ARTICLE IN PRESS

Ocean Engineering 35 (2008) 358–366

www.elsevier.com/locate/oceaneng

Phase control through load control of oscillating-body wave energy

converters with hydraulic PTO system
António F. de O. Falcão
IDMEC, Instituto Superior Técnico, Technical University of Lisbon, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
Received 24 July 2007; accepted 15 October 2007
Available online 18 October 2007

Abstract

Oscillating bodies constitute an important class of wave energy converters, especially for offshore deployment. Phase control by
latching has been proposed in the 1970s to enhance the wave energy absorption by oscillating bodies (especially the so-called point
absorbers). Although this has been shown to be potentially capable of substantially increasing the amount of absorbed energy, the
practical implementation in real irregular waves of optimum phase control has met with theoretical and practical difficulties that have
not been satisfactorily overcome. The present paper addresses the case of oscillating-body converters equipped with a high-pressure
hydraulic power take-off mechanism (PTO) that provides a natural way of achieving latching: the body remains stationary for as long as
the hydrodynamic forces on its wetted surface are unable to overcome the resisting force (gas pressure difference times cross-sectional
area of the ram) introduced by the hydraulic PTO system. A method of achieving sub-optimal phase-control is developed, based on the
theoretical time-domain modelling of a single-degree of freedom oscillating body in regular and irregular waves, by adequately delaying
the release of the body in order to approximately bring into phase the body velocity and the diffraction (or excitation) force on the body,
and in this way get closer to the well-known optimal condition derived from frequency-domain analysis for an oscillating body in regular
waves.
r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Phase control; Point absorber; Power take-off; Wave energy

1. Introduction Although phase control by latching has been shown to be

potentially capable of substantially increasing the amount
Oscillating bodies constitute an important class of wave of absorbed energy, the practical implementation in real
energy converters, especially for offshore deployment. irregular waves of optimum phase control has met with
Phase control by latching has been proposed by Budal theoretical and practical difficulties that have not been
and Falnes (1980) to enhance the wave energy absorption satisfactorily overcome. Sub-optimal control methods have
by oscillating bodies (namely the so-called point absorbers) been devised and proposed by several research teams to
whose natural frequency is above the range of frequencies circumvent such difficulties.
within which most of the incident wave energy flux is In a large class of devices, the oscillating (rectilinear or
concentrated. This has been confirmed experimentally for angular) motion of a floating body (or the relative motion
the first time by Budal et al. (1981). Phase control by between two moving bodies) is converted into the flow of a
latching was the object of other theoretical and experi- liquid (water or oil) at high pressure by means of a system
mental investigations in the last few years (Korde, 2002; of hydraulic rams (or equivalent devices). At the other end
Babarit et al., 2004; Babarit and Clément, 2006; of the hydraulic circuit, there is a hydraulic motor (or a
Bjarte-Larsson and Falnes, 2006; Valério et al., 2007; Hals high-head water turbine) that drives an electric generator.
et al., 2007). Reviews can be found in Falnes (2002a, b). The highly fluctuating hydraulic power produced by the
reciprocating piston (or pistons) may be smoothed by the
Tel.: +351 21 8417273. use of a gas accumulator system, which allows a more
E-mail address: [email protected] regular production of electrical energy. Naturally, the

0029-8018/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.oceaneng.2007.10.005
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.F.O. Falcão / Ocean Engineering 35 (2008) 358–366 359

smoothing effect increases with the accumulator volume LP HP

and working pressure. This kind of power take-off (PTO) Buoy accumulator accumulator
system is employed, e.g., in the Pelamis wave energy
converter (Pizer et al., 2005) and the SEAREV (Josset
et al., 2007).
The use of such a PTO system provides a natural way Motor
of achieving latching: the body remains stationary for
D E
as long as the hydrodynamic forces on its wetted surface
are unable to overcome the resisting force (gas pressure
difference Dp times cross-sectional area SC of the ram) A Valve
introduced by the hydraulic PTO system. In the paper,
which is a follow-up of Falcão (2007), a method
Cylinder
of achieving sub-optimal phase-control is developed, and
is applied, in a time-domain simulation, to a single- B
degree of freedom oscillating body. Regular waves are
considered first. Random irregular waves are then con-
sidered (each sea state is characterized by its significant Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the wave energy converter.
wave height HS, its energy period Te, and a discretized
Pierson–Moskowitz spectrum). A simple geometry (a hemi-
sphere in deep water oscillating in heave) is adopted for the force), and fhs is the hydrostatic force (in the case of a
buoy. floating body; we assume fhs ¼ 0 for x ¼ 0). In a linearized
Phase control by latching is implemented by adequately version, it is fhs ¼ rgSx, where r is water density, g is
delaying the release of the body in order to approximately acceleration of gravity, and S is the buoy cross-sectional
bring into phase the body velocity and the diffraction (or area defined by the undisturbed free water surface.
excitation) force on the body, and in this way get closer to
the well-known optimal condition derived from frequency-
domain analysis for an oscillating body in regular waves, 2.2. Linear system in regular waves: frequency-domain
with linear PTO damping. The proposed control algorithm analysis
is simple and easy to implement, and includes (i) a
proportionality relationship qm ¼ C1 Dp between the fluid In the case of regular waves of frequency o, the
flow rate qm through the hydraulic motor (or water diffraction or excitation force is a simple-harmonic
turbine) and the accumulator gas pressure difference Dp, function of time t. In addition, we assume a linear PTO,
and (ii) a proportionality relationship F ¼ C2 Dp between which allows us to write f m ¼ Kx  C x, _ (K and C are
the release force F and Dp (which regulates the release constants), where Kx represents a spring effect (which
delay). may exist or not) and C x_ (C40) is the damping effect
associated with the energy extraction.
2. Governing equations In this case, the system is completely linear: if the
incident waves are regular, the coordinate x and the forces
2.1. The hydrodynamics of wave energy absorption are simple-time-harmonic functions, and it is convenient to
write xðtÞ ¼ ReðX 0 eiot Þ, f d ðtÞ ¼ ReðF d eiot Þ, where X0, Fd
We consider the simple case of a body with a single- are complex amplitudes, and Re(  ) means real part of (a
degree of freedom (Fig. 1), oscillating in heave (coordinate notation we will be omitting in what follows).
x, with x ¼ 0 in the absence of waves). Since the system is linear, Fd is proportional to the
The governing equation for the body oscillations is incident wave amplitude Aw (assumed here real and
mx€ ¼ f h ðtÞ þ f m ðtÞ, where m is the mass of the buoy, x€ is positive) and we may write jF d j ¼ GðoÞAw , where G(o) is
the acceleration, fh is the vertical component of the force an (real positive) excitation force coefficient.
due to water pressure on the wetted surface of the body (we It is convenient to decompose the radiation force as
assume fh ¼ 0 for the motionless body at x ¼ 0 in calm f r ðtÞ ¼ AðoÞx€  BðoÞx._ Here A(o) is the added mass and
water), and fm is the vertical component of the force B(o) is the radiation damping coefficient (for physical
applied on the buoy by the PTO mechanism. reasons, B cannot be negative).
If the amplitudes of the waves and of the body motions For bodies with a vertical axis of symmetry oscillating in
are small (linear system from the wave hydrodynamics heave (as assumed here), it may be found (Falnes, 2002b)
viewpoint), we may introduce the usual decomposition that the excitation force coefficient and the radiation
fh ¼ fd+fr+fhs, where fd is the vertical force produced by damping coefficient are related to each other by
the incident waves on the assumedly fixed body (excitation  1=2
or diffraction force), fr is the hydrodynamic force due to 2g3 rBðoÞ
GðoÞ ¼ . (1)
the body oscillation in otherwise calm water (radiation o3
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
360 A.F.O. Falcão / Ocean Engineering 35 (2008) 358–366

The coefficients A(o) and B(o) depend on the geometry the form
(and on the frequency o). Z t
If the system is linear, the governing equation may be € þ rgS xðtÞ þ
ðm þ A1 ÞxðtÞ € dt
Lðt  tÞxðtÞ
written as 1
_ tÞ,
¼ f d ðtÞ þ f m ðx; x; ð9Þ
ðm þ AÞx€ þ ðB þ CÞx_ þ ðrgS þ KÞx ¼ F d eiot . (2)
where AN is the limiting value of the added mass A(o) for
Replacing x ¼ X0 eiot, we find
o ¼ N. The convolution integral in Eq. (9) represents the
Fd memory effect in the radiation force. The force fm applied
X0 ¼ . (3)
o2 ðm þ AÞ þ ioðB þ CÞ þ rgS þ K on the body by the energy conversion mechanism is a linear
or non-linear function of x and x, _ and may also be an
The time-averaged absorbed power is (see, e.g., Falnes,
explicit function of time if the system is actively controlled.
2002b):
The memory function L can be calculated from the
 
1 1 B F d 2 radiation damping coefficient B(o) by (see Falnes, 2002b):
P̄ ¼ Co2 jX 0 j2 ¼ jF d j2  U 0   , (4) Z
2 8B 2 2B 2 1 BðoÞ
LðtÞ ¼ sin ot do. (10)
where U 0 ¼ ioX 0 is the complex amplitude of the velocity p 0 o
_ This shows that, for a given body and given incident
x.
Eq. (9) can easily be integrated numerically, from initial
wave (i.e., fixed o, B, and Fd), the time-averaged absorbed
_
conditions for x and x.
power is maximum when the values of K and C are such
that
2.5. The power take-off mechanism
F d ¼ 2BU 0 , (5)
in which case the diffraction force fd is in phase with the The hydraulic circuit includes a hydraulic cylinder or
_ By combining (4) and (5), we find
velocity x. ram, a high-pressure (HP) gas accumulator, a low-pressure
(LP) gas accumulator and a hydraulic motor (or a water
o2 ðm þ AÞ ¼ rgS þ K, (6)
turbine) (Fig. 1). A rectifying valve system prevents liquid
B ¼ C. (7) from leaving the HP accumulator at E and from entering
the LP accumulator at D. The hydraulic machine is driven
Eq. (6) is a resonance condition, whereas (7) is a damping by the flow resulting from the pressure difference between
condition for maximum power. the HP and LP accumulators.
Typically, ocean wave energy is concentrated in the We denote by m1 and m2 the masses of gas inside the HP
range 0.5ooo0.9 rad/s. In this range and for most point and LP accumulators, respectively, which are supposed to
absorbers, (6) would imply negative values for the PTO remain unchanged during operation. Assuming the duct
spring stiffness K, which is a condition difficult to and accumulator walls to be rigid and the liquid
implement in practice. Phase control by latching is a incompressible, the total volume of gas remains constant,
method, initially proposed by Budal and Falnes (1980), for i.e., m1v1(t)+m2v2(t) ¼ V0 ¼ constant (vi, i ¼ 1, 2, is spe-
overcoming this problem. cific volume of gas). We may also write
dv1 ðtÞ
2.3. Irregular waves qðtÞ  qm ðtÞ ¼ m1 ,
dt
Real irregular waves may be represented with good where q(t) is the volume flow rate of liquid (oil or water)
approximation as a superposition of regular waves, by displaced by the piston and qm(t) is the volume flow rate
defining a spectrum. We adopt a discretized Pierson– through the hydraulic motor (or water turbine).
Moskowitz spectrum. Since linear water wave theory is The specific entropy s1 of the gas inside the HP
assumed, the resulting diffraction force is simply obtained accumulator (and s2 for the LP accumulator) will change
by linear superposition due essentially to heat transfer. This may be connected to
X changes in seawater temperature and surrounding air
f d ðtÞ ¼ f d;n ðtÞ. (8) temperature, and also to changes in the power dissipated
n
(viscous losses and electrical losses) inside the converter.
Such changes are likely not to be significant over time
2.4. Time-domain analysis intervals less than, say, 1 h, and so it is reasonable to
consider that the gas compression/expansion process inside
The PTO system of most wave energy converters of the accumulator is approximately isentropic (s1 and s2 are
the oscillating-body type is strongly non-linear, and so constant) during a sea state (this means that, although the
the frequency-domain analysis, outlined above, is not changes in gas temperature may be significant during the
applicable. This can be dealt with by the time-domain compression/expansion cycle, the corresponding changes in
analysis (see Falnes, 2002b). The governing equation takes entropy may be neglected).
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.F.O. Falcão / Ocean Engineering 35 (2008) 358–366 361

We note that the force SCDp required to pump fluid into The instantaneous power absorbed by the converter is
the HP accumulator is to be overcome by the action of R_ t
PðtÞ ¼ FjxðtÞj, and its time-average in t0ptptf is
the buoy upon the piston. For details of modelling, see P̄ ¼ Dt1 t0f PðtÞ dt. The value of P̄ naturally depends on
Falcão (2007). the magnitude of the time interval Dt ¼ tft0. The
numerical values presented here were obtained for
Dt ¼ 1800 s.
3. Floating converter with gas accumulator
4. Coulomb damping
We consider a hemispherical buoy oscillating in heave,
driving a hydraulic cylinder or ram that pumps high-
It is important to control the device in order to maximize
pressure liquid (oil or water) into a hydraulic circuit
the produced energy. This should take into account the sea
(Fig. 1). The rectifying valve is controlled in such a way
state, characterized by Hs and Te. Since the system is
that the liquid is pumped from the cylinder into the HP
assumed linear from the hydrodynamic point of view, then,
accumulator and sucked from the LP accumulator into the
for fixed Te, the values of P̄=H 2s and q̄=H s will depend only
opposite side of the cylinder. The hydraulic machine is
on the ratio F/Hs (we assume here the force F to be
driven by the flow resulting from the pressure difference
approximately constant over the sea state under considera-
between the HP accumulator and the LP accumulator. The
_ is the flow rate pumped by
tion, and, as before, q ¼ S C jxj
time variation of the gas pressure difference Dp ¼
the piston). If phase control by latching is introduced (see
p1(t)p2(t) between the HP and LP accumulators results
Section 5), then those values will depend also on the
from (i) the action of the buoy upon the piston, and (ii) the
control strategy and algorithm.
flow of liquid through the turbine or hydraulic motor.
We consider first that the floater (and hence the piston) is
The diffraction force fd(t) that appears in (9) can be
unable to move for as long as the resultant hydrodynamic
obtained from the spectrum characterizing the sea state
force on its wet surface is less than F ¼ SCDp. This kind of
under consideration and from the excitation force coeffi-
damping (simple Coulomb damping) does not involve any
cient G(o). While the body is moving, the governing
phase control strategy and was analysed in detail in Falcão
equation is (9), with f m ¼ signðxÞF, _ where F ¼
(2007). For this situation, the proposed control algorithm
SC(p1p2) ¼ SC Dp and SC is the cylinder cross-sectional
consists in establishing a proportionality relationship
area (the piston rod cross-section is neglected). At some
between the instantaneous liquid-flow rate through the
time, the time-varying body velocity will become zero.
hydraulic motor (or water turbine), qm, and the instanta-
From then on, the body will remain stationary unless, or
neous pressure difference Dp between the HP and LP
until, the hydrodynamic force on the body
accumulators:
Z t
f d ðtÞ  rgS xðtÞ  € dt
Lðt  tÞxðtÞ qm ¼ S 2C G Dp, (12)
1
where G is a constant. The power available to the hydraulic
overcomes the resisting force F ¼ SC(p1p2) (or, if phase machine is Pm ¼ qm Dp ¼ G(SC Dp)2 ¼ GF2. We note that,
control by latching is implemented, until the controller over a sufficiently long time, the time-averaged values of P
allows the piston to be released) and fluid is again pumped and Pm are equal (no energy losses are assumed to occur in
into the HP accumulator (and sucked from the LP the hydraulic circuit).
accumulator).
The hydrodynamic coefficients A(o) and B(o) for a 5. Phase control by latching
floating hemisphere oscillating in heave in deep water were
obtained analytically by Hulme (1982). The numerical It was found in Falcão (2007) (for a hemi-spherical
results presented below are for a hemisphere of radius floater of 5 m radius in irregular waves), that, if G is
a ¼ 5 m, r ¼ 1025 kg/m3, g ¼ 1.4 (nitrogen), in irregular optimized for Te, the simple Coulomb damping (produced
waves with a spectral distribution of Pierson–Moskowitz by a hydraulic circuit as described above) allows approxi-
type defined by (SI units, see Goda, 2000) mately the same level of energy absorption as a PTO with
an optimized linear damper (and no spring, i.e., K ¼ 0). It
S z ðoÞ ¼ 131:5H 2s T 4
e o
5
expð1054T 4 4
e o Þ, (11)
is known that a linear damper may be combined (in what is
where Hs is significant wave height and Te is energy period. often called ‘‘phase control’’) with a ‘‘spring’’ (possibly
The spectrum was discretized into 225 equally spaced with negative stiffness, Ko0, in the case of ‘‘small’’ bodies
(Dop¼ffiffiffi 0.01 rad/s)
pffiffiffi sinusoidal harmonics in the range or point absorbers) to enhance the wave energy absorption.
0:1
pffiffiffi 6 pop0:1 6 þ 2:24 rad/s. (The irrational number This suggests that the use of a hydraulic circuit as
6 ensures the non-periodicity in the time-series of fd(t).) described above, combined with a control algorithm like
The phases at t ¼ 0 were made equal to random numbers (12), may be extended, by some kind of phase control, to
in the interval (0, 2p). The integral-differential equation (9) achieve an increase in the amount of absorbed wave
was numerically integrated in the time domain with a time energy. In the important case of a ‘‘point absorber’’ (which
step size equal to 0.1 s. is the object of the present paper), such modification could
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
362 A.F.O. Falcão / Ocean Engineering 35 (2008) 358–366

possibly consist in extending the period of time during

200
which the buoy is kept fixed, in the following way.
When the body is moving, its velocity will, at some time,
come to zero, as a result of the hydrodynamic forces on its 150
wetted surface and the PTO forces. The body will then

P (kW)
remain fixed until the hydrodynamic force |fh| exceeds
100
RF ¼ R(SC Dp), where R41. It is to be noted: (i) that the
force that has to be overcome (if the body is to restart
moving) is now larger (by a factor R) as compared with 50
the simple Coulomb damping (i.e., compared with SCDp);
(ii) that the acceleration of the floater (unlike in the case of 0
R ¼ 1) is discontinuous when the body is released. There is 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
now a new parameter, R, to be optimized, jointly with R
parameter G. The optimization of this pair of parameters in
Fig. 3. As in Fig. 2, time-averaged absorbed power P̄ (kW) versus R (G
phase control by latching may, in some way, be regarded as
optimized for each R).
corresponding to the pair of optimization conditions (6 and
7) in the case of reactive phase control of a linear system in
regular waves. 100
Numerical simulations (30 min each) were carried out,
based on this procedure and algorithm, for a hemispheric 80
floater of radius a=5 m, in deep water, in regular waves
(see Section 5.1) and irregular waves (Section 5.2). Piston
60
area was SC ¼ 0.0314 m2. The masses of gas (nitrogen) in
p1 (bar)

the HP and LP accumulators were m1 ¼ 100 kg and

40
m2 ¼ 20 kg. In each simulation, the values of gas entropies
s1 and s2 were taken such that the time-averaged gas-
temperatures in the HP and LP accumulators remained 20
close to environmental temperature (ffi300 K).
0
5.1. Regular waves 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
R
Results of simulations in regular waves (wave amplitude Fig. 4. As in Fig. 2, time-averaged gas pressure in HP accumulator versus
Aw ¼ 0.667 m and period T ¼ 9 s) are shown in Figs. 2–6. R (G optimized for each R).
In Fig. 2, the solid line shows the numerically optimized
values (that maximize P̄) of control parameter G for several
values of the latching control parameter R (note that R ¼ 1 averaged absorbed power P̄ and the time-averaged gas
means simple Coulomb damping). In the same figure, the pressure (in the HP accumulator) p̄1 , respectively, versus R.
dashed line represents the amplitude of oscillation xmax. It may be seen that, by increasing R above unity and (for
Figs. 3 and 4 represent, for the same situations, the time- each R) suitably optimizing G, a substantial increase (by a
factor up to about 3.8) in the time-averaged absorbed
power P̄ can be achieved. The maximum power attained in
14 this way, about 206 kW for R=16, should be compared
with the theoretical maximum power ð1=4Þg3 rA2w o3 ¼
12
315 kW absorbed by an axisymmetric body with a linear
G×106 (s/kg), xmax/Aw

10 PTO damper oscillating in heave. It is to be noted that this

8
increase in absorbed power results mostly from larger
floater oscillations xmax (and hence greater liquid flow
6 through the hydraulic motor) rather than from greater
4 pressure levels in the HP hydraulic circuit (Fig. 4). Figs. 5
and 6 represent the time variation of the diffraction force
2 fd(t), the floater velocity dx/dt and its displacement x(t) for
0 two situations optimized with respect to G (same incident
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 wave time series, for easier comparison): R=1,
R G=0.86  106 s/kg (simple Coulomb damping; Fig. 5)
Fig. 2. Regular waves, Aw ¼ 0.667 m, T ¼ 9 s: optimized control para- and R ¼ 16, G ¼ 7.7  106 s/kg (latching control; Fig. 6).
meter G  106 (solid line) and dimensionless oscillation amplitude, xmax/ It is to be noted that, in Fig. 6 (but not in Fig. 5), the
Aw (dashed line), versus latching control parameter R. velocity and the diffraction force are (very approximately)
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.F.O. Falcão / Ocean Engineering 35 (2008) 358–366 363

4 4
dx/dt (m/s) 10 × fd (MN)

dx/dt (m/s) 10× fd (MN)

2 2

0 0

−2 −2

−4 −4

600 602 604 606 608 610 612 614 600 602 604 606 608 610 612 614
t (s) t (s)

4 4

2 2
x(m)

x(m)
0 0

−2 −2

−4 −4
600 602 604 606 608 610 612 614 600 602 604 606 608 610 612 614
t (s) t (s)

Fig. 5. Performance of a hemispherical floater in regular waves for R ¼ 1, Fig. 6. As in Fig. 5, for R ¼ 16, G ¼ 7.7  106 s/kg. P̄ ¼ 206:1 kW.
G ¼ 0.86  106 s/kg. Above, dx/dt: solid line, fd(t): broken line. Below,
x(t). Absorbed power: P̄ ¼ 55:0 kW.
waves as modelled by a Pierson–Moskowitz spectrum (see
Eq. (11)), and Hs ¼ 2 m, Te ¼ 7, 9, and 11 s. The results, in
in phase with each other (in agreement with optimal terms of time-averaged absorbed power P̄ divided by H 2s ,
condition (5) for linear PTO). are presented in Figs. 7–9.
The figures show that a large increase (by a factor about
5.2. Irregular waves 2.3–2.8) in absorbed power (as compared with simple
Coulomb damping, R=1) can be achieved by suitably
Optimal phase control in random irregular waves is combining the values of the control parameters R (R41)
known to require the prediction of the incoming waves and G. The largest absorbed power occurs for R equal to
(theoretically over the infinite future, in practice over a few about 16 and a value of G that depends on R and Te.
tens of seconds, see Falnes, 2002a; Naito and Nakamura, Curves for the diffraction force fd(t), and the floater
1986). In addition to this difficulty, the theoretical _ and displacement x(t), are given in Figs. 10
velocity xðtÞ
determination of the wave-to-wave optimal latching period and 11, for Te=9 s and control parameter pairs (R=1,
requires heavy computation (this seems to have been done G=0.7  106 s/kg), (R=16, G=4.2  106 s/kg).
for the first time, in wave energy applications, by Hoskin et It is not surprising that those large values of absorbed
al. (1986), who used the Principle of Maximum of power occur for relatively large amplitudes of the floater
Pontryagin), which makes it inappropriate for implemen- oscillations, that typically attain nearly twice the value of
tation in real time. the significant wave height HS, as shown in Fig. 11.
Therefore, it is particularly interesting to investigate Since the whole analysis is (as usual) based on linear
whether the simple control strategy outlined above, and hydrodynamic theory (which assumes the amplitude of
tested in Section 5.1 in regular waves, can be applied body oscillations to be small compared with the body size),
successfully to irregular waves. One ought to bear in mind such oscillations are unrealistically large (except in calm
that this should be regarded, at best, as a sub-optimal seas, say Hso1 m) and so are the values of absorbed
strategy, and that the achievable results should not be power. Of course, this is also true in general, whenever the
expected to be close to the theoretical maximum. theory predicts large oscillation amplitudes as a result of a
Numerical simulations, identical to those presented in wave energy converter being tuned (by phase control or
Section 5.1 for regular waves, were performed for irregular otherwise) to the incoming waves.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
364 A.F.O. Falcão / Ocean Engineering 35 (2008) 358–366

25 3

(dx/dt)/Hs (s-1), 10 × fd /Hs (MN/m)

2
20

1
P/H2s (kW/m2)

4
15 28
0
10
8 12 16 20 24 −1
R=1
5 −2

0 −3
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 700 720 740 760 780 800
t (s)
G×106 (s/kg)
2
Fig. 7. Hemispherical floater in irregular waves, Te ¼ 7 s. Plot of P̄=H 2s
versus control parameter G, for several values of latching control
parameter R.
1
30

x/Hs
0
25

20
P/H2s (kW/m2)

28
4 −1
15
16 20 24 −2
10 12
8 700 720 740 760 780 800
R=1 t (s)
5
Fig. 10. Performance of a hemispherical floater in irregular waves for
0 Te ¼ 9 s, R ¼ 1, G ¼ 0.7  106 s/kg. Above, dx/dt: solid line, fd(t): broken
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 line. Below, x(t). Absorbed power: P̄=H 2s ¼ 10:3 kW/m2.
G×106 (s/kg)

Fig. 8. As in Fig. 7, for Te ¼ 9 s. shown in Fig. 12. (This confirms the results in Section 5.1
for regular waves.)
On the other hand, values of the latching control
30 parameter R much larger than unity (required to maximize
P̄) may imply very large forces to keep the body fixed prior
25 to its release. Such forces are likely to exceed the practical
limits of the ram and remaining hydraulic circuit and
20
P/H2s (kW/m2)

4 28 would possibly require a special braking system. This is an

15 engineering problem that has to be faced whenever phase
control by latching is considered.
10 12 Fig. 11 shows that the peaks of velocity dx/dt in general
8 16 20 24
(but not in every oscillation) coincide, in time, approxi-
R=1
5 mately with the peaks of the diffraction force fd, which
matches the optimal condition expressed by Eq. (5).
0 The values of P̄=H 2s , x/Hs and x=H _ S plotted in
0 2 4 6 8 10
Figs. 7–11 were computed for Hs=2 m. These values
G×106 (s/kg)
would change with HS due to the non-linear response
Fig. 9. As in Fig. 7, for Te ¼ 11 s. of the gas accumulator, as was analysed in detail in
Falcão (2007). Provided the accumulator is appropriately
sized, those changes are relatively small within the range of
It should be noted that the increase in absorbed power HS in which the linear wave theory is applicable. If this is
(achievable from suitable latching) that is apparent in the case, one can say approximately that the latching
Figs. 7–9, results mostly from the large increase in control algorithm proposed and numerically optimized
amplitude of floater oscillations rather than from an here is approximately independent of significant wave
increase in pressure level in the PTO hydraulic circuit, as height.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.F.O. Falcão / Ocean Engineering 35 (2008) 358–366 365

3 and other specifications of the accumulator are dictated by

several criteria, namely the maximum allowable working
(dx/dt)/Hs (s-1), 10 × fd /Hs (MN/m)

2 pressure, the desired power output smoothness and

equipment costs.
1

0 6. Conclusions
−1
A simple strategy and algorithm were proposed for the
−2
phase control by latching of a point absorber in irregular
random waves. The device is a heaving floater equipped
−3 with a PTO consisting of a high-pressure hydraulic circuit
700 720 740 760 780 800 and a gas accumulator. The control algorithm was found,
t (s) by numerical simulation, to be a promising and remarkably
effective way to increase the amount of absorbed energy
2
from regular as well as irregular waves.
The control algorithm (i.e., the pair of parameters R and
1 G) to be implemented is weakly dependent on significant
wave height, but (for best results) should be adjusted to
match the sea state wave period, as illustrated in Figs. 7–9.
x/Hs

0 One should take into consideration that the gain from

phase controlling a device is greater if its own resonance
frequency is much higher than the typical sea wave
−1
frequency. This was the case simulated here: a hemi-
spherical buoy of radius a=5 m, whose natural frequency
−2 (as defined by resonance condition (6) with K ¼ 0) is
700 720 740 760 780 800 o ¼ 1.44 rad/s (corresponding resonance period: 4.37 s).
t (s) Naturally, in spite of the gain that phase control may
bring, the geometry and size of the floater should be chosen
Fig. 11. As in Fig. 10, for R ¼ 16, G ¼ 4.2  106 s/kg. P̄=H 2s ¼ 28:5 kW/
m2. by the designer, within economic and other constraints,
having in view its natural frequency to match the
representative sea wave frequency.
100
As is known in general to be the case of phase-controlled
point absorbers (or devices whose natural frequency is
80
substantially higher than the sea wave frequency), the
great gain in absorbed energy was found here, by
60 theoretical simulations of latching control, to imply floater
p1 (bar)

oscillations that are unrealistically large (except in sea

40 states of very low energy level). This means that, although
the control strategy proposed here is expected to be
20 effective in real conditions, the optimization of the control
parameters R and G (and the realistic evaluation of the
0 absorbed energy) should be performed (or validated)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 otherwise, possibly by prototype testing, or by model
R testing at a scale large enough to allow the PTO to be
properly simulated.
Fig. 12. Irregular waves, Hs ¼ 2 m, Te ¼ 9 s. Time-averaged pressure p̄1 in
HP accumulator versus latching control parameter R (G is optimized for In any case, what is proposed here is a control strategy
each R). and algorithm that may be implemented very easily in a
wide variety of oscillating-body devices (in the case of
multiple-mode devices, although conceptually not difficult,
One should bear in mind that the pressure difference Dp
the control may be less straightforward in practice).
decreases (due to the continuous flow of liquid from the HP
to the LP reservoir through the hydraulic machine)
whenever the floater in unable to move (this decrease is Acknowledgements
faster the smaller the accumulator size); this effect tends to
adjust the pressure level Dp to the current sea state and also The work reported here was partly supported by IDMEC,
(in a different measure) to the wave group or even the Lisbon (programme POCI2010), by the Portuguese Founda-
wave-to-wave succession. Naturally, the choice of the size tion for Science and Technology (FCT) through contract no.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
366 A.F.O. Falcão / Ocean Engineering 35 (2008) 358–366

POCTI/ENR/56079/2004, and by the European Commission Hals, J., Taghipour, R., Moan, T., 2007. Dynamics of a force-
through contract no. 502701 (SES6). compensated two-body wave energy converter in heave with
hydraulic power take-off subject to phase control. In: Proceedings of
the 7th European Wave and Tidal Energy Conference, Porto,
References Portugal.
Hoskin, R.E., Count, B.M., Nichols, N.K., Nichol, D.A.C., 1986. Phase
Babarit, A., Clément, A.H., 2006. Optimal latching control of a wave control for the oscillating water column. In: Evans, D.V., Falcão, A.F.
energy device in regular and irregular waves. Applied Ocean Research de O. (Eds.), Hydrodynamics of Ocean Wave-Energy Utilization.
28, 77–91. Springer, Berlin pp. 257–268.
Babarit, A., Duclos, G., Clément, A.H., 2004. Comparison of latching Hulme, A., 1982. The wave forces acting on a floating hemisphere
control strategies for a heaving wave energy device in random sea. undergoing forced periodic oscillations. Journal of Fluid Mechanics
Applied Ocean Research 26, 227–238. 121, 443–463.
Bjarte-Larsson, T., Falnes, J., 2006. Laboratory experiment on heaving Josset, C., Babarit, A., Clément, A.H., 2007. A wave-to-wire model of the
body with hydraulic power take-off and latching control. Ocean SEAREV wave energy converter. Proceedings of the Institution of
Engineering 33, 847–877. Mechanical Engineers Part M—Journal of Engineering for the
Budal, K., Falnes, J., 1980. Interacting point absorbers with controlled Maritime Environment 221, 81–93.
motion. In: Count, B. (Ed.), Power from Sea Waves. Academic Press, Korde, U.A., 2002. Latching control of deep water wave energy
London, pp. 381–399. devices using an active reference. Ocean Engineering 29,
Budal, K., Falnes, J., Hals, T., Iversen, L.C., Onshus, T., 1981. Model 1343–1355.
experiment with a phase controlled point absorber. In: Proceedings of Naito, S., Nakamura, S., 1986. Wave energy absorption in irregular waves
the Second International Symposium on Wave and Tidal Energy, by feedforward control system. In: Evans, D.V., Falcão, A.F. de O.
Cambridge, UK, pp. 191–206. (Eds.), Hydrodynamics of Ocean Wave-Energy Utilization. Springer,
Falcão, A.F. de O., 2007. Modelling and control of oscillating-body wave Berlin pp. 269–280.
energy converters with hydraulic power take-off and gas accumulator. Pizer, D.J., Retzler, C., Henderson, R.M., Cowieson, F.L., Shaw, M.G.,
Ocean Engineering 34, 2021–2032. Dickens, B., Hart, R., 2005. Pelamis wave energy converter: recent
Falnes, J., 2002a. Optimum control of oscillation of wave-energy converters. advances in the numerical and experimental modelling programme. In:
International Journal of Offshore and Polar Engineering 12, 147–155. Proceedings of the 6th European Wave and Tidal Energy Conference,
Falnes, J., 2002b. Ocean Waves and Oscillating Systems. Cambridge Glasgow, pp. 373–378.
University Press, Cambridge. Valério, D., Beirão, P., da Costa, J.S., 2007. Optimization of wave
Goda, Y., 2000. Random Seas and Design of Maritime Structures, second energy extraction with the Archimedes Wave Swing. Ocean Engineer-
ed. World Scientific, Singapore. ing, in press.