BBA SEM 2

COURSE: ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

PAPER – 106
As per Kolhan University Syllabus
COURSE FACULTY XITE: PROF. NISHIT SINGH
Unit 2

Module: Learning & Perception

Syllabus Outline: Learning- Theories and reinforcement schedules, Perception –Process and errors.

Module Objectives
This chapter will help you to:

 Examine Stimuli, Senses And Sensory Reception

 Sensory Reception And How It Leads To Learning And Perception
 Memory, Its Types and functioning
 Learning, Its Characteristics And Theories
 Perception, Process Of Perception, Errors & Biases In Perception

Module Outcomes
This chapter will help bring out your ability to/ better understand the:

 Human senses and its conscious application towards Learning & Perception
 Examine And Explain The Learning & The Learning Process
 Necessity and Difficulties in Learning
 Examine And Explain Perception and Process Of Perception
 Examine And Explain some of the Workplace & Working difficulties arising due to Errors
& Biases In Perception

A mind that is learning is a free mind, and freedom demands the responsibility of learning
J Krishnamurti
It is very important while you are young to live in an environment in which there is no fear
J Krishnamurti
 Learning & Perception
Introduction to Learning
A. PHILOSOPHY-BASED LEARNING THEORY
The Romans differed from the Greeks in their concept of education. The meaning of
life did not intrigue Romans as much as developing a citizenry that would contribute
to society in a practical way, for building roads and aqueducts. The Romans
emphasized education to be vocational training rather than as training of the mind
for the discovery of truth.
The Greeks suggested training the mind so as to encourage cognitive apprenticeships
that seeks to combine the modeling inherent in learning through guided doing- with
the discourse, reflection, and inquiry.
B. PSYCHOLOGY-BASED LEARNING THEORY
How people learn has focused largely on behaviorist vs. cognitive psychology.
Behaviorist learning theory has had substantial influence in education, guiding the
development of highly-sequenced and structured curricula, programmed
instructional approaches, workbooks, and other tools. Evidence has accrued that
tasks requiring more complex thinking and higher mental processes are not generally
well-learned through behaviorist methods and require more attention to how people
perceive, process, and make sense of what they are experiencing.
C. PROGRESSIVE LEARNING THEORY
Student learns from his or her own experience with guided opportunities to explore,
discover, construct, and create. Contemporary learning theory recognizes the role
that both experience and reflection play in the development of ideas and skills.
Modern learning theories incorporate the role of culture and other influences on
experience in views of how people construct their understandings and develop their
abilities. Contemporary theories also recognize that the content matters.
THE LEARNING PROCESS
A. THE BRAIN PLAYS A ROLE
B. THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT MAKES A DIFFERENCE
C. LEARNING IS BASED ON ASSOCIATIONS
D. LEARNING OCCURS IN CULTURAL AND SOCIAL CONTEXTS
E. PEOPLE LEARN IN DIFFERENT WAYS
F. PEOPLE THINK ABOUT THEIR OWN LEARNING, AND THEIR FEELINGS MATTER

The Definitions
“The process of acquiring knowledge through experience which leads to a lasting
change in behaviour”
(Buchanan and Huczynski)

“A change in human disposition or capability that persists over a period of time and is
not simply ascribable to processes of growth.”
(Robert Gagne)
The Definitions
“We define learning as the transformative process of taking in information that—when
internalized and mixed with what we have experienced—changes what we know and
builds on what we do. It’s based on input, process, and reflection. It is what changes
us.”
(Tony Bingham and Marcia Conner)

“Learning is any permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.”

Stephen Robbins and Seema Sanghi.

“Learning means acquisition of knowledge, skills, ability, expertise, etc., through study,
experience, and practice that result into long-term change in one’s behavior.”

Learning is defined as a process that brings together personal and environmental

experiences and influences for acquiring, enriching or modifying one’s knowledge,
skills, values, attitudes, behaviour and world views.

Characteristics of Learning:
• Psychological process
• Outcome of past experience
• Change in behavior
• Conscious and deliberate
• Need of Reinforcement
• Permanent change
• Experience plus practice
• Input in other cognitive processes (Perception, Personality, motivation and attitudes)

Four general types of learning curves;

a. Decreasing return curve

b. Increasing return curve
c. S Learning curve
d. Learning Plateau

Memory and learning

Memory and learning are so closely connected that people often confuse them with each
other. But the specialists who study them consider them two distinct phenomena.

These specialists define learning as a process that will modify a subsequent behaviour.
Memory, on the other hand, is the ability to remember past experiences
Memory is the superior (logical or intellectual) cognitive process that defines the temporal
dimension of our mental organization. It is our ability to encode, store, retain, and then
recall information and past experiences.
Memory is an active, subjective, intelligent reflection process of our previous experiences.
Memory is related to learning but should not be confused with learning. There are 3 main
processes involved in human memory:

$$$(Additional Readings)
 Encoding
Transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory.
 Storing
Maintaining the encoded information in memory.
 Retrieving
Re-accessing information from the past which has been encoded and stored.
The efficiency of learning, in general, depends on the efficiency of the encoding process. It is
an active and selective process that depends on a number of factors. There are 3 types of
factors that can influence encoding efficiency:

1. Content factors
Related to the type of material to be encoded.
2. Environmental factors
Related to the conditions under which the encoding takes place.
3. Subjective factors
Related to variables in effect when encoding takes place.
Depending on the duration of retention, there are 3 levels of memory:

 Sensory Memory (Duration: ¼ to ½ second, Very large capacity)

 Short-term memory (STM) (Duration: 0-18 seconds, Capacity: 7 +/- 2 items)
 Long-term memory (LTM)(Life long, Moderate capacity)
Theories of Learning

Behaviorist Theories

A behaviorist perspective includes an assumption that student learning behaviors may be shaped by
specific actions (stimuli) that lead to specific responses. From a behaviorist perspective,
reinforcement plays a vital role. Both positive reinforcement (employing a stimulus to the
environment) and negative reinforcement (withholding a stimulus from the environment) increase
the likelihood of the learning behavior occurring on a consistent basis. Understanding and
implementing an effective process of reinforcement decisions determine the level of change in the
learner—that is, the degree to which new learning is taking place. Much behaviorist research has been
completed using animals, with the results then applied to human learning.

Skinner (1974) believed that behavior is a function of its consequences, i.e. learners will repeat the
desired behavior if positive reinforcement is given. The behavior should not be repeated if negative
feedback is given. Giving immediate feedback, whether positive or negative, should enable learners
to behave in a certain way. Positive reinforcement or rewards can include verbal feedback such
as That’s great, you’ve produced that document without any errors or You’re
certainly getting on well with that task, through to more tangible rewards such as a
certificate at the end of the programme, or a promotion or pay rise at work.

Classical Conditioning

 First described by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist

 Focuses on involuntary, automatic behaviors
 Involves placing a neutral signal before a reflex
Operant Conditioning
 First described by B. F. Skinner, an American psychologist
 Involves applying reinforcement or punishment after a behavior
 Focuses on strengthening or weakening voluntary behaviors

Classical conditioning is a process that involves creating an association between a naturally

existing stimulus and a previously neutral one. The classical conditioning process involves
pairing a previously neutral stimulus (such as the sound of a bell) with an unconditioned
stimulus (the taste of food).

This unconditioned stimulus naturally and automatically triggers salivating as a response

to the food, which is known as the unconditioned response.

Classical Conditioning & Operant Conditioning

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
Conditioned Response (CR).
Unconditioned Response (UR)
The unconditioned stimulus (US) is something (such as food) that triggers a naturally
occurring response, and the unconditioned response (UR) is the naturally occurring
response (such as salivation) that follows the unconditioned stimulus.
The conditioned stimulus (CS) is a neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly presented
prior to the unconditioned stimulus, evokes a similar response as the unconditioned stimulus.

Operant conditioning is a learning process in which new behaviors are acquired and
modified through their association with consequences. Reinforcing a behavior increases
the likelihood it will occur again in the future while punishing a behavior decreases the
likelihood that it will be repeated.

In operant conditioning, schedules of reinforcement are an important component of the

learning process. When and how often we reinforce a behavior can have a dramatic impact
on the strength and rate of the response.
Cognitive Theories

Originally conceived as an alternative theory to the behaviorist approach, cognitive theories seek to
explain how the mind works during the learning process. While changes in behavior occur, the
cognitivist attributes these changes to specific mental processes that may be measured and enhanced.
Like a computer, the mind takes in information, processes that information, then uses that
information to produce learning outcomes. Central to the cognitive approach is the understanding
that individuals must participate actively in the learning process rather than just responding to
stimuli. Stages of cognitive development determine the learner’s ability to understand abstract,
complex concepts.

Cognitivism focuses on what happens in the mind such as thinking and problem-solving. New
knowledge is built upon prior knowledge and learners need active participation in order to learn.
Changes in behavior are observed, but only as an indication of what is taking place in the learner’s
mind. Cognitivism uses the metaphor of the mind as a computer: information comes in, is
processed, and learning takes place.

Constructivist Theories

Central to the constructivist approach is the learner as a constructor of knowledge. New learning is
shaped by past experiences and constructs/schema the learner brings to the learning process. Cultural
tools such as speech and writing are first used in a social context and may lead to higher-level
thinking and learning. The context or setting of the learning environment may determine the
effectiveness of a learner’s ability to construct new knowledge. Encouraging the application of
knowledge to new situations enhances the learner’s ability to transfer knowledge and increases skill
development that may be universally applied.

Constructivism is about learning being an active, contextualized process of constructing knowledge

rather than acquiring it. The learner brings past experiences and cultural factors to a current
situation and each person has a different interpretation and construction of the knowledge process.

Vygotsky’s (1978) theory is one of the foundations of constructivism. It asserts three major themes.

1. Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. Vygotsky
felt social learning precedes development and stated: Every function in the child’s cultural
development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first,
between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological)
 2. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). The MKO refers to anyone who has a better
understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or
concept. The MKO is normally the teacher, or an older adult, but the MKO could also be a peer, a
younger person, or even information from the internet.

3. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD is the distance between a learner’s ability
to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and their ability to solve the
problem independently.

OTHER THEORIES OF LEARNING

Multiple Intellige nces

The theory of multiple intelligences was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner,
professor of education at Harvard University. It suggests that the traditional
notion of intelligence, based on I.Q. testing, is far too limited. Instead, Dr.
Gardner proposes eight different intelligences to account for a broader range of
human potential in children and adults. Theory of Multiple Intelligences states
that each person has different ways of learning and they use different
intelligences in their daily lives.
While some can learn very well in a linguistically-based environment (reading and
writing), others are better taught through mathematical-logic based learning.
Still others benefit most from body-kinesthetic intelligence (learning by doing
with the hands).
Each person possesses this intelligence in varying degrees, but there is always a
primary, or more dominant, intelligence.
These intelligences are:

 Linguistic intelligence (“word smart”)

 Logical-mathematical intelligence (“number/reasoning smart”)
 Spatial intelligence (“picture smart”)
 Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence (“body smart”)
 Musical intelligence (“music smart”)
 Interpersonal intelligence (“people smart”)
 Intrapersonal intelligence (“self smart”)
 Naturalist intelligence (“nature smart”)
 Linguistic intelligence involves sensitivity to spoken and written language,
the ability to learn languages, and the capacity to use language to
accomplish certain goals. This intelligence includes the ability to
effectively use language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically; and
language as a means to remember information. Writers, poets, lawyers and
speakers are among those that Howard Gardner sees as having high linguistic
intelligence.
 Logical-mathematical intelligence consists of the capacity to analyze
problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues
scientifically. In Howard Gardner’s words, it entails the ability to detect
patterns, reason deductively and think logically. This intelligence is most
often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking.
  Musical intelligence involves skill in the performance, composition, and
appreciation of musical patterns. It encompasses the capacity to recognize
and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. According to Howard Gardner
musical intelligence runs in an almost structural parallel to linguistic
intelligence.
 Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence entails the potential of using one’s whole
body or parts of the body to solve problems. It is the ability to use mental
abilities to coordinate bodily movements. Howard Gardner sees mental and
physical activity as related.
 Spatial intelligence involves the potential to recognize and use the patterns
of wide space and more confined areas.
 Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with the capacity to understand the
intentions, motivations and desires of other people. It allows people to work
effectively with others. Educators, salespeople, religious and political
leaders and counsellors all need a well-developed interpersonal intelligence.
 Intrapersonal intelligence entails the capacity to understand oneself, to
appreciate one’s feelings, fears and motivations. In Howard Gardner’s view it
involves having an effective working model of ourselves, and to be able to
use such information to regulate our lives.

Experiential Learning / Pragmatism

John Dewey (1859-1952) believed that formal schooling was falling short of its
potential. He foresaw an active and collaborative student experience that,
almost a hundred years later, we finally have the tools and shared collective
acceptance to implement. Dewey emphasized the unique and individualized nature
of interaction in the learning experience. He believed, as do many
constructivist theorists which learners construct new knowledge based on
previous knowledge and that experiences are unique to each learner. Dewey
promoted the active participation of the learner in the learning environment,
and he championed the role of an instructor as a facilitator or mentor.

Dewey focused his ideas on developing what he believed to be the aims of

education: the development of reflective, creative, responsible thought.
David Kolb published his learning model in 1984. From this, he developed his
learning styles inventory. It can be applied in two ways: as a four-stage cycle
of learning or as four separate learning styles. The four-stage cycle, in which
learners need to touch all points, includes:

1. Concrete experience (having an experience).

2. Reflective observation (reflecting on the experience).
3. Abstract conceptualization (learning from the experience).
4. Active experimentation (applying what you've learned). The four separate
learning styles that Kolb set out are:
a. Diverging (feeling and watching)
b. Assimilating (watching and thinking)
c. Converging (doing and thinking)
d. Accommodating (doing and feeling)
ARCS
The ARCS learning theory (also known as the ARCS Model of Motivational Design)
was first developed by Dr John Keller. It's a mnemonic that stands for:

A- A- Attention
B- R- Relevance
C- C- Confidence.
D- S- Satisfaction.

ARCS is a problem-solving approach to designing learning environments that

stimulate and sustain students' motivation to learn. The ARCS model is a set of
categories representing the components of motivation. It can also be used as a
systematic design process to create appropriate motivational enhancements for
learners. ARCS is claimed - and acclaimed - by humanists, so it could also be
seen as part of humanism (see above).

ADDIE
A learning theory built around a mnemonic is ADDIE. It stands for the following
five stages of instructional design:
1. Analyze.
2. Design.
3. Develop.
4. Implement.
5. Evaluate.
ADDIE is a high-level framework that helps provide context for what an
instructional designer does.

Bloom's taxonomy
Bloom's Taxonomy was first created in 1956 by Dr Benjamin Bloom in order to
promote higher forms of thinking. This includes analyzing and evaluating
concepts, processes, procedures and principles - not just remembering facts or
"rote" learning. The theory identifies three domains of learning: cognitive
(mental skills), affective (feelings or emotions), and psychomotor (manual or
physical skills). According to Bloom it is the cognitive domain that helps people
to develop intellectual skills. It is divided into six levels according to
complexity:

1. Knowledge/remembering.
2. Comprehension/understanding.
3. Application.
4. Analysis.
5. Synthesis/creating.
6. Evaluation
Albert Bandura (1925--): Social Learning Theory

While behaviorism depends on learning theories of reward and punishment,

Bandura researched the power of observational learning that children could learn
from simple observation of others. He is also known for the construct of self-
efficacy, the belief in oneself to be able to take appropriate actions.

What does his work contribute to learning design? Observational learning theory
suggests the use of models, case studies, examples, and videos of behaviors and
actions. The concept of self-efficacy suggests that learning is multidimensional
– not just cognitive, but also attitudinal – foreshadowing the emotional
intelligence focus of Daniel Goleman

Ellen Langer (1947--): Theory of Mindful Learning

Ellen Langer, a professor of psychology at Harvard, has applied the concept of

mindfulness to any situation requiring decision-making. She defines mindfulness
as having three characteristics: continually creating new categories, openness
to new information, and an implicit awareness of more than one perspective
(Langer, 1997, p. 4). Mindfulness might be a close relation to critical
thinking, encouraging teaching skills and facts set within multiple different
contexts.

“Mindful learning” means engaging thoughtfully with the content and questioning
positions, values, and decisions. One strategy to use is to encourage noticing
the novel within the familiar, and the familiar within the novel. The value of
mindfulness also argues for making time for thoughtful and questioning
reflections.

Daniel Goleman (1947--): Theory of Emotional Intelligence

Daniel Goleman is the author of a 1995 book, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can
Matter More Than IQ,that caused a rethinking of the skills and traits needed for
effective leadership and management. Goleman’s research found that the qualities
usually associated with effective leadership – such as intelligence, toughness,
determination, and vision – were insufficient. Emotional intelligence, which
includes self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skill,
is also needed.

Sensory theory

Laird (1985) suggests that learning occurs when the senses of sight, hearing,
touch, smell and taste are stimulated. This is easy if you are teaching a
practical session, but not so if you are teaching a theoretical subject.
However, if you are willing to try something different, you can make your
sessions really interesting and memorable. Whenever possible, link theory to
practice, and use practical activities based around the subject and the areas of
interest of your learners. If you can make your session fun and interesting,
relating to all the senses, it will help your learners remember the topics
better. Don’t forget two other senses you can use as a teacher: a sense of humor
and common sense

Elaboration theory
Charles Reigleuth's elaboration theory (published in 1979) tries to bridge theory
and practice in education. It aims to reveal the relationships between
educational theory, designed learning programs, and practice. Reigleuth's view is
that content that must be learned should be put in order from simple to complex.
It must also provide a meaningful context within which other ideas can be
integrated. Elaboration theory comprises seven major strategy components:

1. An elaborative sequence.
2. Learning prerequisite sequences.
3. Summary.
4. Synthesis.
5. Analogies.
6. Cognitive strategies.
7. Learner control.

REINFORCEMENT & REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULE

Continuous Reinforcement

In continuous reinforcement, the desired behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs. 1

This schedule is best used during the initial stages of learning to create a strong
association between the behavior and response.

Partial Reinforcement

Once the response if firmly established, a continuous reinforcement schedule is usually

switched to a partial reinforcement schedule.1

In partial (or intermittent) reinforcement, the response is reinforced only part of the time.
Learned behaviors are acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement, but the response is
more resistant to extinction.

Fixed-Ratio Schedules

Fixed-ratio schedules are those in which a response is reinforced only after a specified
number of responses. This schedule produces a high, steady rate of responding with only a
brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer.

Variable-Ratio Schedules

Variable-ratio schedules occur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable

number of responses. This schedule creates a high steady rate of responding. Gambling
and lottery games are good examples of a reward based on a variable ratio schedule.
Fixed-Interval Schedules

Fixed-interval schedules are those where the first response is rewarded only after a
specified amount of time has elapsed. This schedule causes high amounts of responding
near the end of the interval but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of
the reinforcer.

Variable-Interval Schedules

Variable-interval schedules occur when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable

amount of time has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response.

PERCEPTION
Introduction

Everyday different stimuli around us will be stimulating our sense organs. Many of these
stimuli are received by our sense organs and are converted into sensations. These
sensations are transmitted to the concerned parts of brain.

In turn the brain will interpret these sensations. It is only after such interpretation we
understand what the stimulus is. Hence in understanding the world around us, attention
occurs first, followed by sensation and finally interpretation by brain. This process of
‘interpretation of stimulus is known as perception’.
Thus, perception involves two processes: Sensation & Interpretation. But interpretation of
any stimulus requires past experience also.
For example, a child who has not seen an elephant earlier either in photo or directly cannot
identify that animal, whereas another child who has seen earlier will identify the animal easily.
Hence, perception may be defined as “a process of interpretation of a present stimulus on the
basis of past experience”.
William James American psychologist has said if we understand the world as it appears to
us, it will be a big booming- buzzing confusion. Hence, we do not see the things as they
appear, but we see them as we want, i.e. more meaningfully.
Perception is the ability to capture, process, and actively make sense of the
information that our senses receive.
It is the cognitive process that makes it possible to interpret our surroundings with the
stimuli that we receive throughout sensory organs. This important cognitive ability is
essential to our daily lives because it makes it possible to understand our surroundings.
It's possible to train and improve perception with cognitive stimulation.
Perception is an active process and requires that we process information with both "bottom-
up" and "top-down" processing, meaning that we are not only directed by the stimuli that
we receive (passive, bottom-up processing) but that we expect and anticipate certain stimuli
that control perception (active, top-up processing).
The "failures" in perception may be illusions or hallucinations. Illusions refer to an erroneous
interpretation of a real external stimulus, while hallucinations consist of an erroneous
perception without the presence of a real external stimulus.

Every cognitive skill, including perception, can be trained and improved.

Brain plasticity is the basis of perception rehabilitation and other cognitive skills.
The brain and its neural connections can be strengthened by challenging and
working them, so by frequently training these skills, the brain structures
related to perception will become stronger.
According to Joseph Reitz; ―Perception includes all those processes by which an individual
receives information about his environment—seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting and smelling.‖

The Definitions
According to B. V. H. Gilmer, ―Perception is the process of becoming aware of situations, of
adding meaningful associations to sensations.‖

According to S. P. Robbins, perception can be defined as ―the process by which individuals

organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their
environments.‖

Types of Perception
Perception is a complex process that allows us to connect with the surrounding world. Classically,
perception is divided in five senses:

 Visual or visual perception: The ability to see and interpret light information within the visible spectrum that
arrives to our eyes. The area of the brain responsible for visual perception is the occipital lobe (primary visual
cortex V1 and secondary visual cortex V2).
 Hearing or auditory perception: Ability to receive and interpret information that arrives to our ears by audible
frequency waves through the air or another mean (sound). The brain part in charge of the basic stage of auditory
perception is the temporal lobe (primary auditory cortex A1 and secondary auditory cortex A2).
 Touch, touch perception, somatosensory or haptic perception : The capacity to interpret information of
pressure and vibration received on the surface of our skin. The parietal lobe is the part of the brain responsible
for the basic stages in haptic perception (primary somatosensory cortex S1 and secondary somatosensory cortex
S2).
 Smell or olfactory perception: The ability to interpret information of chemical substances dissolved in the air
(smell). Basic stages of the olfactory perception are done by the olfactory bulb (primary olfactory cortex) and the
piriform cortex (secondary olfactory cortex).
 Taste or taste perception: The ability to interpret information from chemical substances dissolved in saliva
(taste). The main brain areas in control of the basic stages are the primary taste areas G1 (postcentral inferior
gyrus, parietal ventral lobe, anterior insula, fronto-parietal medial operculum) and secundary taste areas G2
(caudolateral frontal orbital cortex and anterior cingulate cortex).
Apart from the classical five senses, today we are aware that there
are other types of perception:
 Spacial Perception: the ability to be aware of your relationships with the environment around you and with
yourself. It is related to the haptic and kinesthetic perception.
 Form perception: the ability to retrieve information about the limits and aspects of an entity through the outline
and contrast. It is related to visual and haptic perception.
 Vestibular perception: the capacity to interpret gravity's force according to the relative position of our head and
the floor. It helps maintain balance and control our posture. It's related to auditory perception.
 Thermoception or thermal perception: the ability to interpret temperature on the surface of our skin. It's
related to the haptic perception.
 Nociperception or pain perception: the capacity to interpret very high or very low-temperature stimuli, as well
as the presence of harmful chemicals or high-pressure stimuli. It is related to the haptic and thermoception.
 Itching or perception of itch: the ability to interpret harmful stimuli on our skin that causes scratching. It's
related to haptic perception.
 Propioception: the ability to interpret information about the position and state of our muscles and tendons which
allow us to be aware of our posture and in what area is each part of our body. It is related to the vestibular and
haptic perception.
 Interoceptive perception: the capacity to interpret the sensations that indicate the state of our internal organs.
 Time perception: The ability to interpret changes in stimuli and be able to organize them in time.
 Kinesthetic perception: the ability to interpret information about movement and velocity of our surroundings
and our own body. It is related to visual, spatial, time, haptic, interoceptive, propioception and vestibular
perception.
 Chemosensory perception: the ability to interpret chemical substances dissolved in saliva that translate into
strong tastes. It is related to taste perception but the two use different structures.
 Magnetoreception or magnetoception: the capacity to interpret information from magnetic fields. It is more
developed in animals like pigeons. However, it has been discovered that humans also have magnetic material in
the ethmoid (a nose bone), making it possible for humans to have magnetoception
Factors Influencing Perception

· Factors in the Perceiver –a) Internal (attitudes, motives, interests, experiences, expectations)

b) External (Size, Intensity, Motion, Contrast, Repetition, Novelty etc.)

· Factors in the Target – novelty, motions, sounds, size, background, proximity, similarity

· Factors in the Situation – time, work setting, social situation

Internal factors include:

Personality - Personality traits influence how a person selects perceptions. For instance,
conscientious people tend to select details and external stimuli to a greater degree.

Motivation - People will select perceptions according to what they need in the moment. They
will favor selections that they think will help them with their current needs, and be more likely
to ignore what is irrelevant to their needs.

Experience - The patterns of occurrences or associations one has learned in the past affect
current perceptions. The person will select perceptions in a way that fits with what they found
in the past.

External factors include:

Size - A larger size makes it more likely an object will be selected.

Intensity - Greater intensity, in brightness, for example, also increases perceptual selection.
Contrast - When a perception stands clearly out against a background, there is a greater
likelihood of selection.

Motion - A moving perception is more likely to be selected.

Repetition - Repetition increases perceptual selection.

Novelty and familiarity - Both of these increase selection. When a perception is new, it stands
out in a person's experience. When it is familiar, it is likely to be selected because of this
familiarity.

Errors in Perception: Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others

As seen above perception is process of analysing and understanding a stimulus. It
may not be always possible to perceive the stimuli as they are. Knowingly or
unknowingly, we mistake the stimulus and perceive it wrongly.

It may be due to defect in our sense organs or defective functioning of the brain.
Many times the prejudices in the individual, time of perception, unfavourable
background, lack of clarity of stimulus, confusion, conflict in mind and such other
factors are responsible for errors in perception. There are two kinds of errors:

a. Illusion:

Illusion is a false perception. Here the person will mistake a stimulus and perceive it
wrongly. For example, in the dark, a rope is mistaken as a snake or vice versa. The
voice of an unknown person is mistaken as a friend’s voice. A person standing at a
distance who is not known may be perceived as a known person.

Most of our illusions are visual and auditory. But illusions pertaining to other senses
are also possible. See Figure 3.10 for some of the examples of visual illusions.
b. Hallucination:

Sometimes we come across instances where the individual perceives some stimulus,
even when it is not present. This phenomenon is known as hallucination. The person
may see an object, person, etc. or he may listen to some voice though there are no
objects and sounds in reality.

Hallucinations pertain to all the sensations appear in people, but visual and auditory
hallucinations are more common. Usually persons with unsound mind, emotionally
disturbed, alcoholics and those who are in confused states may experience
hallucinations. However, among abnormal people and intoxicated persons
hallucinations are very common.

Selective Perception

Selective perception means the situation when people selectively interpret what they
see on the basis of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.

It means any characteristics that make a person, object, or event stand out will
increase the probability that it will be perceived.

Because it is impossible for us to assimilate everything we see, only certain stimuli

can be taken in.

Halo Effect

The individual is evaluated on the basis of perceived positive quality, feature or trait.
When we draw a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single
characteristic, such as intelligence, sociability, or appearance, a halo effect is
operating.
In other words, this is the tendency to rate a man uniformly high or low in other
traits if he is extraordinarily high or low in one particular trait: If a worker has few
absences, his supervisor might give him a high rating in all other areas of work.

Stereotyping

People usually can fall into at least one general category based on physical or
behavioral traits then they will be evaluated. When we judge someone on the basis of
our perception of the group to which he or she belongs, we are using the shortcut
called stereotyping.

or example, a boss might assume that a worker from a Middle East country is lazy
and cannot meet performance objectives, even if the worker tried his best.

Similarity

Often, people tend to seek out and rate more positively those who are similar to
themselves. This tendency to approve of similarity may cause evaluators to give
better ratings to employees who exhibit the same interests, work methods, points of
view or standards.

Horn Effect

When the individual is completely evaluated on the basis of a negative quality or

feature perceived. This results in an overall lower rating than an acceptable rate.

He is not formally dressed up in the office, that’s why he may be casual at work too.

Contrast

The tendency to rate people relative to other people rather than to the individual
performance he or she is doing. Rather will evaluate an employee by comparing that
employee’s performance with other employees.

Specific Applications in Organizations

- Employment interview
Early impressions are very important! Perceptual judgments are often inaccurate!
(Another reason we should use structured interviews!)
- Performance Expectations
People attempt to validate their perceptions of reality – even when they are faulty! Self-
fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion Effect) is based on the notion that expectations can determine
behavior – this is a very powerful managerial technique!
- Ethnic Profiling – Is it right to profile employees?
- Performance Evaluations
Many subjective components (perceptions) are used in the evaluation of employees
- Employee Effort
How is “effort” perceived? It is often a “reason” for terminations
Common Biases (Perceptual Biases)

We tend to ―take shortcuts‖ in decision making and this allows error and bias to enter our
decisions. Common biases and errors include:

Overconfidence Bias – We tend to be overly optimistic (especially when our intellect and
Interpersonal abilities are low)

Anchoring Bias – Tendency to focus on initial information as a starting point.

Confirmation Bias – We tend to seek out info that reaffirms our past choices and we
discount information that contradicts our past judgments.
Availability Bias --The tendency of people to base their judgments on information readily
available to them.
Representative Bias -- The tendency to assess the likelihood of an occurrence by
drawing analogies and seeing identical situations in which they
don’t exist.
Escalation of Commitment --an increased commitment to a previous decision in spite of
negative information (all too often creeps into decision making)
Randomness Error – We tend to create meaning out of random events (and superstitions).
Hindsight Bias – We tend to believe falsely that we’d have accurately predicted the
outcome of an event, after that outcome is actually known.

Activity 1: Identify examples of the ways in which advertisements creatively use stimulus factors to attract our
attention in newspapers and magazines and on billboards and television.
………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………….

Activity 2: Choose a film that you have seen recently and which you particularly enjoyed. Now, find a friend or
colleague who has seen the same film and hated it. Share your views of that film. What factors (age, sex,
background, education, interests, values and beliefs, political views, past experience, etc.) can you identify
that explain the differences in perception between you and your friend or colleague?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

Activity 3: Explore your own stereotypes by completing each of the following sentences with four terms that you
think describes most or all members of the category concerned:

Teachers are ………

Engineers are …………….

Businessman/Businesswomen are………..

Bureaucrats are ……….

Politicians are ……………..

Workers are ………

 Practice Questions

Q1. Describe the common errors and biases in perception. How would you overcome these?
Q2. What is perception? Describe the factors that affect individual’s perception.
Q3. What are the various types of perception? Can you relate the role of Sensory and short term
memory on individual’s perception?
Q4. Most people use smart phone. Can you relate “selfie”, “bokeh” “AI enhanced Photography”
and similar feature to design & create perception. Give argument.
Q5. As described in question four above (Q4), can you connect perception with business value
creation. Give argument.
Q6. What are the various elements of learning? Can learned behavior be forgotten?
Q7. Discuss the classical conditioning approach to learning.
Q8. Define learning. What factors affect encoding?
Q9. What do you understand by “Reinforcement” in learning? What are the types of
reinforcement?
Q10. Is learning important for human beings? How businesses and corporates use “learning”?
Q11. Discuss two “Learning Theories” that interests you the most. Why?

$$$(Additional Readings)

Memory encoding is an active and selective process that organizes and reorganizes the information. There are
four main types of encoding, and knowledge of each can help us design better learning experiences:

 Acoustic encoding is the processing and encoding of sound, words, and other auditory input for storage
and later retrieval. By associating the information with sounds, by sounding out the words, the neural
connections become stronger and aid in the recall process.
 Visual encoding is the process of encoding images and visual sensory information. Visual sensory
information is temporarily stored within the iconic memory before being encoded into long-term storage.
The amygdala (located in the medial temporal lobe of the brain which has a primary role in the
processing of emotional reactions) fulfills an important role in visual encoding, as it accepts visual input
in addition to input from other systems and encodes the positive or negative values of conditioned
stimuli.
 Tactile encoding is the encoding of how something feels, normally through the sense of touch.
Physiologically, neurons in the primary somatosensory cortex of the brain react to vibro-tactile stimuli
caused by the feel of an object.

 Semantic encoding is the process of encoding sensory input that has particular meaning or can be
applied to a particular context, rather than deriving from a particular sense.
 Acronyms or expression mnemonics: “Every Good Boy Does Fine” can help you remember the lines
of the treble clef in music (EGBDF).
 Music mnemonics: Music is a powerful mnemonic because it provides a structure for information and
encourages repetition. Learning the alphabet through song is a good example.
 The memory palace is a mnemonic device that’s as tried and true as it gets. Invented by orators in
ancient Roman and Greek times, the memory palace (or mind palace or “method of loci”) technique is
effective and enjoyable to use. You establish a “memory palace” and associate information with it.
 Chunking is another mnemonic device that can make large amounts of information more memorable.
The chunking technique involves grouping items, finding patterns in them, and organizing the items.
Stages of the Learning Process
1. Unconscious Incompetence The Motivation and Attention Stage
Difficulties in learning (lapses in motivation and attention) can
"I don't know that I don't know how to do this." This is the stage originate very early in the learning process, often before you
of blissful ignorance before learning begins. even realize there may be a problem. To avoid these difficulties
In this stage, the learner does not have a skill or 1. Develop a reason for learning.
knowledge set yet. They do not see any reason to learn 2. Give your full attention to the task of learning, avoiding
it because they don’t consider it a need. You don’t know distractions.
what you don’t know. 3. Selectively focus your attention on what is important.
4. Acquire necessary background information for a certain
subject.
5. Are aware of how your past experiences affect what you
perceive.

2. Conscious Incompetence The Holding and Coding Stage

During this stage information is processed and sent to long-term
"I know that I don't know how to do this, yet." This is the most storage.
difficult stage, where learning begins, and where the most 1. Try to avoid overloading your short-term memory.
judgments against self are formed. This is also the stage that most Information is sorted and coded for long-term storage
people give up. within a matter of seconds, or it is “dumped.”
The learner is aware of the skill that they lack and can understand 2. Actively do something with the information; write,
that there is a deficit. Ignorance is no longer bliss. discuss, think about it and make retention useful.
3. Frequent review retains information in your memory.
4. Learn the information accurately the first time. Check
the source if you are concerned or confused.
5. Concentrate on learning key principles, concepts and
ideas. You seldom have time to learn everything.

3. Conscious Competence The Long-Term Storage and Remembering Stage

This stage focuses on organizing and re-organizing
"I know that I know how to do this." This stage of learning is information for effective use when you need it.
much easier than the second stage, but it is still a bit Four key factors in learning and remembering are:
uncomfortable and self-conscious.
The conscious competence stage takes place when a 1. 1. ORGANIZE the material in a manner that is meaningful
learner has acquired a skill but has not yet mastered it 2. ASSOCIATE what you are learning with what you already
to the point where it comes naturally. know.
3. VISUALIZE or create a mental picture of what you want to
learn.
4. REVIEW frequently, practicing active application, and take
breaks between each session.

4. Unconscious Competence
"What, you say I did something well?" The final stage of learning
a skill is when it has become a natural part of us; we don't have to
think about it.
The skill is so embedded that the learner doesn’t even
need to process what they are doing. Issues can arise
when you combine unconscious competence learners with
unconscious incompetence learners because neither of
them can articulate the skill.
5) Fifth stage: Reflective Ability over the other Stage
“Conscious competence of unconscious competence.” In this
stage the learner is able to relate to learners in stages 1-4 enough
to teach them. A stage five learner has reached a point where they
can reflect on how they reached their level of mastery. This
means that they can empathize with learners in other stages.