Aerodynamics

Fundamentals principles and equations

Dr. Bui Van Tuan

 VISCOUS FLOW

• In real life, the ow at the surface adheres to the surface because of

friction between the gas and the solid material

• Right at the surface, the ow velocity is zero, and there is a thin

region of retarded ow in the vicinity of the surface: boundary layer

• A ow eld can be split into two regions:

• one region in which friction is important (in the boundary layer
near the surface)

• another region of frictionless ow (sometimes called potential

ow) outside the boundary layer
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 VISCOUS FLOW

• The boundary layer thickness δ grows as the ow moves over the body
• More and more of the ow is a ected by friction as the distance along
the surface increases.

• In addition, the presence of friction creates a shear stress at the surface

τw
dV
The shear stress at the wall is given by τw = μ( )y=0
• dy
• For air at standard sea-level temperature:
μ = 1.7894 × 10−5 kg/(m)(s) = 3.7373 × 10−7 slug/( ft)(s)
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 VISCOUS FLOW
LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER

• Consider the development of a boundary layer on a surface as

shown in gure

• Let x be measured from the leading edge

• V∞: the ow velocity far upstream of the plate
ρ∞V∞x
The Reynold number is: Rex =
• μ∞
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 VISCOUS FLOW
LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER

• Assume that the ow is laminar, the laminar boundary layer

5.2x
thickness is given by: δ = (*)
Rex
• We can see that the laminar boundary layer thickness varies
inversely as the square root of the Reynolds number.
1/2
• And the laminar boundary layer grows parabolically because δ ∝ x
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 VISCOUS FLOW
LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER

• The local shear stress τw is also a function of x

• Rather than deal with τw directly, aerodynamicists nd it more
convenient to de ne a local skin friction coe cient cfx:
τw τw
cfx = 1 = (1)
ρ∞ V 2
∞
q∞
2

-> The skin friction coe cient is dimensionless and is de ned as the
local shear stress divided by the dynamic pressure at the outer
edge of the boundary
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 VISCOUS FLOW
LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER

0.664
For laminar boundary layer: cfx = (2)
• Rex
0.664q∞
From (1) and (2): τw = f(x) = (3)
• Rex

• So, cfx and τw for laminar boundary layers vary as x −1/2 -> cfx and τw decrease
along the surface in the ow direction

• The shear stress near the leading edge of a at plate is greater than that near
the trailing edge
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 VISCOUS FLOW
LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER

• The variation of local shear stress τw along the surface allows us to

calculate the total skin friction drag due to the air ow over an
aerodynamic shape

• Remember that the net aerodynamic force on any body is due to the
pressure and shear stress distributions on the surface

• Consider a at plate of length L and unit width oriented parallel to the

ow as shown in gure.

• Consider also an in nitesimally small surface element of the plate of

length dx and width unity
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 VISCOUS FLOW
LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER

• The force on this element due to skin friction is τwdx(1) = τwdx

• The total skin friction drag is the sum of the forces on all the in nitesimal
elements from the leading to the trailing edge

• We obtain the total skin friction drag Df by integrating τx along the

L

∫0
surface: Df = τwdx

L L
dx 0.664q∞ dx
∫0 ρ∞V∞ /μ∞ ∫0
Or: Df = 0.664q∞ =
• Rex x
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 VISCOUS FLOW
LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER

1.328q∞L
So: Df = (4)
• ρ∞V∞L/μ∞
Df
• Let us de ne a total skin friction drag coe cient Cf = q∞S (5)
where S=L(1) is the total area of plate
Df 1.328q∞L
From (4) and (5): Cf = =
• q∞L(1) q∞L(ρ∞V∞L/μ∞)1/2
1.328
Or Cf = where ReL = ρ∞V∞L/μ∞ is now based on the total length L
• ReL
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 VISCOUS FLOW
LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER

• Note that previous equations apply to laminar boundary layers

only, for turbulent ow the expressions are di erent.

• These equations are exact only for low-speed (incompressible) ow

• However, they have been shown to be reasonably accurate for high-
speed subsonic ows as well.

• For supersonic and hypersonic ows (velocity gradients are so

extreme and the presence of frictional dissipation creates very large
temperatures within the boundary layer), the form of these equations
can still be used for engineering approximations
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 VISCOUS FLOW
LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER

• Example 1: Consider the ow of air (ρ∞ = 1.225 kg/m 3,

μ∞ = 1.789 × 10−5 kg/m . s) over a small at plate that is 5 cm long in the
ow direction and 1 m wide. The free-stream conditions correspond to
standard sea level, and the ow velocity is 120 m/s. Assuming laminar ow,
calculate:

(a) The boundary layer thickness δ at the downstream edge (the trailing edge).

(b) The drag force Df on the plate.

(c) Calculate and compare the local shear stress at the locations 1 and 5 cm
from the front edge (the leading edge) of the plate, measured in the ow
direction.
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 VISCOUS FLOW
TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER
• Under the same ow conditions, a turbulent boundary layer will be
thicker than a laminar boundary layer

• So far, turbulence is still an unsolved theoretical problem and is likely

to remain so for an inde nite time

0.037
For turbulent boundary layer thickness: δ =
• Rex0.2
4/5
• A turbulent boundary grows approximately as x
• This is in contrast to the slower x 1/2 variation for a laminar boundary
layer

• So turbulent boundary layers grow faster and are thicker than laminar
boundary layers
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 VISCOUS FLOW
TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER
• The local skin friction coe cient for turbulent ow over a at plate
0.0592
can be approximated by cfx =
Rex0.2
0.074
The total skin friction coe cient is given as: Cf =
• ReL0.2
−1/5
• We can see that for turbulent ow, Cf varies as L -> this is in
contrast to the L −1/2 variation for laminar ow

• So Cf is larger for turbulent ow as we know that

τw(laminar) < τw(turbulent)
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 VISCOUS FLOW
TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER

Variation of skin friction coe cient with Reynolds number for low-speed ow

• Values of Cf for both laminar and turbulent ows are plotted in the
form shown in gure
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 VISCOUS FLOW
TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER

• Example 2: Consider the ow of air over a small at plate that is 5

cm long in the ow direction and 1 m wide (ρ∞ = 1.225 kg/m 3,
μ∞ = 1.789 × 10−5 kg/m . s). The free-stream conditions
correspond to standard sea level, and the ow velocity is 120 m/s.
Assume that the boundary layer is now completely turbulent.

a) Calculate the boundary layer thickness δ at the trailing edge and the
drag force Df on the plate.

b) Calculate and compare the local shear stress τw at the locations 1

and 5 cm from the front edge (the leading edge) of the plate, measured
in the ow direction.
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 VISCOUS FLOW
COMPRESSIBILITY EFFECTS ON SKIN FRICTION
• We have set of equations for both laminar and turbulent ows to
calculate δ, cfx, Cf:

5.2x 0.664 1.328

For laminar: δ = , cfx = , Cf =
• Rex Rex ReL
0.037 0.0592 0.074
For turbulent: δ = , cfx = , Cf =
• Rex0.2 Rex0.2 ReL0.2
• However, those are applied over at-plate boundary layer in
incompressible ows

• What are the e ects of compressibility on a at-plate boundary

layer? The answer lies in the Mach number
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 VISCOUS FLOW
COMPRESSIBILITY EFFECTS ON SKIN FRICTION
• Speci cally, for a at-plate boundary
layer in a compressible ow, δ, cfx,
and Cf are functions of both Mach
number and Reynolds number

• For laminar, compressible:

f1(M∞)
Cf =
Rex
• For turbulent, compressible:
f2(M∞)
Cf =
Rex0.2 Approximate theoretical results for the compressibility e ect
on laminar and turbulent at-plate skin friction coe cients
• Figure shows ratio of compressible to
incompressible (cfx)inc skin friction
coe cients at the same Reynolds
number is plotted
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 VISCOUS FLOW
COMPRESSIBILITY EFFECTS ON SKIN FRICTION
• Example 3: The Lockheed F-104A Star ghter was the rst ghter
aircraft designed for sustained Mach 2 ight. Assume that the wing
is an in nitely thin at plate. Consider the F-104 ying at Mach 2 at
a standard altitude of 35,000 ft (ρ∞ = 7.382 × 10−4 slug/ft 3,
∘ ∘
T∞ = 394.08 R, R = 1716 lb . ft/slug . R, and
−7
μ∞ = 2.82 × 10 slug/ft . s). Assume that the boundary layer
over the wing is turbulent. Estimate the shear stress at a point 2 ft
downstream of the leading edge, knowing that for a turbulent
cfx
boundary layer at M∞ = 2 we have = 0.74.
(cfx)inc
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 VISCOUS FLOW
TRANSITION

• In reality, the ow always starts out from the leading edge as laminar
• Then, at some point downstream of the leading edge, the laminar
boundary layer becomes unstable and small “bursts” of turbulent ow
begin to grow in the ow.

• Finally, over a certain region called the transition region, the boundary
layer becomes completely turbulent.

• At the transition point, it becomes a turbulent boundary layer growing at a

faster rate, on the order of x 4/5 downstream

• The value of x where transition is said to take place is the critical value xcr
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 VISCOUS FLOW
TRANSITION

• Then we have critical Reynold number for transition as:

ρ∞V∞xcr
Rexcr =
μ∞
• The location of the transition point (in reality, a nite region) depends
on many quantities, such as the Reynolds number, Mach number,
heat transfer to or from the surface, turbulence in the free stream,
surface roughness, and pressure gradient

• An accurate value of Rexc applicable to the problems must come

r

from somewhere—experiment, free ight, or some semi-empirical

theory
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 VISCOUS FLOW
TRANSITION

• Example: An airfoil of given surface roughness in a ow at a free-

5
stream velocity of 150 m/s, Rexcr = 5 × 10 , assuming that the
thermodynamic conditions of the air ow correspond to standard sea
level with μ∞ = 1.789 × 10−5 kg/m . s. How far from the leading
edge the transition will take place? If velocity is doubled what is the
result?
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 VISCOUS FLOW
TRANSITION

• Example: The wingspan of the Wright Flyer I biplane is b = 40.33 ft,

and the planform area of each wing is 255 ft 2. Assume that the wing
is rectangular (obviously not quite the case, but not bad), as shown
in Figure. If the Flyer is moving with a velocity of 30 mi/h at standard
sea-level conditions, calculate the skin friction drag on the wings.
Assume that the transition Reynolds number is 6.5 × 105. The areas
of laminar and turbulent ow are illustrated by areas A and B,
respectively, in Fig. At standard sea level, ρ∞ = 0.002377 slug/ft 3
and μ∞ = 3.7373 × 10−7 slug/( ft)(s)
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 VISCOUS FLOW
Flow separation

• The presence of friction in the ow causes a shear stress at the surface of a

body -> contributes to the aerodynamic drag of the body: skin friction drag
Df

• Friction also causes another phenomenon called ow separation, which in

turn creates another source of aerodynamic drag, called pressure drag Dp
due to separation

• The real ow eld about a sphere sketched in Figure is dominated by the

separated ow on the rearward surface.

• Consequently, the p on the rearward surface < p on the forward surface, and
this imbalance of pressure forces causes a drag—hence the term pressure
drag due to separation
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 VISCOUS FLOW
Flow separation

• Consider an airfoil at a low angle of attack (low angle of incidence) to

the ow as sketched in Fig.

• The pressure at the leading edge is high; the leading edge is a

stagnation region, and the pressure is essentially stagnation
pressure.

• As the ow expands around the top surface of the airfoil, the surface
pressure decreases dramatically, dipping to a minimum pressure,
which is below the free-stream static pressure p∞
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 VISCOUS FLOW
Flow separation

• As the ow moves farther downstream, the pressure gradually

increases, reaching a value slightly above free-stream pressure at the
trailing edge

• This region of increasing pressure is called a region of adverse

pressure gradient de ned as a region where dp/dx > 0

• The adverse pressure gradient dp/dx is moderate

• The drag on this airfoil is therefore mainly skin friction drag Df

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 VISCOUS FLOW
Flow separation
• Consider the same airfoil at a very high
angle of attack

• Assuming that uid attached to the surface

-> pressure distribution on the top surface
would follow the dashed line in gure

• The pressure would drop precipitously

downstream of the leading edge to a
value far below the free-stream static
pressure p∞

• Farther down stream the pressure would

rapidly recover to a value above p∞

• The adverse pressure gradient would be

large -> In such cases the real ow eld
tends to separate from the surface
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 VISCOUS FLOW
Flow separation
• In this gure, the real ow eld is
sketched with a large region of
separated ow over the top surface of
the airfoil.

• The actual surface pressure distribution

is given by the solid curve.

• In comparison to the dashed curve, the

actual pressure distribution does not dip
to as low a pressure minimum and that
the pressure near the trailing edge does
not recover to a value above p∞
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 VISCOUS FLOW
Flow separation
• Figure shows the airfoil at a
large angle of attack (thus
with ow separation) is
shown with the real surface
pressure distribution (solid
arrows)

• If the ow were attached to

surface, then the pressure
distribution would be shown
by the dashed arrows

• High lift L is obtained when the pressure on the bottom surface is

large and the pressure on the top surface is small.

• Separation does not a ect the bottom surface pressure distribution

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 VISCOUS FLOW
Flow separation
• Comparing the solid and
dashed arrows on the top
surface just downstream of the
leading edge, we nd that the
solid arrows indicate a higher
pressure when the ow is
separated

• This higher pressure is

pushing down -> reducing the
lift.
• This reduction of lift is also compounded by the geometric e ect that the
portion of the top surface of the airfoil near the leading edge is approximately
horizontal

• When the ow is separated -> a higher pressure on this part of the airfoil
surface, the direction in which the pressure is acting is closely aligned to the
vertical -> full e ect of the increased pressure is felt by the lift
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 VISCOUS FLOW
Flow separation
• The combined e ect of the
increased pressure on the
top surface near the leading
edge

• This portion of the surface is

approximately horizontal ->
the dramatic loss of lift
occurs when the ow
separates.

• On the top surface near the trailing edge: the pressure for the separated
ow is now smaller than the pressure that would exist if the ow were
attached

• The trailing edge is geometrically inclined to the horizontal -> the pressure
exerted on this portion has a strong component in the horizontal direction.
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 VISCOUS FLOW
Flow separation
• This component acts toward the
left, tending to counter the
horizontal component of force due
to the high pressure acting on the
nose of the airfoil pushing toward
the right

• The net pressure drag on the airfoil

is the di erence between the force
exerted on the front pushing toward
the right and the force exerted on
the back pushing toward the left

• When the ow is separated, the pressure at the back is lower than it

would be if the ow were attached.

• Hence, for the separated ow, there is less force on the back pushing
toward the left, and the net drag acting toward the right is therefore
increased.
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 VISCOUS FLOW
Flow separation
• Two major consequences of the
ow separating over an airfoil are:

1. A drastic loss of lift (stalling).

2. A major increase in drag,

caused by pressure drag due
to separation

• When the wing of an airplane is

pitched to a high angle of attack,
the wing can stall; that is, there
can be a sudden loss of lift
• At a given distance from the surface (a given value of y), the velocity of a uid
element in a turbulent boundary is higher than that in a laminar boundary layer

• Laminar boundary layers separate more easily than turbulent boundary layers.
• Therefore, to help prevent ow eld separation, we want a turbulent boundary
layer.
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 VISCOUS FLOW
Summary
• The presence of friction in a ow produces two sources of drag:

• Skin friction drag Df due to shear stress at the wall.

• Pressure drag due to ow separation Dp , sometimes identi ed as form

drag.

• The total drag caused by viscous e ects is: D = Df + Dp

• This total drag D is called pro le drag because both skin friction and pressure
drag due to separation are rami cations of the shape and size of the body

• Skin friction drag is reduced by maintaining a laminar boundary layer over a

surface

• Turbulent boundary layers inhibit ow separation -> pressure drag due to

separation is reduced by establishing a turbulent boundary layer on the
surface
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 VISCOUS FLOW
Summary

• Example: Consider the NASA LS (1)-0417 airfoil as shown in Figure which is

mounted in the test section of a wind tunnel. The length of the model in the
ow direction (chord length) is 0.6 m, and its width across the ow (wingspan)
is 1.0 m. The total drag on the airfoil model is the pro le drag D. When the
air ow in the test section of the wind tunnel is 97 m/s at standard sea-level
conditions, the pro le drag D on the airfoil at zero degree angle of attack is
34.7 N.

(a) For these conditions, calculate the drag on the airfoil due to skin friction Df .
Assume that Df is the same as the turbulent skin friction drag on a at plate of
equal length and width.

(b) Calculate the pressure drag due to ow separation Dp on the airfoil.

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