesses both magnitude and equal intervals, but no
absolute zero. Ex.: Consumer Price Index and temperature Scale in Fahrenheit
(320-2120F). (i.e. interval scales indicate order and also the distance in the order).
2. Any positive linear transformation is of the form y=a+bx. where b is a
positive constant.
3. Interval scales provide more powerful measurement than ordinal scales. So it
is more powerful statistical measures can be used with interval scales.
4. Interval scales are also scales which are defined by metrics such as logarithms.
In these cases, the distances are not equal but they are strictly definable based
on the metric used.
d. Ratio scale
A ratio scale is the top level of measurement

1. The highest scale, it allows the researcher to identify or classify objects, and
compare intervals or differences. It is also meaningful to compute ratios of
scale values.
2. Ratio scales are quantitative measures with fixed or true zero. Ex.: The
measurement of length The ratio scale possesses all the properties of the
nominal, ordinal, and interval scale.
3. In the marketing, sales, costs, market share, and number of customers are
available measure on ratio scale.
Ex.: A weighing scale is a ratio scale, height, price, sales, revenue, profit etc. In all these cases
zero implies absence of that characteristic.

4. Ratio scales allow only proportionate transformation of the form y = bx .

5. All statistical techniques can be applied to ratio data. These include
specialized statistics as geometric mean, harmonic mean, and coefficient of
variation.
6. A ratio scale is often the scale that statisticians prefer because the data can be
more easily analyzed.
Ex.: Age, height, weight, and scores on a 100-point test would all be examples of ratio scales. If
you are 20 years old, you not only know that you are older than someone who is 15 years old
(magnitude) but you also know that you are five years’ older (equal intervals).

TECHNIQUE OF DEVELOPING MEASUREMENT TOOLS

The technique of developing measurement tools involves a four-stage process,
consisting of the following:
a. Concept development;
b. Specification of concept dimensions;
c. Selection of indicators; and
d. Formation of index.
a. Concept development
The first and foremost step is that of concept development which means that the
researcher should arrive at an understanding of the major concepts pertaining to his study.
This step of concept development is more apparent in theoretical studies than in the more
pragmatic research, where the fundamental concepts are often already established.
 The second step requires the researcher to specify the dimensions of the concepts that
he developed in the first stage. This task may either be accomplished by deduction i.e., by
adopting a more or less intuitive approach or by empirical correlation of the individual
dimensions with the total concept and/or the other concepts. For instance, one may think of
several dimensions such as product reputation, customer treatment, corporate leadership,
concern for individuals, sense of social responsibility and so forth when one is thinking about
the image of a certain company.
Once the dimensions of a concept have been specified, the researcher must develop
indicators for measuring each concept element. Indicators are specific questions, scales, or
other devices by which respondent’s knowledge, opinion, expectation, etc., are measured. As
there is seldom a perfect measure of a concept, the researcher should consider several
alternatives for the purpose. The use of more than one indicator gives stability to the scores
and it also improves their validity.
The last step is that of combining the various indicators into an index, i.e., formation
of an index. When we have several dimensions of a concept or different measurements of a
dimension, we may need to combine them into a single index. One simple way for getting an
overall index is to provide scale values to the responses and then sum up the corresponding
scores. Such an overall index would provide a better measurement tool than a single indicator
because of the fact that an “individual indicator has only a probability relation to what we
really want to know.” This way we must obtain an overall index for the various concepts
concerning the research study.

MEASUREMENT AND SCALING TECHNIQUES

Objective
1. Introduce the concepts of measurement and scaling and show how scaling may be
considered an extension of measurement.
2. Explain the characteristics of description, order, distance, origin and who they define
the level of measurement of scale.
3. Discuss the primary scale of measurement of differentiate nominal, ordinal, interval
and ratio scales.
4. Classify and discuss scaling technique as comparative and Noncomparative, and
describe the comparative techniques of paired comparison, rank order , constant sum,
and Q-sort scaling
 5. Discuss the considerations involved in implementation the primary scales of
measurements in an international setting.
6. Understand the ethical issue involved in selecting scale of measurement.
7. Discuss the use of the internet and computers in implementation the primary scales of
measurement.
A CLASSIFICATION OF SCALING TECHNIQUES
Scaling has been defined as a “procedure for the assignment of numbers (or other symbols) to a property of
objects in order to impart some of the characteristics of numbers to the properties in question.”

Comparison of Scaling Techniques

The scaling techniques commonly employee in marketing research can be classified into:
1. Comparative scales

❖ Is one of two types of scaling techniques in which there is direct comparison

of stimulus objects with one other?

❖ Involve direct comparison of stimulus objects.

❖ Comparison scales include paired comparisons, rank order, constant sum

scales, Q-sort, and other procedures.

❖ Comparison scales include

a. Paired comparisons scaling

b. Rank order scaling
c. Constant sum scaling
d. Q-sort and other procedures.
Advantages
● Comparative scales are easily understood and can be applied easily.
● They involve fewer theoretical assumptions.
● Reduce the halo or carryover effects from one judgment to another.
Disadvantage
● The ordinal nature of the data and the inability to generalize beyond the
comparative scales.
a. Paired comparison scaling
● Here two objects at a time are taken and better one is identified. The data
obtained are ordinal in nature.
Advantage
a. Its name implies, a respondent is presented with two objects and asked to
select one according to some criterion.
b. Paired comparison scale are frequently used the stimulus objects are physical
product.
c. Paired comparison data can be analyzed in several ways. The researcher can
calculate the percentage of respondent who prefer one stimulus to another by
summing the matrices, for all respondents, dividing the sum by number of
respondent and multiplying by 100.
d. Paired comparison scaling is useful when the number of brands is limited
Disadvantage
a. With large number of brands it will be unwieldy.
b. Violation of the assumption of transitivity may occurs.
c. Little resemblance to the marketplace situation that involves selection from
multiple alternatives.
d. The respondent may prefer one object to certain others.
b. Rank order scaling
Respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to
order or rank them according to some criterion.
No two brands should receive the same rank number. There
is no right or wrong answer. Just try to be consistent.
Advantage
a. The respondent are presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to
order or rank them according some criterion.
b. Rank order scaling is commonly used to measured preference for brands as
well as attributes.
 c. Rank order data are frequently obtained from respondents in conjoint analysis.
d. If there is n stimulus objects, only (n-1) scaling decisions need be made in
rank order scaling, in paired comparison scaling {n(n-1)/2} decision would be
required .
e. Rank order data can be converted to equivalent paired comparison data, and
vice versa.
f. It is possible to derive an interval scale from ranking using the Thurston case
V procedure
Disadvantage
● This technique produces only ordinal data.
c. Constant sum scaling
Is a comparative scaling technique in which respondents are required to allocate a
constant sum of its as points, dollars, chits, stickers, or chips, among a set of stimulus
objects with respect to some criterion.
Advantage
a. The respondents may be asked to allocate 100 points to attributes of a product
in a way that reflect the importance they attach to each attribute.
b. Constant sum scale it allows for fine discrimination among stimulus objects
without requiring too much time.
Disadvantage

▪ Respondent may allocate more or fewer units than those specified.

▪ Potential problem is rounding error if too few units, use large number of units

may be too taxing on respondent cause confusion and fatigue

d. Q-Sort and Other Scaling
A comparative scaling technique that uses a rank order procedure to sort objects based
on similarity with respect to some criterion.

Q-Sort scaling was developed to discriminate quickly among a relatively large

number of objects.

This technique uses a rank order procedure in which objects are sorted into

bills based on similarity with respect some criterion.

The number of objects to be sorted should not be less than 60 nor more than
140 to 90 objective is reasonable.

It is magnitude estimation.
 They assign a number between 0 to 100 to each statement to indicate the

intensity of their agreement or disagreement.

Finally, mention must be made of Guttman scaling, or scalogram analysis, which is
procedure for determine whether a set of objects can be ordered into an internally
consistent, unidimensional scale

2. Noncomparative scales:

❖ One of two types of scaling techniques in which each stimulus object is scaled

independently of other objects in the stimulus set.

❖ Also referred to as monadic or metric scales.

❖ Each object is scaled independently of the others in the stimulus set.

❖ The itemized rating scales can be further classified as Likert, semantic

differential, or Stapel scales.

❖ It is the most widely used scaling technique in marketing research.

❖ Noncomparative scales includes

a. Continuous rating scales

b. Itemized rating scales
c. Likert scale
d. semantic differential
e. Stapel scales
a. Continuous rating scales
• Allows the respondent to place a mark at any point among a line running
between two extreme points
• Also called graphic rating scale.
• Has metric scaling
• It has interval or ratio scale
• Can be expressed using diagrams, smiley and scale
Version 1
Probably the worst - - - - - - -I Probably the best
Version 2
Probably the worst - - - - - - -I Probably the best
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Version 3
 Very bad Neither good Very good
nor bad
Probably the worst - - - - - - -I Probably the best
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
b. Itemized Rating scales
• In this respondents are provided with a scale that has a number of brief
descriptions associated with each response categories.
• Issues to be kept in mind :
• No of catergories to be used
• Odd or even categories
• Balanced v/s unbalanced scales
• Nature and degree of verbal description
• Forced v/s non forced scales
• Physical
form It includes
• Likert
• Semantic differentiation
• Stapel
c. Likert scale
• Named after Mr. Rensis Likert
• Range of categories from strongly disagree to strongly agree
• Also called summated scale
• It takes longer to complete
d. Semantic Differentiation
• Used to compare images of competing brands or services.
• Respondent is required to rate each attitude on a number of 5- 7 pt rating
scale
• +ve and –ve descriptions can sometimes switch places - reduces
tendency to just mark 1 side
e. Stapel Scaling
• Ian stapel developed it
• Its presented vertically with an adjective in the middle and five data
points abv and five data point below.
• No zero point is offered.
• Criteria for Good Measurement
Validity
It refers to the whether we are measuring what we want to.
• Subjective Judgment for assessing the appropriateness of the construct.
• Measures the validity of new measuring techniques by correlating them to the
established techniques.
• The ability of one phenomenon at that point of time to measure another
phenomenon at a future point of time.
Reliability
• Its concerned with consistency, accuracy and predictability of the scale.
• It refers to the extent to which a measurement process is free from random errors.
• I. Test –retest II. Split-Half
Sensitivity
• It refers to instrument’s ability to measure the variability in a concept.
• Sensitivity can be increased by adding questions or items to the scale.
• Instead of only Agree and Disagree we can add strongly agree and strongly
disagree to the scale.
DATA COLLECTION
The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research
design/plan chalked out. Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study.
Inaccurate data collection can impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid
results.
The data collection is the accumulation of specific evidence that will enable the researcher to
properly analyse the results of all activities by his research design and procedures. The main
purpose of data collection is to verify the research hypotheses.

MEANING OF DATA
“Data is information in raw or unorganized form (such as alphabet, number or symbols) that refers to or represent, ideas, object.
Data is limitless and present everywhere in the universe”.

NEED FOR DATA COLLECTION

The data are needed in a research work to serve the following purposes:
1. Collection of data is very essential in any educational research to provide a solid
foundation for it.
2. It is something like the raw material that is used in the production of data.
Quality of data determines the quality of research.
3. It provides a definite direction and definite answer to a research inquiry.
Whatever inquiry has to give a definite answer to an investigation. Data are
very essential for a scientific research.
4. The data are needed to substantiate the various arguments in research findings.
5. The main purpose of data collection is to verify the hypotheses.
6. Statistical data are used in two basic problems of any investigation:
(a) Estimation of population parameters, which helps in drawing
generalization.
(b) The hypotheses of any investigation are tested by data collection
procedure.
7. The qualitative data are used to find out the facts and quantitative data are
employed to formulate new theory or principles.
8. Data are also employed to ascertain the effectiveness of new device for its
practical utility.
 9. Data are necessary to provide the solution of the problem.

Precautions in Data Collection

In the data collection the following precautions should be observed:
1. The data must be relevant to the research problem.
2. It should be collected through formal or standardized research tools.
3. The data should be such as these can be subjected to statistical treatment
easily.
4. The data should have minimum measurement error.
5. The data must be tenable for the verification of the hypotheses.
6. The data should be such as parameters of the population may be estimated for
inferential purpose.
7. The data should be complete in itself and also comprehensive in nature.
8. The data should be collected through objective procedure.
9. The data should be accurate and precise.
10. The data should be reliable and valid.
11. The data should be such that these can be presented and interpreted easily.
12. The scoring procedure of the research tool should be easy and objective.

TYPES OF DATA
The data collection is of two types of data viz., primary and secondary.
A. THE PRIMARY DATA

❑ Data that has been collected from first-hand-experience is known as primary data.

Primary data has not been published yet and is more reliable, authentic and objective.
Primary data has not been changed or altered by human beings, therefore its validity
is greater than secondary data
Merit of primary data

Degree of accuracy is quite high.

It does not require extra caution.

It depicts the data in great detail.

Primary source of data collection frequently includes definitions of various

 terms and units used.

For some investigations, secondary data are not available.

Demerit of primary data

 Collection of data requires a lot of time.

Requires lot of finance.

In some enquiries it is not possible to collect primary data.

Requires a lot of labour.

Requires a lot of skill.

DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS [TYPES OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENT]

Method of collection of primary data
1. observation method,
2. interview method,
3. through questionnaires,
4. through schedules, and
5. other methods which include
a. warranty cards;
b. distributor audits;
c. pantry audits;
d. consumer panels;
e. using mechanical devices;
f. through projective techniques;
g. depth interviews, and
h. Content analysis.
1. Observation Method
Under the observation method, the information is sought by way of investigator’s own
direct observation without asking from the respondent. For instance, in a study relating to
consumer behaviour, the investigator instead of asking the brand of wrist watch used by the
respondent, may himself look at the watch.
Advantages
This method is
i. the subjective bias is eliminated, if the observation is done accurately.
ii. The information obtained under this method relates to what is currently
happening; it is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future
intentions or attitudes.
 iii. independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and as such is relatively
less demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to
be the case in the interview or the questionnaire method.
iv. Particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents) who
are not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the
other.
Limitations
i. it is an expensive method.
ii. The information provided by this method is very limited.
iii. Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task.
iv. At times, the fact that some people are rarely accessible to direct observation
creates obstacle for this method to collect data effectively.
2. Interview Method
The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli
and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal
interviews and, if possible, through telephone interviews.
​ Personal interviews
Personal interview method requires a person known as the interviewer asking
questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons. In the case of direct
personal investigation the interviewer has to collect the information personally from the
sources concerned. He has to be on the spot and has to meet people from whom data have to be
collected.
The method of collecting information through personal interviews is usually carried
out in a structured way. Such interviews involve
i. The use of a set of predetermined questions and of highly standardised
techniques of recording.
ii. Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview follows a rigid procedure laid
down, asking questions in a form and order prescribed.
The unstructured interviews are characterised by a flexibility of approach to questioning. In a
non-structured interview,
i. do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and standardised
techniques of recording information..
 ii. the interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to ask, in case of need,
supplementary questions or at times he may omit certain questions if the
situation so requires.
iii. Demand deep knowledge and greater skill on the part of the interviewer.
The chief merits of the interview method are as follows:
(i) More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.
(ii) Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the
respondents; the interview method can be made to yield an almost perfect
sample of the general population.
(iii) There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure
questions is always there, specially in case of unstructured interviews.
(iv) Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal answers to
various questions.
(v) Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method.
(vi) Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty of the
missing returns; non-response generally remains very low.
(vii) The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the questions.
This is not possible in mailed questionnaire approach. If so desired, group
discussions may also be held.
(viii) The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and thus may secure the
most spontaneous reactions than would be the case if mailed questionnaire is
used.
(ix) The language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or educational
level of the person interviewed and as such misinterpretations concerning
questions can be avoided.
(x) The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent’s
personal characteristics and environment which is often of great value in
interpreting results.
But there are also certain weaknesses of the interview method. Among the important
weaknesses, mention may be made of the following:
(i) It is a very expensive method, specially when large and widely spread
geographical sample is taken.
 (ii) There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the
respondent; there also remains the headache of supervision and control of
interviewers.
(iii) Certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or
people in high income groups may not be easily approachable under this
method and to that extent the data may prove inadequate.
(iv) This method is relatively more-time-consuming, specially when the sample is
large and recalls upon the respondents are necessary.
(v) The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the
respondent, sometimes even to the extent that he may give imaginary
information just to make the interview interesting.
(vi) Under the interview method the organisation required for selecting, training
and supervising the field-staff is more complex with formidable problems.
(vii) Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic errors.
(viii) Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with respondents that would
facilitate free and frank responses. This is often a very difficult requirement.
​ Pre-requisites and basic tenets of interviewing
For successful implementation of the interview method, interviewers should be carefully
selected, trained and briefed.

❖ They should be honest, sincere, hardworking, and impartial and must possess

the technical competence and necessary practical experience.

❖ Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that interviewers are neither

cheating, nor deviating from instructions given to them for performing their job
efficiently.

❖ In addition, some provision should also be made in advance so that appropriate

action may be taken if some of the selected respondents refuse to cooperate or

are not available when an interviewer calls upon them.
In fact, interviewing is an art governed by certain scientific principles.
1. Every effort should be made to create friendly atmosphere of trust and
confidence, so that respondents may feel at ease while talking to and
discussing with the interviewer.
2. The interviewer must ask questions properly and intelligently and must record
the responses accurately and completely.
 3. At the same time, the interviewer must answer legitimate question(s), if any,
asked by the respondent and must clear any doubt that the latter has.
4. The interviewers approach must be friendly, courteous, conversational and
unbiased.
5. The interviewer should not show surprise or disapproval of a respondent’s
answer. But he must keep the direction of interview in his own hand,
discouraging irrelevant conversation and must make all possible effort to keep
the respondent on the track.
​Telephone interviews: This method of collecting information consists in contacting
respondents on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method, but plays important part in
industrial surveys, particularly in developed regions. The chief merits of such a system are:
1. It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.
2. It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining information.
3. It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost per response is
relatively low.
4. Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.
5. There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing method; the
non-response is generally very low.
6. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents.
7. Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.
8. At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot be
contacted for one reason or the other.
9. No field staff is required.
10. Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.
But this system of collecting information is not free from demerits. Some of these
may be highlighted.
1. Little time is given to respondents for considered answers; interview period is
not likely to exceed five minutes in most cases.
2. Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone facilities.
3. Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost considerations.
4. It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers are
required to various questions.
5. Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.
6. Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are difficult to handle.
3. Data through questionnaires
This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries. It is
being adopted by private individuals, research workers, private and public organisations and
even by governments.
The method of collecting data by mailing the questionnaires to respondents is most
extensively employed in various economic and business surveys.
The merits claimed on behalf of this method are as follows:
1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread
geographically.
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own
words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
5 Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more
dependable and reliable.
The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:
1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response
is often indeterminate.
2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach
once questionnaires have been dispatched.
5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies
altogether to certain questions; interpretation of omissions is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.
4. Collection of data through schedules
In this method,
1. The enumerators along with schedules go to respondents, put to them the
questions from the proforma in the order.
2. The questions are listed and record the replies in the space meant for the same
in the proforma.
 3. In certain situations, schedules may be handed over to respondents and
enumerators may help them in recording their answers to various questions in
the said schedules.
4. Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the investigation and also remove
the difficulties which any respondent may feel in understanding the
implications of a particular question or the definition or concept of difficult
terms.
5. This method requires the selection of enumerators for filling up schedules or
assisting respondents to fill up schedules and as such enumerators should be
very carefully selected.
6. The enumerators should be trained to perform their job well and the nature and
scope of the investigation should be explained to them thoroughly so that they
may well understand the implications of different questions put in the
schedule.
7. Enumerators should be intelligent and must possess the capacity of cross
examination in order to find out the truth. Above all, they should be honest,
sincere, hard working and should have patience and perseverance.
Advantage
1. This method of data collection is very useful in extensive enquiries and can
lead to fairly reliable results.
Disadvantages
1. It is very expensive and is usually adopted in investigations conducted by
governmental agencies or by some big organisations.
2. Population census all over the world is conducted through this method.

B. COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA

Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have
already been collected and analysed by someone else. When the researcher utilises secondary
data, then he has to look into various sources from where he can obtain them. In this case he
is certainly not confronted with the problems that are usually associated with the collection of
original data.
Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data.
Usually published data are available in:
1. Various publications of the central, state are local governments;
 2. Various publications of foreign
governments or of international bodies
and their subsidiary organisations;
3. Technical and trade journals;
4. Books, magazines and newspapers;
5. Reports and publications of various
associations connected with business
and industry, banks, stock exchanges,
etc.;
6. Reports prepared by research scholars,
universities, economists, etc. in
different fields; and
7. Public records and statistics, historical
documents, and other sources of
published information.

Merits The sources of unpublished data are many; they

may be found in
a. Diaries, letters, unpublished biographies
and autobiographies.
b. Available with scholars and research
workers, trade associations, labour
bureaus.
c. Other public/ private individuals and
organisations.

Use is very convenient.

Saves time and finance.

In some enquiries primary data cannot

be collected.

Reliable secondary data are generally

available for many investigations.
Demerits

Very difficult to find sufficiently accurate secondary data.

Very difficult to find secondary data which exactly fulfils the need of present

investigation.

Extra caution is required to use secondary data.

Not available for all types of enquiries.

************
 Questions
1. What do you mean by ‘Sample Design’? What points should be taken into
consideration by a researcher in developing a sample design for this research project.
2. How would you differentiate between simple random sampling and complex random
sampling designs?
Explain clearly giving examples.
3. Why probability sampling is generally preferred in comparison to non-probability
sampling? Explain the procedure of selecting a simple random sample.
4. Under what circumstances stratified random sampling design is considered
appropriate? How would you select such sample? Explain by means of an example.
5. Distinguish between:
(a) Restricted and unrestricted sampling;
(b) Convenience and purposive sampling;
(c) Systematic and stratified sampling;
(d) Cluster and area sampling.
6. Under what circumstances would you recommend?
(a) A probability sample?
(b) A non-probability sample?
(c) A stratified sample?
(d) A cluster sample?
7. Explain and illustrate the procedure of selecting a random sample.
8. “A systematic bias results from errors in the sampling procedures”. What do you
mean by such a systematic bias? Describe the important causes responsible for such a
bias.