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WOMEN’S ACTIVIST
ORGANIZING
IN US HISTORY
WOMEN, GENDER, AND SEXUALITY IN AMERICAN HISTORY

Editorial Advisors:
Susan K. Cahn
Wanda A. Hendricks
Deborah Gray White
Anne Firor Scott, Founding Editor Emerita

A list of books in the series appears at the end of this book.

WOMEN’S ACTIVIST
ORGANIZING
IN US HISTORY

A
UNIVERSITY OF
ILLINOIS PRESS
ANTHOLOGY

COMPILED BY INTRODUCTION BY
DAWN DURANTE DEBORAH GRAY WHITE
© 2022 by the Board of Trustees
of the University of Illinois
All rights reserved

This anthology was compiled with the assistance of Laura Rocco,

Eleanor Hinton, and Alison Syring.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Durante, Dawn, editor.
Title: Women’s activist organizing in US history : a University of
Illinois Press anthology / compiled by Dawn Durante ; introduction
by Deborah Gray White.
Description: Urbana : University of Illinois Press, [2022] | Series:
Women, gender, and sexuality in American history | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021035829 (print) | LCCN 2021035830 (ebook) | ISBN
9780252044342 (cloth ; alk. paper) | ISBN 9780252086410
(paperback ; alk. paper) | ISBN 9780252053337 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Women—Political activity—United States—History—
Sources. | Women in the labor movement—United States—History
—Scources. | Feminism—United States—History—Sources.
Classification: LCC HQ1236.5.U6 W6695 2022 (print) | LCC HQ1236.5.U6
(ebook) | DDC 320.082/0973—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021035829
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021035830
Dedicated to Anne Firor Scott
a founding series editor
(1921–2019)
and to all the other past and present editors
of the series

Mari Jo Buhle
Jacqueline Dowd Hall
Nancy Hewitt
Stephanie Shaw
Susan Armitage
Susan Cahn
Deborah Gray White
Wanda Hendricks
 CONTENTS

Preface

Introduction: The Difference that Difference Makes

Deborah Gray White
1 “To Cast Our Mite on the Altar of Benevolence: Women Begin to
Organize” (Excerpt)
Anne Firor Scott
2 “‘There Sho’ Was a Sight of Us’: Enslaved Family and
Community Rituals”
Daina Ramey Berry
3 “The Daily Labor of Our Own Hands”
Lara Vapnek
4 “Latin Women from Exiles to Immigrants”
Nancy A. Hewitt
5 “Performing and Politicizing ‘Ladyhood’: Black Washington
Women and New Negro Suffrage Activism”
 Treva B. Lindsey
6 “‘It Was the Women Who Made the Union’: Organizing the
Brotherhood”
Melinda Chateauvert
7 “Nurse or Soldier? White Male Nurses and World War II”
(Excerpt)
Charissa J. Threat
8 “‘Black Beauticians Were Very Important’: Southern Beauty
Activists and the Modern Black Freedom Struggle”
Tiffany M. Gill
9 “Organizing for Reproductive Control”
Anne M. Valk
10 “Things Fall Apart; the LGBT Center Holds” (Excerpt)
Deborah Gray White

List of Original Publications

Contributors
Index
 PREFACE

In 1987 a new series was formed at the University of Illinois Press.

Dedicated to telling the histories of women in the United States, the
inaugural year of the Women in American History series saw two
books published: Women Doctors in Gilded-Age Washington: Race
Gender, and Professionalization by Gloria Moldow and Friends and
Sisters: Letters between Lucy Stone and Antionette Brown Blackwell,
1946–93 edited by Carol Lasser and Marlene Deahl Merrill. While the
first books in the series speak to some of the commitments
embedded in the conception of the series, more recent books in the
series also signal change. The series has grown to be more diverse
in authors and topic (with much more work still to be done),
revealing the ongoing evolution of women’s studies as a discipline.
In that vein, the name of the series has changed as well. To reflect
the changing standards and commitments of the series, the name of
the series was expanded to Women, Gender, and Sexuality in
American History as a result of a series planning session at the 2014
Berkshire Conference of Women Historians with the series under the
leadership of Susan Cahn, Wanda Hendricks, and Deborah Gray
White.
 This anthology is a celebration of thirty-five years (and counting)
of exemplary scholarship in the Women, Gender, and Sexuality in
American History series that honors the breadth of the publishing
commitments of the series from its early books, many of its most
popular chapters, and some of its award winners. There have been
several drafts of this manuscript, each iteration shorter than the last
after difficult decisions made in service of the need to keep the
anthology a reasonable length. The biggest task in creating this book
became deciding how to curate and organize decades’ worth of
impactful scholarship into a single volume: organize. This emerged
as the theme of the volume itself, as books in the series delved into
the labor, activist, and community organizing at work across the
history of women and their gender and sexuality in the United
States. Chapters and excerpts grapple chronologically with these
histories. No organizational structure could have allowed for each
book in the series to be represented due to the constraints of
publishing realities, but those books and chapters remain very much
available to readers in other ways.
The Women, Gender, and Sexuality in American History series is
near and dear to my heart. It was, in fact, the very first series I
oversaw as an acquiring editor. While my institutional affiliation
changed near the end of compiling this volume, I am no less
passionate about the work I did with the series and am pleased to
be able to complete this project. As an acquisitions editor, I tell the
authors I work with that their book will be a series of collaborations,
and this anthology has been no different. There was much work
done researching, coordinating, securing permissions, and countless
other tasks, and this book would not be complete without the help
of many extraordinary women. Laura Rocco helped to build the very
foundation of this volume during a practicum at University of Illinois
Press when she was a graduate student in the University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign’s School of Information Sciences. Assistant
acquisitions editor Eleanor Hinton took on a great deal of work on
the project after I left the University of Illinois Press and, like
everything she touches, the volume is better for it. I have endless
gratitude to Alison Syring for all the work we’ve done together, but
especially for her years of support in keeping this project moving
forward and for taking on the role of acquiring editor of the volume
in its homestretch. From the moment I pitched the idea to the series
editors, there was complete support and enthusiasm. They will
always have my deep appreciation for their willingness to be
involved, with particular thanks to Deborah Gray White. As a series
author herself, she was the perfect choice to write this anthology’s
introduction, and, she has done a tremendous job in drawing out the
connections between these pieces on women’s organizing.
Organizing, reforming, resisting: the need for these energies are
still felt urgently as a broken political system, misogyny,
homophobia, racism, and myriad structural inequities persist. May
the histories collected in this these pages and the dozens of books
published in the Women, Gender, and Sexuality in American History
series help to give us tools and insights into how we can continue to
do more to organize against these systems through our labor, our
activism, and our community building.
WOMEN’S ACTIVIST
ORGANIZING
IN US HISTORY
 INTRODUCTION

THE DIFFERENCE THAT

DIFFERENCE MAKES
DEBORAH GRAY WHITE

… if I am interested in pebbles as pebbles, then I best not be distracted

by the flatness of some or the roundness of others, the beige of one or
the rosiness of another. For it is their pebbleness I said I was interested
in, not their shape or their color.
—Elizabeth V. Spelman, Inessential Woman: Problems of Exclusion in
Feminist Thought

Obviously, this anthology is not about pebbles. It is a collection of

essays about organizing in America. But just as the philosopher
Elizabeth Spelman found it appropriate to begin her book about
feminist thought with musings about the meaning and significance of
the similarities and differences of pebbles, pebbles seems an
appropriate analogy for the subject at hand.1 For as most of these
essays make apparent, in the 19th and 20th century, American
women organized as women apart from men because they had
different needs, skills, and concerns, or, to put it another way, an
essential “pebbleness” that compelled them to organize. But just as
significant as women’s understanding of themselves as women was
the fact that their strategies and methods differed according to their
race, class, sexuality, and ethnicity. In other words, like pebbles,
women’s various identities differentiated them such that in analyzing
their organizing it is difficult, to near impossible, to focus on their
sameness without also recognizing their differences.
This collection emphasizes both of these ideas. One of its
organizing principles is women’s historic need to accentuate their
gender identity apart from men and organize around issues they
deem important. On the other hand, these essays show that,
historically, the degree to which they did so, and how they did it,
had everything to do with how they were different from each other.
Women’s Activist Organizing in US History also has another
overarching theme. These essays demonstrate that the multiple
identities of members of any organization make it difficult to decide
on common goals and to sustain organizational activity. In other
words, speaking metaphorically, taken singularly, individual pebbles
are simpler than they are in aggregate, for when put together they
present some unresolvable dilemmas.

From the beginning of the American nation, women organized

apart from men not only because gender was a basic organizing
principle of the new nation, but because women thought they had
something to contribute as women. In Anne Scott’s essay we learn
that in both black and white women’s organizations, women were
able to establish identities separate from the men in their families. In
tandem with establishing organizations that helped the indigent,
they helped themselves carve out a place for women as the
caregivers of the new nation and thus laid the foundation for later
claims to citizenship and, as Treva Lindsey’s essay shows, for the
vote. Organizational work provided friendship networks outside the
family and helped literate black and white women demonstrate their
skills and their intelligence in a world that discriminated against
them because they were women.
Almost all of these essays show gender to have been a
metalanguage in American history. Just as historian Evelyn Brooks
Higginbotham has called attention to the role of race as a
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