Control System Applications In Wave Energy Conversion

Umesh A. Korde

Mechanical Engineering Department

Indiana Institute of Technology
1600 E. Washington Blvd., Fort Wayne, IN 46803, USA

Abstract-Significant improvements in the cost- can alter the oscillator dynamics such that efficient energy
effectiveness of wave energy devices may be possible conversion occurs despite varying wave conditions.
with successful implementation of active control of Most wave energy developments have so far focused on
device dynamics. The purpose of this paper is to energy conversion near or on shore, using shallow-water
present an overview of a number of recent applications devices. However, greater energy is generally available in
of active control in wave energy conversion. Simpler deep waters, and the floating devices used in deep water
frequency domain control applications including offer greater structural economy. On deep water devices,
reactive control and latching are examined first. Next control can be used to provide a stationary platform (rel-
the difficulties of time-domain control are outlined, ative to earth) on board the device for the primary energy
and some recent applications of time-domain control converter to react against. This can eliminate the need to
are reviewed. Active control to provide an on-board use another floating body, or a deeply submerged tethered
reaction on deep-water floating devices is considered body to provide a reaction. Theoretical calculations sug-
next. Finally, control of secondary converters is gest significant enhancement of conversion efficiency with
reviewed briefly. The paper concludes with some this approach [3].
observations on possible future developments.
Additional applications of control systems in wave energy
I. INTRODUCTION conversion include control of the secondary energy con-
verter (for instance, the Wells turbine in oscillating water
Devices designed to convert the energy in ocean waves column devices) to match wave conditions. Such control
present a unique opportunity, and some difficult chal- can allow the secondary converter to work near its peak
lenges, for application of automatic control. Potential efficiency despite changing input conditions [4].
benefits of control include a significant increase in the
year-round device productivity. Indeed, calculations show This paper aims to provide an overview of many of the in-
that optimal hydrodynamic control in the time domain teresting applications mentioned above. Sections I1 and
could increase annual energy conversion productivity by a 111 review (1) frequency-domain control and (2) time-
factor of 1.5 to 2.8 [l],[2]. Another advantage of control domain control of the device hydrodynamics, and discuss
would be a decrease in initial structural costs due to re- the relative advantages. Section IV examines recent tech-
duction in the device size necessary to provide a specified niques for improving the conversion efficiency of struc-
amount of energy. turally economical deep water devices. Section V discusses
control of secondary energy converters.
The need for control arises because energy conversion in
most devices is based either on relative oscillation between 11. FREQUENCY
DOMAIN CONTROL
bodies or on oscillating pressure distributions within fixed A . Reactive Control
or moving chambers. The oscillators generally have pro-
This type of hydrodynamic control was developed during
nounced resonances, which enable efficient power absorp-
the early days of wave energy research. Analytical con-
tion in certain wave conditions. Because wave spectra
siderations based on linear theory, as well as laboratory
vary with seasons, however, the year-averaged efficiencies
experiments in regular waves [5] showed that the dynamic
of wave energy devices tend to be low. This problem can
parameters of the primary converter (such as spring co-
be overcome with active control, because a control system
efficient, inertia and energy absorbing damping) could be

0-7803-655 1 -8/00/$10.00 02000 IEEE 1817

altered using controlled actuation to enable maximum en- B = k
ergy absorption a t any chosen frequency. It was found R = M+Mw+Mm (3)
that the device could be “tuned” to resonate at a chosen
frequency using feedback of device displacement and/or Equation (1) leads to the result
acceleration signals [5]. In addition, using velocity feed-
back, the damping coefficient provided by the power take x = FD (4)
off mechanism could be adjusted to balance the radia- 2PW
tion damping of the device at each frequency t o enable This is the velocity that leads to the theoretically maxi-
hydrodynamically maximum permissible energy absorp- mum energy absorption [6]
tion. Following this approach, the device dynamics could
be tuned for maximum energy absorption at different peak
(5)
frequencies corresponding to different incoming wave spec-
tra. where Pabs denotes the average power absorbed over a
Because this method involves application of forces on the wave period, and lF~lis the amplitude of the exciting
device that are in phase with the displacement and ac- force. Pabs in Eq. (5) is the hydrodynamically maximum
celeration (i.e. spring like and inertia like), the method possible power that the device can absorb. For fixed ter-
is known as “reactive control”. This method has the ad- minators that do not transmit any waves, the maximum
vantage of relatively simple implementation, but cannot absorbed power above equals the net incident power in the
be applied for real time optimal control. However, suc- waves less any viscous losses. Note that when the device
cessful implementation of selective tuning could enable resonates to an input wave, the reactive part of the device
deployment of smaller devices, and lead to considerable impedance vanishes, and maximum energy absorption is
improvement in overall annual productivity. The general achieved with the damping D set to the value p , at the
idea behind frequency domain tuning is expressed below. resonant frequency. The phase difference between FD and
For simplicity, consider a single-degree of freedom device x is 90” a t resonance. Reactive tuning provides a way for
in regular waves. Assuming small motion, the equation of the device to resonate at a chosen frequency, in addition
motion for this device can be written as to its “natural” resonant frequency. It is easily seen that,
by choosing D , B , and R to match the quantities on the
[ M + M, + M,] 2 + pwk + k~ =’F + F, (1) right side of Eq. (3) at each frequency, we can maximize
Here M is the rest mass of the device (primary converter), energy absorption at that frequency. Alternatively, in an
M, is the frequency-dependent added mass, and Mm is irregular wave spectrum, by tuning the device to the peak
the infinite-frequency added mass. pw is the frequency- frequency of the spectrum, we can ensure good energy
dependent radiation damping of the device. k is the hy- absorption for that spectrum.
drostatic spring constant for the device. FD is the exciting An example of a reactive control system for oscillating
(diffraction) force, and F, is the force applied on the de- water columns (OWC) is shown in [7]. Laboratory results
vice by an actuator (often combined with the power take for a terminator type oscillating water column are shown
off mechanism). in Figure 1, which is also presented in [8]. Results also
For reactive control, the device displacement or velocity show, however, that the reactive forces that need to be
signals are picked off using appropriate sensors, and dif- applied externally on the device tend to be large, and
ferentiated or integrated as necessary. The goal is to use this may sometimes become an impediment t o practical
these signals to generate the actuator force implementation.

F, = Dx + Bx + Rx (2)
B. Latching
Development of this technique took place concurrently
Here D denotes the external, power-absorbing damping
with the method examined above. “Latching” type con-
coefficient, B the external spring coefficient, and R the
trol was originated by Budal and Falnes [9]. As above, the
external inertia coefficient. In most systems, these coeffi-
objective of this method is to exploit the fact that energy
cients can be set electronically to alter the device tuning.
absorption is maximum when the device resonates. Bu-
Because of the phase relationship between x and 2 , it is
dal and Falnes argue that it is the phase difference of 90”
usually sufficient to apply just the external spring or the
between FD and x at resonance that is important for max-
external inertia part. However, if we choose the coeff-
imum energy absorption. “Latching” is a way to force this
cients such that
phase difference by means of an external lock-and-release
D = Pw mechanism at any input wave frequency.

1818
 Exampleof Latching type control
14-

Experiment
1.2-

1-
0
U

3
7
1
-

i
0
so.8 0

0.6-
i

0.6 0.8 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 - 5 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency (Hz) Time

Figure 1: Efficiency of a terminator OWC under reactive control in Figure 2: Wave elevation, optimal and actual displacement of the
laboratory in regular waves device under latching

Early laboratory experiments consisted of alternately advantageous in real sea spectra, it does not generally al-
locking and releasing the oscillating floating body at ex- low control on a wave by wave basis. In order to realize
treme positions. A magnetic locking mechanism was used the calculated 1.5-2.8 fold increase in device annual pro-
along with an analog circuit designed to trigger the lock- ductivity, we need real time control, or control in the time
ing mechanism when the device velocity became zero (as domain. This type of control presents special difficulties
near a peak or trough of the velocity signal). A signal in the context of wave energy conversion, and currently
from the wave profile close to the device was fed to the represents an active area of research.
control circuit. The aim, as indicated earlier, was to cause
The main problem with real-time optimal control in irreg-
velocity to be synchronous with wave force. For a small
ular waves was articulated by Naito and Nakamura [lo].
enough spherical float the wave force was assumed to be
This is that the conditions necessary for optimal power
in phase with the incident wave elevation.
absorption can only be met if the future oscillations of
Figure 2 shows an example of latching type control. the converter are known at the current instant. In regular
Efficiency improvement is comparable to that achieved waves, this is not a problem, but in irregular waves (with
through reactive control. The approach can be relatively different frequencies combining at random phases) future
easily extended to irregular waves, where some method for oscillations cannot be known. The length of time over
predicting the incoming wave profile is required (see next which such knowledge is needed may not always be small,
section). Another advantage with latching is that all that but it appears that approximate predictions over a short
the external actuator needs to do is to apply a locking duration can be significantly helpful. Some of the recent
force at specified time intervals. From the point of view approximate methods used by researchers in the area are
of practical implementation, this may be preferable to the considered below.
large forces required of the actuators in reactive control.
Note that this discussion only applies to control in small-
The downside is the “jerkiness” of the device motion that
amplitude linearized waves. For large amplitude waves,
results from alternate locking and releasing of the device.
such as shallow water, near shore waves, the decompo-
111. TIMEDOMAIN CONTROL sition of wave force into radiation and diffraction (inci-
While adjustable frequency-domain tuning of device to dent + scattered) components is not permissible. Con-
absorb maximum energy at a chosen frequency may be sequently, none of the discussion below, regarding added

1819
mass, radiation damping, and impulse response functions where .ii(w) denotes Fourier transform of vi(t>.
applies in such cases. Such cases are not discussed further It is known that time-domain optimal control requires
here, and focus of this section is time-domain control in knowledge of the inverse Fourier transform of the con-
small-amplitude, linearized waves. For an example of a jugate G*( w ) .
control system for a device in shallow-water, near shore,
nonlinear waves the reader may refer to [ll]. If a single actuator is used to apply a force derived by
inverseFourier transforming G*( w ) the required impulse
Consider a single-degree of freedom device for simplicity. response function for generating such a force would be
For real-time control, we need to analyze the situation
where the device is subjected to irregular waves, and work
h ~ ( 7=
) G*(w)ejWTdu = h(-7) (14)
with the time-domain equation of motion below. 2n -a

MWi(t) = F D ( ~-)I;
L
where FD denotes the diffraction wave force (exciting
(6)
i.e. hl is anticausal, leading to a control force
v i ( l ) d ( l )- Fc(t) - F R ( ~ ) + F M ( ~ )

FM,(t) = / 0
h [ ( T ) V ( t- r ) d r (15)
--M

force) given in the time domain, by

Equations (14) and (15) make it evident that radiation
00
effects complicate control of motion in irregular surface
FD(t) = 2
.I, h,,(r)A(t - r)dr (7) waves by requiring estimates of future velocity values.
The approach followed by Perdigiio and Sarmento [12]
with he, denoting the exciting force due to a unit impul- was based on a formulation similar to above, for oscil-
sive wave elevation, and A the instantaneous wave eleva- lating pressure within an OWC air chamber. However,
tion. FR is the radiation force expressed as they used a suboptimal control strategy (for controlling
the chamber pressure in relation to airflow flux through
+h ( t ) )
FR(t) = M(~)~i(t) (8) the chamber) which in the above formulation would be
where akin to letting the desired velocity wi be related only t o
past values of exciting force through convolution with a
F d t )= h(r)ui(t - r ) d 7 (9) causal impulse response function.
and h denotes the causal impulse response function for the An interesting application of latching type control to os-
oscillator. F, is the power-absorbing damping force, and cillating water columns was presented by Hoskin et aZ.[13].
FM is the control force. Our goal is to specify the forces F, These authors used a variational formulation to derive the
and FM that lead t o significant performance improvement optimal sequence for opening and closing a valve that al-
in irregular waves. lowed or stopped air flow to the secondary converter. They
The impulse response h(7) in Eq. (9) above is real and also pointed out the need to predict the exciting force into
causal (i.e. h(7) = 0 , <~0). h (r ) may be written as the the future.
inverse Fourier transform of G ( w ) ,such that, The approach suggested by Falnes I141 attempts to derive

h(r)= 27T Im -aG(w)eiWTdW (10)

the future motion of the converter by predicting the future
exciting force ( F D ) . He proposes to use this to solve for
optimal converter motion according to
where,
+
G(w) = p(w) j w M ( w ) (11) c f v u i ( t+
--M
/ 00

hl(r)vi(t- r ) d r = F D ( ~ ) (16)
)
A real h(7) implies G ( - w ) = G* ( w ) , so that both p ( w )
and M ( w ) are even functions of w. For causality of h ( ~ ) , where c f represents residual friction losses. hl is as defined
we have later in this section. In the formulation of Falnes [14] q ( t )
at any to is approximately influenced by F D ( t ) ,--oo 5 t 5
h ( r )= im 5 im
p ( w ) coswrdw = - w ~ ( ws i)n w r h +
t o t,. Further, lhI(r)l >> 0, -t, 5 r 5 t , (only), so
that prediction of FD is required t , t , into the future. +
(12) This is expected to be obtained by measurement of the
In terms of the radiation damping and added mass coeffi- wave field at a single point some distance from the device.
cients just defined, from convolution theorem,
Given that the force FD on the body is strictly speaking
FRC (U)= [p(w)+ j w M ( u ) ]% ( U > (13) due to the wave field existing over the entire free surface,

1820
it is apparent that estimation of instantaneous FD would
require approximate knowledge of the complete wave field,
and prediction of FD into the future would require predic-
tion of the future wave field for the required time duration.
It remains to be seen how effective the reduced approach
above [14] would be.
Clement and Maisondieu [15] find the optimal velocity
vi(t) by defining an "instantaneous frequency" parameter,
which could estimated on line by an Extended Kalman
Filter and used in applying the control force on the device.
This author examined an alternative method for achiev-
ing control in irregular waves that separates the required
control force into two components: (i) one comprised of Figure 3: Instantaneous absorbed power with and without control
just the static reactive force due to calm-water inertia and
hydrostatic/mooring stiffness, and (ii) another approxi-
mately related to the radiation impedance [16]. To derive
the second component of the actuator force, estimates of
velocity vi into the future are utilized. These are derived The estimates v o ( t )are acquired using an algorithm de-
veloped in [16] which in discrete time is approximated by
from a record of past velocity, under the assumption that
the following structure:
the wave pattern causing this motion is stationary.
"f
The equation of motion for the single mode device can be
written as wo'"t(n) = aivo(n- i) (22)
i=l

[M + M(oo)]ili(t)+
00
LW h(T)Wi(t - 7)d7 +kJ_: Wi([)d[ W I ( n )= CI?ii ( n - 720 - n p )+~22);( n-N, - n p )+ w,'"~ ( n ) (23)
Z NG - n p )+ c4wz(n - NY - NG - np) (24)
V 2 ( n ) = C ~ W I ( T-

= 2[_ +
h , , ( ~ ) A (-t 7 ) d ~ F M ( ~-)F,(t) (17) ~ , ( n= ) c,w,(~ - NG - nP)+ Cfj'Uo(n - N y - NG - n P ) (25)
where n denotes the current instant. no, np, N,, N G ,
The control force FM is separated into two parts, and NY are respectively chosen to be integers nearest to
4 - 1, l34n0, 7 ,and l7?.
@t ' no Results are used beyond
FM(t) = FPID+ FT
A
+ + + +
n = no np N , NG N y , and vo(i)= 0 until then.
such that To suppress the effect of unavoidable inaccuracy in the

FPlD(t) = [ M + M ( w ) ] ' h ( t+
) Im vi(6)dt
future-velocity estimates, an additional force Fc is applied,
which is given by

F c ( t )= A v i ( t ) (26)
FT(t) = -Fv(t) + Fa(t) (18)
F P I Dis derived essentially as in [17],while F,(t) and F a ( t ) Forces FM and Fc are applied to the oscillator. Both A
are derived from future-velocity estimates according to and hl are here responsible for energy absorption.
Results for a fixed oscillating water column terminator
'w
F,(t) = hl,(T)V,(t - T ) ~ T (19) with a buoyant piston in the chamber showed some im-
provement in the energy absorption, especially at low
peak frequencies. Figure 3 compares the instantaneous
'w
Fa(t)= h2,(7)vo(t- T ) ~ T (20) absorbed power with and without control. For further
enhancements in energy absorption, the accuracy of ve-
The impulse response functions h l , and hz, are in con- locity estimates must improve. Work on the use of Auto
tinuous time form the time-shifted, truncated versions of Regressive (AR) estimation schemes to provide velocity
hl and hz, such that the Ihls(t)l, Ihas(t)l M 0,t 5 0, and estimates into the future is currently underway.
Ihls(t)l, Ihas(t)l = O,t 2 2.111. Here, Iv. ACTIVEREACTION ON DEEP WATER DEVICES
In this section, we address control applications proposed
hi (7)=
for deep water devices, with the objective of enhancing

1821
 The equations of motion are represented by

where

Figure 4: Providing a motion-compensated platform on a floating

body

energy absorption by providing a stationary (relative to

earth) platform on board a floating device. Essentially, +
Note that M , is undamped. M , M , is the added mass
the method [18] uses favorable interaction of coupled, ac- of the buoy in heave, B, is the hydrostatic and mooring
tively controlled oscillators to bring about motion com- stiffness, and pLwis the radiation damping in heave. For
pensation of the on-board platform. The relative motion convenience, we assume C, = 0 and include all damping
between the floating primary converter and the motion- on Mc in the coefficient I?. Letting 30 denote the complex
amplitude of the exciting force in Eq. (32) we have
compensated platform can then be used for energy con-
version. An example of such a system is shown in Figure
4. M,, M,, and M , form the coupled oscillators. As
shown below, the on-board mass Mc can be held station-
[
F, = F L~m
FD -FL
-F, ] [71 [
=
-r(u -U,)
+ r(U-2;k2;?)-Uc)
1
ary over a broad frequency range by a suitable choice of (35)
the force F, applied on mass M,. F, is derived from a Thus
feedback of the relative acceleration and displacement be- F = [FD 0 0IT;
tween M m and M,. In addition, the power absorbing force
FL =
applied from M , on M , can be so chosen as to maximize
the energy absorption by M,. [-l?(U -Uc) r(U -Uc)+ A(U, - U c ) - A(Um -UC)lT(36)

Let the control force F, on M , be such that Finally we can write

3, = -A(Um - Uc) (27)

where Fm = F,eiwt, U , = Umeiwt,etc. A (= AR iA1) + such that
-r r
is a complex coefficient to be chosen here, and U, and U,
are complex vertical velocity amplitudes for M , and Mc 'zL= r - r - ~ A (38)
[ 0 A -A
O I
respectively. We let the power-take-off-applied load 3~be
leading to
F~ = r(u- U,) (28)
where I? (= r R +iI?r) is a complex coefficient to be chosen
here and U the complex heave-velocity amplitude for M,.

1822
We seek to maximize the following augmented net power
function.

JA(A,r;U;X) J ( h , r ) + X T ( z U- F ) (40)
Actualloptimum Power absorbed
1
where
0.9
1
J(n,r)--= ,~[F;(u-uC)- ~h(z.4~
- U,)] (41) 0.8

with * denoting complex conjugate. Further, X = 0.7

[A, AZ A~I* is a vector of Lagrange multipliers. =a 0.6

Following the treatment in [3] we find the maximum to be g 05
at t
A = -2" = -i (w M -~ >) =zhm (42)
a04

0.3

r = zhH (43)
which choice leads to

U, = 0 (44)
b

U= (45)
2Pw Figure 5: Ratio of power absorbed under constraints to power ab-
sorbed under optimal conditions

Note that the above analysis is carried out in the frequency

where Pabsdenotes the power absorbed by the float. It is
domain. Extension to time domain of the control strategy
to be noted that neither the hull velocity nor the absorbed
to cause stationarity of M , is straightforward. However,
power depend on the mass Mc.
application of FL in the time domain will require pre-
Calculations showed [19] that practical realization of such diction of the motion of M s as described in the previous
a system would be difficult unless the motion of Mm is section.
constrained. Such a constraint was incorporated in the V. CONTROL
OF AIR TURBINES
optimization procedure [19] by maximizing the cost func-
In a recent application, Justin0 and Falciio [4] examined
tion below with respect t o I?.
automatic control of the Wells turbine to improve the
Umaz matching between secondary and primary energy conver-
sion. The aim is to control the turbine rotational speed
(RPM) by controlling the electric torque (applied by the
+q(% - 1). (%- 1) (47) generator). Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC) are
used to implement control. The purpose of control is to
where we note that U = U,,, 3 F ~ / ( 2 p "is
) the neces- improve turbine efficiency in irregular, real sea waves by
sary and sufficient condition for optimal power absorption. matching RPM to sea state. In general, low flow rates im-
ply low efficiency due to low angle of attack and high flow
p and q are real-valued weights that can be chosen suit-
ably. Optimal power absorption is emphasized if p > q , rates also mean low efficiency due to blade stalling. Con-
while the objective of restricting U , is stressed if q > p . trol can be used to set the RPM so that in both cases the
turbine operates near its best operating point. Further-
Recall that U , and U are absolute quantities, and U,,, = U
implies no relative motion between Mm and M s . Note, more, the process can be optimized to restrict fluctuation
however, that the disadvantage with the chosen J is that in turbine RPM and to maintain smoothness of power
J -+ 00 as U -+ 0. Figure 5 shows the energy absorp- output.
tion by the device under various p and q combinations. It VI. CONCLUSION
is seen from this and other results that the combination There has been a growing realization in the field of wave
p = 1, q = 1 leads to good energy absorption at moderate energy conversion that active control of device dynamics
motion amplitudes for M,. represents an important approach to enhancing the cost-

1823
effectiveness of the technology. It is evident that much of [9] Budal, K. and Falnes, J.,‘Interacting point absorbers with
the progress in control applications to wave energy con- controlled motion’, Power from Sea Waves, B.M. Count
version has so far been confined to theory, calculations, (ed.) Academic Press, 1980, pp. 381-399
and laboratory experiments. This is perhaps a sign that [lo] Naito, S. and Nakamura, S., ‘Wave energy absorption in
much work still needs to be done in the development of the irregular waves by feedforwaxd control system’, Hydrody-
namics of Ocean- Wave Energy Utilization, D.V. Evans,
various control systems referred t o above. It appears that and A.F. de 0 Falciio (eds.), Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
time domain evaluation of the control force on the primary 1985, pp 169-180
energy converter will continue to be a challenge, until ac- [ll] Korde, U.A., ‘Performance of a wave energy device in
curate and reliable techniques are developed for prediction shallow-water nonlinear waves: Part 2 I , Applied Ocean
of incident waves or device oscillations a short time into Research, v. 19, no. 1, 1997, pp. 13-20
the future. Active control to provide a reaction on deep [12] Perdigso, J.N.B.A. and Sarmento, A.J.N.A., ‘A phase
water devices represents another challenging area where control strategy for OWC devices in irregular seas’, 4 th
research is expected to continue, as generalizations of the Intl. Workshop on Water Waves and Floating Bodies, J.
system examined here t o multiple degrees of freedom are Grue (ed.), 1989, pp 205-209
developed. As for control of secondary converters on os- [13] Hoskin, R.E., Count, B.M., Nichols, N.K., and Nicol,
cillating water column type devices, it is expected that D.A.C, ‘Phase control for the oscillating water column’,
Hydrodynamics of Ocean- Wave Energy Utilization, D.V.
in addition to turbine RPM control methods, practical Evans, and A.F. de 0 Falcso (eds.), Springer-Verlag,
methods will be developed in the near future for real-time Berlin, 1985, pp 257-268
control of turbine-blade pitch to enhance overall efficiency [14] Falnes, J., ‘On non-causal impulse-response functions re-
of the device. lated to propagating water waves’, Applied Ocean Re-
VI. ACKNOWLEDGMENT search, v. 17, n. 6, 1995, pp. 379-389
I am grateful to Professor Michael E. McCormick of Johns [I51 CICment, A,H. and Maisondieu, C., ‘Comparison of time-
Hopkins University, particularly for taking an interest in domain control laws for a piston wave absorber’, Proc.
First European Wave Energy Conference, Edinburgh,
this work and for encouraging me to write this paper. 1993, pp. 117-122
[16] Korde, U.A., ‘On efficient primary energy conversion in
irregular waves’, Ocean Engineering, v. 26, 1999, pp. 625-
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~ 7 1 , ‘On the control of wave energy devices in
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465-483

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