FLIGHT MECHANICS

CONTENT

1. Introduction to flight mechanics

2. 3DOF Equations of Motion
3. Atmosphere, Aerodynamics, Propulsion
4. Cruise and Climb of an Arbitrary Airplane
5. Cruise and Climb of an Ideal Subsonic Airplane
6. Take-off and Landing

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2. 3DOF Equations of Motion

2.1. Assumptions and Coordinate Systems

2.2. Kinematic Equations
2.3. Dynamic Equations
2.4. Weight Equation
2.5. Discussion of 3DOF Equations
2.6. Quasi-Steady Flight
2.7. Three-Dimensional Flight
2.8. Flight over Spherical Earth
2.9. Flight in A Moving Atmosphere

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2. 3DOF Equations of Motion

6 DOF equations:
• Translational equations: 𝐹Ԧ = 𝑚 ∙ 𝑎Ԧ
• Rotational equations: 𝑀 = 𝐼 ∙ 𝛼

For trajectory analysis (performance), the translational equations are uncoupled

form the rotational equations by assuming that:
• The airplane rotational rates are small
• Control surface deflections do not affect forces
→ the translational equations are referred as the 3DOF equations of motion

Two important legs of the commercial airplanes missions are climb and cruise which
occur in a vertical plane.
→ derive 3DOF equations of motion for flight in a vetical plane over flat earth

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2.1. Assumption and Coordinate Systems

Assumptions:
a. The earth is flat, nonrotating, and an approximate inertial reference frame. The
acceleration of gravity is constant and perpendicular to the surface of the earth → flat
earth model
b. The atmosphere is at rest relative to the earth, and atmosphere properties are
function of altitude only.
c. The airplane is a conventional jet airplane with fixed engines, an aft tail, and a right-
left plane of symmetry. It is modeled as a variable-mass particle.
d. The forces acting on an airplane in symmetric flight (no sideslip) are the thrust, the
aerodynamic forces, and weight. They act at the center of gravity of the airplane and
the thrust and the aerodynamic forces lie in the plane of symmetry.

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 2.1. Assumption and Coordinate Systems

Coordinates:

• The ground axes system 𝐸𝑥𝑦𝑧

• Local horizontal axes system 𝑂𝑥ℎ 𝑦ℎ 𝑧ℎ
• Wind axes system 𝑂𝑥𝑤 𝑦𝑤 𝑧𝑤
• Body axes system 𝑂𝑥𝑏 𝑦𝑏 𝑧𝑏

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull [email protected] 6

2.1. Assumption and Coordinate Systems

Coordinates:

• The unit vectors associated with the coordinate directions are denoted by 𝑖Ԧ, 𝑗Ԧ, 𝑘 with
appropriate subscripts
• Horizontal reference frame:
• 𝑖Ԧℎ = 𝑖Ԧ

• 𝑘ℎ = 𝑘

𝑑Ԧ𝑖ℎ 𝑑Ԧ𝑖 𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑘
• = 𝑑𝑡 = 0; 𝑑𝑡ℎ = =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

• Wind reference frame:

• 𝑖Ԧw = cos𝛾Ԧ𝑖ℎ − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾𝑘ℎ

• 𝑘𝑤 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾Ԧ𝑖ℎ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾𝑘ℎ

𝑑Ԧ𝑖𝑤 𝑑𝑘𝑤
• = −𝛾𝑘
ሶ 𝑤; = 𝛾Ԧሶ 𝑖𝑤
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

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 2.2. Kinematic Equations

• Inertial position: 𝐸𝑂

𝑑𝐸𝑂
• Velocity relative to the ground: 𝑉 = 𝑑𝑡

• The velocity vector and the position vector must be expressed in the same
coordinate system to obtain the corresponding scalar equations
• For local horizontal system:

𝑉 = 𝑉Ԧ𝑖𝑤 = 𝑉 cos 𝛾 𝑖Ԧℎ − 𝑉 sin 𝛾 𝑘ℎ

𝐸𝑂 = 𝑥Ԧ𝑖 − ℎ𝑘 = 𝑥Ԧ𝑖ℎ − ℎ𝑘ℎ

𝑥ሶ = 𝑉 cos 𝛾
ℎሶ = 𝑉 sin 𝛾
Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull [email protected] 8
 2.3. Dynamic Equations

Dynamics is used to derive the differential equations for 𝑉 and 𝛾 which define the
velocity vector of the airplane center of gravity relative to the ground.

𝐹Ԧ = 𝑚𝑎Ԧ

𝐹Ԧ = 𝑇 + 𝐴Ԧ + 𝑊

𝐴Ԧ = 𝐷 + 𝐿
Wind axes reference frame:

𝑇 = 𝑇 cos 𝜖 𝑖Ԧ𝑤 − 𝑇 sin 𝜖𝑘𝑤

𝐷 = −𝐷Ԧ𝑖𝑤

𝐿 = −𝐿𝑘𝑤

𝑊 = −𝑊 sin 𝛾Ԧ𝑖𝑤 + 𝑊 cos 𝛾𝑘𝑤

𝐹Ԧ = 𝑇 cos 𝜖 − 𝐷 − 𝑊 sin 𝛾 𝑖Ԧ𝑤 − 𝑇 sin 𝜖 + 𝐿 − 𝑊 cos 𝛾 𝑘𝑤

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull [email protected] 9
 2.3. Dynamic Equations

𝑑𝑉
𝑎Ԧ =
𝑑𝑡
𝑉 = 𝑉Ԧ𝑖𝑤

𝑑Ԧ𝑖𝑤
ሶ 𝑖𝑤 + 𝑉
𝑎Ԧ = 𝑉Ԧ
𝑑𝑡
ሶ 𝑖𝑤 − 𝑉 𝛾𝑘
𝑎Ԧ = 𝑉Ԧ ሶ 𝑤
𝑔
𝑉ሶ = 𝑇 cos 𝜖 − 𝐷 − 𝑊 sin 𝛾
𝑊
𝑔
𝛾ሶ = ( )(𝑇 sin 𝜖 + 𝐿 − 𝑊 cos 𝛾)
𝑊𝑉
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull [email protected] 10

 2.3. Dynamic Equations

𝑔
𝑉ሶ = 𝑇 cos 𝜖 − 𝐷 − 𝑊 sin 𝛾
𝑊
𝑔
𝛾ሶ = ( )(𝑇 sin 𝜖 + 𝐿 − 𝑊 cos 𝛾)
𝑊𝑉

𝜖 = 𝛼 + 𝜖0
𝑔
𝑉ሶ = 𝑇 cos(𝛼 + 𝜖0 ) − 𝐷 − 𝑊 sin 𝛾
𝑊
𝜖0 : angle between the thrust 𝑔
𝛾ሶ = ( )(𝑇 sin(𝛼 + 𝜖0 ) + 𝐿 − 𝑊 cos 𝛾)
𝑊𝑉
vector and 𝑥𝑏 axis

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull [email protected] 11

2.4. Weight Equations

• By definition of the fuel weight flow rate 𝑊ሶ 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 , the rate of change of the weight of
the aircraft is given by:
𝑊ሶ = −𝑊ሶ 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
• The specific fuel consumption:

𝑊ሶ 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝐶=
𝑇
𝑊ሶ = −𝐶𝑇
This equation gives the rate at which the weight of the aircraft is changing in terms of the
operating conditions of the propulsion system

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2.5. Discussion of 3DOF Equations

• The equations of motion for nonsteady flight in a vertical plane over a flat earth:
𝑥ሶ = 𝑉 cos 𝛾
ℎሶ = 𝑉 sin 𝛾
𝑔
𝑉ሶ = 𝑇 cos 𝛼 + 𝜖0 − 𝐷 − 𝑊 sin 𝛾
𝑊
𝑔
𝛾ሶ = [𝑇 sin 𝛼 + 𝜖0 + 𝐿 − 𝑊 cos 𝛾]
𝑊𝑉
𝑊ሶ = −𝐶𝑇
The purpose of this discussion is to examine the system of equations to see if it can be
solved.

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2.5. Discussion of 3DOF Equations

• For a fixed geometry airplane in free flight with flaps up and gear up, it is known that
the drag and lift obey functional relations of the form:
𝐷 = 𝐷(ℎ, 𝑉, 𝛼), 𝐿 = 𝐿(ℎ, 𝑉, 𝛼)
• Thrust and specific fuel consumption satisfy:
𝑇 = 𝑇(ℎ, 𝑉, 𝑃), 𝐶 = 𝐶(ℎ, 𝑉, 𝑃)
• 𝑉is the velocity of the airplane relative to the atmosphere; since the atmosphere is
fixed relative to the earth, 𝑉 is also the velocity of the airplane relative to the earth.
• 𝑃 is the engine power setting.
• The equations of motion involve the following variables:
𝑥 𝑡 , ℎ 𝑡 , 𝑉 𝑡 , 𝛾 𝑡 , 𝑊 𝑡 , 𝑃 𝑡 , 𝛼(𝑡)
• State variables: 𝑥, ℎ, 𝑉, 𝛾, 𝑊
• Control variables: 𝛼, 𝑃

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2.5. Discussion of 3DOF Equations

• The number of mathematical degrees of freedom of a system of equations is the

number of variables minus the number of equations.
𝑥ሶ = 𝑉 cos 𝛾
ℎሶ = 𝑉 sin 𝛾
𝑔
𝑉ሶ = 𝑇 cos 𝛼 + 𝜖0 − 𝐷 − 𝑊 sin 𝛾
𝑊
𝑔
𝛾ሶ = [𝑇 sin 𝛼 + 𝜖0 + 𝐿 − 𝑊 cos 𝛾]
𝑊𝑉
𝑊ሶ = −𝐶𝑇
• Seven variables, five equations, two mathematical degrees of freedom → extra
equations to sovle the whole system

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2.5. Discussion of 3DOF Equations

• The number of mathematical degrees of freedom of a system of equations is the

number of variables minus the number of equations.
𝑥ሶ = 𝑉 cos 𝛾
ℎሶ = 𝑉 sin 𝛾
𝑔
𝑉ሶ = 𝑇 cos 𝛼 + 𝜖0 − 𝐷 − 𝑊 sin 𝛾
𝑊
𝑔
𝛾ሶ = [𝑇 sin 𝛼 + 𝜖0 + 𝐿 − 𝑊 cos 𝛾]
𝑊𝑉
𝑊ሶ = −𝐶𝑇
• Seven variables, five equations, two mathematical degrees of freedom → extra
equations to sovle the whole system
• Boundary conditions

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2.5. Discussion of 3DOF Equations

In conclusion, if the control action of the pilot or an equivalent set of relations is

prescribed, the trajectory of the aircraft can be found by integrating the equations of the
motion subject to the boundary conditions. The trajectory is set of functions
𝑋 𝑡 , ℎ 𝑡 , 𝑉 𝑡 , 𝛾 𝑡 , 𝑊 𝑡 , 𝑃 𝑡 , 𝛼(𝑡)

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2.6. Quasi-Steady Flight

• Quasi-steady flight is defined by the approximations that the accelerations 𝑉ሶ and 𝛾ሶ are
negligible.
• For the performance problems to be analyzed (climb, cruise, descent) additional
approximations also hold: flight path inclination, small angle of attack, small thrust
angle of attack, and small component of the thrust normal to the flight path.
𝑉,ሶ 𝛾ሶ negligible
𝛾 2 ≪ 1 or cos 𝛾 ≅ 1, sin 𝛾 ≅ 𝛾
𝜖 2 ≪ 1 or cos 𝜖 ≅ 1, sin 𝜖 ≅ 𝜖
𝑇𝜖 ≪ 𝑊

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2.6. Quasi-Steady Flight

• The equations of motion become:

𝑥ሶ = 𝑉
ℎሶ = 𝑉γ
0 = 𝑇 − 𝐷 − 𝑊𝛾
0=𝐿−𝑊
𝑊ሶ = −𝐶𝑇
• Two algebraic equations, three differential equations

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2.6. Quasi-Steady Flight

• The approximations do not change the number of mathematical degrees of freedom.

• Algebraic equations:
𝐿=𝑊
𝑇 ℎ,𝑉,𝑃 −𝐷(ℎ,𝑉,𝑊)
𝛾= 𝑊

• Differential equations:

𝑑𝑥
=𝑉
𝑑𝑡

𝑑ℎ 𝑇 ℎ, 𝑉, 𝑃 − 𝐷 ℎ, 𝑉, 𝑊
= 𝑉[ ]
𝑑𝑡 𝑊

𝑑𝑊
= −𝐶 ℎ, 𝑉, 𝑃 𝑇(ℎ, 𝑉, 𝑃)
𝑑𝑡
• Two mathematical degrees of freedom (𝑉, 𝑃).

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2.6. Quasi-Steady Flight

• Change the variable of integration from time to altitude

𝑥 = 𝑥 ℎ 𝑡 , 𝑡 = 𝑡 ℎ 𝑡 , 𝑊 = 𝑊(ℎ 𝑡 )

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥/𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 1 𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝑊/𝑑𝑡
= , = , =
𝑑ℎ 𝑑ℎ/𝑑𝑡 𝑑ℎ 𝑑ℎ/𝑑𝑡 𝑑ℎ 𝑑ℎ/𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥 1
=
𝑑ℎ 𝑇 ℎ, 𝑉, 𝑃 − 𝐷(ℎ, 𝑉, 𝑊)
𝑊

𝑑𝑡 1
=
𝑑ℎ 𝑇 ℎ, 𝑉, 𝑃 − 𝐷 ℎ, 𝑉, 𝑊
𝑉[ ]
𝑊

𝑑𝑊 𝐶 ℎ, 𝑉, 𝑃 𝑇(ℎ, 𝑉, 𝑃)
=−
𝑑ℎ 𝑇 ℎ, 𝑉, 𝑃 − 𝐷 ℎ, 𝑉, 𝑊
𝑉[ ]
𝑊
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2.7. Three-Dimensional Flight

• In general, the velocity vector is oriented relative to the body axes by the sideslip
angle and the angle of attack
• If the velocity vector is in the plane of symmetry fo the airplane, the sideslip angle is
zero

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 2.7. Three-Dimensional Flight

𝑥ሶ = 𝑉 cos 𝛾 cos 𝜓
𝑦ሶ = 𝑉 cos 𝛾 sin 𝜓
ℎሶ = 𝑉 sin 𝛾
𝑔
𝑉ሶ = [𝑇 cos 𝜖 − 𝐷 − 𝑊 sin 𝛾]
𝑊

𝑔
𝜓ሶ = 𝑇 sin 𝜖 + 𝐿 sin 𝜇
𝑊𝑉 cos 𝛾

𝑔
• 𝜓 is called heading angle 𝛾ሶ = [ 𝑇 sin 𝜖 + 𝐿 cos 𝜇 − 𝑊 cos 𝛾]
𝑊𝑉
• 𝛾 is called pitching angle
𝑊ሶ = −𝐶𝑇
• 𝜇 is called bank angle

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull [email protected] 23

 2.7. Three-Dimensional Flight

Source: https://jsbsim-team.github.io/ [email protected] 24

 2.8. Flight over a Spherical Earth

𝑟𝑠 𝑉 cos 𝛾
𝑥ሶ =
𝑟𝑠 + ℎ
ℎሶ = 𝑉 sin 𝛾

1
𝑉ሶ = 𝑇 cos 𝜖 − 𝐷 − 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝛾
𝑚
• 𝑟𝑠 is the radius of the surface
of the earth 1 𝑉 cos 𝛾
𝛾ሶ = 𝑇 sin 𝜖 + 𝐿 − 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝛾 +
𝑚𝑉 𝑟𝑠 + ℎ
• 𝑥 is a curvilinear coordinate
along the surface of the 𝐶𝑇
𝑚ሶ = −
earth 𝑔

2
𝑟𝑠
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑠
𝑟𝑠 + ℎ

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull [email protected] 25

 2.8. Flight over a Spherical Earth

𝑟𝑠 𝑉 cos 𝛾
𝑥ሶ =
𝑟𝑠 + ℎ
ℎሶ = 𝑉 sin 𝛾

1
𝑉ሶ = 𝑇 cos 𝜖 − 𝐷 − 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝛾
𝑚
• 𝑟𝑠 is the radius of the surface
of the earth 1 𝑉 cos 𝛾
𝛾ሶ = 𝑇 sin 𝜖 + 𝐿 − 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝛾 +
𝑚𝑉 𝑟𝑠 + ℎ
• 𝑥 is a curvilinear coordinate
along the surface of the 𝐶𝑇
𝑚ሶ = −
earth 𝑔

• 𝑔𝑠 is the acceleration of 2
𝑟𝑠
gravity at sea level 𝑔 = 𝑔𝑠
𝑟𝑠 + ℎ

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull [email protected] 26

2.8. Flight over a Spherical Earth

• Determine the ranges of values of ℎ and 𝑉 for which the spherical equations reduce to
the flat earth equations, the terms are examined:

2
𝑟𝑠 𝑟𝑠 𝑉 cos 𝛾
, ,
𝑟𝑠 + ℎ 𝑟𝑠 + ℎ 𝑟𝑠 + ℎ

• The second term is more restrictive than the first

2 −2
𝑟𝑠 ℎ 2ℎ
= 1+ ≅1−
𝑟𝑠 + ℎ 𝑟𝑠 𝑟𝑠

2ℎ
≪1
𝑟𝑠
• The third term is compared to the term −(𝑔 cos 𝛾)/𝑉, conducting the requirement:

2
𝑉
≪1
𝑔𝑠 𝑟𝑠
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2.8. Flight over a Spherical Earth

• 𝑟𝑠 = 20,900,000 𝑓𝑡; 𝑔𝑠 = 32.2 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2

• If it is assumed that 0.01 ≪ 1, these enequaties imply that the upper altitude and
velocity values for which the flat earth model is valid are 105,000 𝑓t and 2,600 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
• The height of atmosphere is only around ℎ = 400,000 𝑓𝑡

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 2.9. Flight in a Moving Atmosphere

𝑑𝐸𝑂
= 𝑉0
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉0
𝐹Ԧ = 𝑚𝑎Ԧ 0 = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
𝑉0 = 𝑉 + 𝑤

𝑤 = 𝑤𝑥 𝑥, ℎ 𝑖Ԧ − 𝑤ℎ (𝑥, ℎ)𝑘
𝑥ሶ = 𝑉 cos 𝛾 + 𝑤𝑥
• 𝑉0 : velocity relative to the ℎሶ = 𝑉 sin 𝛾 + 𝑤ℎ
ground ሶ
𝑎Ԧ 0 = 𝑉0 = 𝑉 + 𝑤ሶ
• 𝑉: velocity relative to the
ሶ ሶ 𝑖𝑤 − 𝑉𝛾𝑘
𝑉 = 𝑉Ԧ ሶ 𝑤
atmosphere
• 𝑤: velocity of atmosphere 𝑤ሶ = 𝑤ሶ 𝑥 𝑖Ԧ − 𝑤ሶ ℎ 𝑘

relative to the ground

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull [email protected] 29
 2.9. Flight in a Moving Atmosphere

𝑖Ԧ = cos 𝛾 𝑖Ԧ𝑤 + sin 𝛾 𝑘𝑤

𝑘 = − sin 𝛾 𝑖Ԧ𝑤 + cos 𝛾 𝑘𝑤

𝑔
𝑉ሶ = 𝑇 cos 𝜖 − 𝐷 − 𝑊 sin 𝛾 − (𝑤ሶ 𝑥 cos 𝛾 + 𝑤ሶ ℎ sin 𝛾)
𝑊
𝑔 1
𝛾ሶ = 𝑇 sin 𝜖 + 𝐿 − 𝑊 cos 𝛾 + 𝑤ሶ 𝑥 sin 𝛾 − 𝑤ሶ 𝑦 cos 𝛾
𝑊𝑉 𝑉
𝜕𝑤𝑥 𝜕𝑤𝑥
𝑤ሶ 𝑥 = 𝑉 cos 𝛾 + 𝑤𝑥 + 𝑉 sin 𝛾 + 𝑤ℎ
• 𝑉0 : velocity relative to the 𝜕𝑥 𝜕ℎ
ground 𝜕𝑤ℎ 𝜕𝑤ℎ
𝑤ሶ 𝑦 = 𝑉 cos 𝛾 + 𝑤𝑥 + 𝑉 sin 𝛾 + 𝑤ℎ
• 𝑉: velocity relative to the 𝜕𝑥 𝜕ℎ

atmosphere
• 𝑤: velocity of atmosphere
relative to the ground
Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull [email protected] 30