FLIGHT MECHANICS

CONTENT

1. Introduction to flight mechanics

2. 3DOF Equations of Motion
3. Atmosphere, Aerodynamics, Propulsion
4. Cruise and Climb of an Arbitrary Airplane
5. Cruise and Climb of an Ideal Subsonic Airplane
6. Take-off and Landing

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 3. Atmosphere, Aerodynamics, Propulsion

3.1 Standard Atmosphere

3.2 Exponential Atmosphere
3.3 Aerodynamics: Functional Relations
3.4 Angle of Attack
3.5 Drag Coefficient
3.6 Parabolic Drag Polar
3.7 Propulsion
3.8 Ideal Subsonic Airplane

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull

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3.1 Standard Atmosphere

• The real atmosphere is in motion with respect to the earth, and its properties are
functions of position (longitude, latitude, and altitude) and time.
• From an operational point of view, it is necessary to have this information, at least in the
region of operation.
• From a design point of view, when comparing the performance of two aircraft, it is only
necessary that the atmospheric conditions be characteristics of the real atmosphere and
be the same for the two airplanes.
• It is not important to consider the motion of the atmosphere or to vary its characteristics
with respect to longitude and latitude.
• A simple model in which atmospheric properties vary with altitude is sufficient.

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3.1 Standard Atmosphere

• Two basic equations which must be satisfied by air at rest:

𝑑𝑝 = −𝜌𝑔𝑑ℎ
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝜏
where 𝑝 is the pressure, 𝜌 the density, 𝑅 the constant for air, and 𝜏 the absolute
temperature.
• For the region of the atmosphere where airplanes normally operate, the acceleration of
gravity and the composition fo air can be assumed constant.
• To complete the system of equations defining the standard atmosphere, it is assumed
that the temperature is a known function of the altitude.

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3.1 Standard Atmosphere

• Actual measurments of atmospheric properties using balloons and sounding rockets have
shown that the atmosphere can be approximated by a number of layers in which the
temperature varies linearly with the altitude, that is temperature gradient 𝛽 = 𝑑𝜏/𝑑ℎ is
constant.
• Troposphere: 0 ≤ ℎ ≤ 36089 𝑓𝑡
• Tropopause
• Stratosphere (2 layers): 36089 ≤ ℎ ≤ 104990𝑓𝑡

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 3.1 Standard Atmosphere

𝑑𝜏 = 𝛽𝑑ℎ

𝑑𝑝 𝑔 𝑑ℎ
=−
𝑝 𝑅 𝜏

𝑑𝜌 𝑔 𝑑ℎ
= −( + 𝛽)
𝜌 𝑅 𝜏
• 𝛽 is a constant for each layer of the
atmosphere.

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull

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 3.1 Standard Atmosphere

• For the troposphere, these equation can

be integrated to obtain:
𝜏 = 518.69 − 3.5662𝐸 − 3 ℎ
𝑝 = 1.1376𝐸 − 11 𝜏 5.2560
𝜌 = 6.6277𝐸 − 15 𝜏 4.2560
Standard sea level conditions:
𝜏𝑠 = 518.69°𝑅, 𝑝𝑠 = 2116.2 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 2 , 𝜌𝑠 =
2.3769𝐸 − 3 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠/𝑓𝑡 3

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull

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 3.1 Standard Atmosphere

• The initial conditions for the first layer of

the stratosphere are obtained by
applying previous equation at the
tropopause (ℎ = 36089 𝑓𝑡) and are
given by:
𝜏𝑡 = 389.99°𝑅, 𝑝𝑡 = 472.68 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 2 , 𝜌𝑡 =
7.0613𝐸 − 4 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠/𝑓𝑡 3

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull

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 3.1 Standard Atmosphere

• The integration with 𝛽 = 0 °𝑅/𝑓𝑡 leads to:

𝜏 = 389.99
𝑝 = 2678.4 exp(−4.8063𝐸 − 5 ℎ)
𝜌 = 1.4939𝐸 − 6 𝑝

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull

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 3.1 Standard Atmosphere

• The initial conditions for the second layer of the

stratosphere are given by:
𝜏+ = 389.99 °𝑅, 𝑝+ = 114.35 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 2 , 𝜌+ =
1.7083𝐸 − 4 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠/𝑓𝑡 3
• The integration with 𝛽 = 5.4864𝐸 − 4 °𝑅/𝑓𝑡
𝜏 = 389.99 + 5.4864𝐸 − 4 (ℎ − 65617)
𝑝 = 3.7930𝐸90 𝜏 −34.164
𝜌 = 2.2099𝐸87 𝜏 −35.164

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull

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3.1 Standard Atmosphere

• Two other properties of interest are the speed of sound and the viscosity.
• Specific heats ratio: 𝑘 = 𝛾 = 1.4
• Speed of sound: 𝑎 = 𝑘𝑅𝜏 = 49.021𝜏 0.5
• The viscosity is assumed to satisfy Sutherland’s formula:

2.27𝐸 − 8 𝜏 1.5
𝜇=
𝜏 + 198.6
• Absolute temperature is a known function of altitude, speed of sound and viscosity
become functions of altitude: 𝜏 = 𝜏 ℎ ; 𝑝 = 𝑝 ℎ ; 𝜌 = 𝜌 ℎ ; 𝑎 = 𝑎 ℎ ; 𝜇 = 𝜇(ℎ).

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 3.2 Exponential Atmosphere

• Outside the first layer of the strastophere, the formulas for the atmospheric properties
given by standard atmosphere are so complicated mathematically (decimal exponents)
that their use will not lead to an alytical solutions.
• An approximate atmosphere which may lead to analytical solutions is the “exponential
atmosphere” or isothermal atmosphere.

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull

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3.2 Exponential Atmosphere

• The formula for density is given by:

ℎ
𝜌 = 𝜌𝑠 exp(− )
𝜆
where 𝜌𝑠 is sea level density and 𝜆 is called the scaled height.
• This form is motivated by the stratosphere formulas where the temperature is
constant and exponential is exact.For the troposphere and the constant temperature
of stratosphere, a value of 𝜆 which gives an error on the order of 10% is 𝜆 = 26600 𝑓𝑡
• To achiveve more accuracy, it is possible to assume that each layer of the atmosphere
satisfies an exponential form.
ℎ
• Troposphere: 𝜌 = 𝜌𝑠 exp(− 29730)

ℎ−ℎ
• Stratosphere I: 𝜌 = 𝜌𝑡 exp(− 20806𝑡 )

ℎ−ℎ
+
• Stratosphere II: 𝜌 = 𝜌+ exp(− 20770 )
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3.3 Aerodynamics: Functional Relations

• The resultant aerodynamic force is the integrated effect of the pressure and skin
friction caused by the flow of air over the surface of the airplane.
• The lift and the drag are the components of the resultant aerodynamic force
perpendicular and parallel to the velocity vector.
1 1
𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿 𝜌𝑆𝑉 2 , 𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 𝜌𝑆𝑉 2
2 2

𝐶𝐿 : lift coefficient
𝐶𝐷 : drag coefficient
𝜌: is density fo the atmosphere at the altitude of the airplane
𝑉: velocity of the airplane relative to the atmosphere
S: wing planform area

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3.3 Aerodynamics: Functional Relations

• If the equations governing the motion of air and the boundary conditions are non
dimensionalized, the integration fo pressure and skin friction coefficients over the
surface of the airplane leads to the following functional relations for the lift
coefficient and drag coefficient for a constant geometry aircraft:
𝐶𝐿 𝛼, 𝑀, 𝑅𝑒 , 𝐶𝐷 (𝛼, 𝑀, 𝑅𝑒)
𝛼: airplane angle of attack
𝑉
𝑀 = 𝑎: Mach number

𝜌𝑉𝑙
𝑅𝑒 = 𝜇
: Reynolds number

𝑎: speed of sound
𝜇: dynamic viscosity of the atmosphere at the altitude of the airplane
𝑙: characteristics length of the airplane.

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3.3 Aerodynamics: Functional Relations

• In practice, Reynolds number effects are neglected in the expression for the lift
coefficient:
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿 𝛼, 𝑀 ; 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 (𝛼, 𝑀, 𝑅𝑒)
• In calculation of aircraft performance, it is the convention to use lift coefficient as a
variable rather than angle of attack
• If the 𝐶𝐿 equaition is solved for 𝛼 and the result is substituted into the expression for
𝐶𝐷 , the following equations are obtained:
𝛼 = 𝛼 𝐶𝐿 , 𝑀 ; 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 (𝐶𝐿 , 𝑀, 𝑅𝑒)
The equation for 𝐶𝐷 is referred ato as the drag polar.

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 3.3 Aerodynamics: Functional Relations

Fig: Plots of the angle of attack and drag coefficient are shown for the Subsonic Business Jet (SBJ)

• The lift coefficient has a maximum value; the angle of attack is linear in the lift coefficient
over a wide range of values of 𝐶𝐿 .
• Drag coefficient is parabolic over the same interval.
Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull
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3.3 Aerodynamics: Functional Relations

• Dimensional expressions for the angle of attack and the drag can be obtained as:

2𝐿 𝑉
𝛼 = 𝛼[ , ]
𝜌 ℎ 𝑆𝑉 2 𝑎 ℎ

2𝐷 2𝐿 𝑉 𝜌 ℎ 𝑉𝑙
= 𝐶𝐷 [ , , ]
𝜌 ℎ 𝑆𝑉 2 𝜌 ℎ 𝑆𝑉 2 𝑎 ℎ 𝜇 ℎ
so that
𝛼 = 𝛼 ℎ, 𝑉, 𝐿 ; 𝐷 = 𝐷(ℎ, 𝑉, 𝐿)
These are the expressions for the angle of attack and the drag used in previous lecture to
discuss the solution of the quasi-steady equations of motion.

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 3.3 Aerodynamics: Functional Relations

Fig: Angle of Attack and Drag for SBJ for a given lift and several values of the altitude

• At each altitude, the angle of attack decreases monotonically with the velocity
• There is a velocity for minimum drag which increases with altitude

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull

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3.3 Aerodynamics: Functional Relations

• Another important aerodynamic characteristic of an airplane is the lift to drag ratio or

aerodynamic efficiency

𝐿 𝐶𝐿
𝐸= =
𝐷 𝐶𝐷
• In terms of nondimensional variables, the lift to drag ratio satisfies the functional
relation
𝐸 = 𝐸(𝐶𝐿 , 𝑀, 𝑅𝑒)
whereas the dimensional functional relation is given by:
𝐸 = 𝐸(ℎ, 𝑉, 𝐿)

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 3.3 Aerodynamics: Functional Relations

• Lift to Drag ratio has a maximum with respect to the lift coefficient and with respect to
velocity
• 𝐿 is held constant, velocity for maximum 𝐸 is identical with the velocity for minimum 𝐷
Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull
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3.4 Angle of Attack

• The lift of an airplane is the lift of the wing-body combination plus the lift of the
horizontal tail.
• The lift of a wing-body combination is a complicated affair in that body produces some
lift and interference effects between the wing and the body increase the lift of the
body.
• It has been observed that the lift of a wing-body combination can be replaced by lift
of the entire wing (including the portion which passes through the fuselage).
• The lift of the horizontal tail is neglect with respect to that of the wing. Hence, the lift
of the airplane is approximated by the lift of the wing.
• The wing is defined by
• Planform shape
• Airfoil shape
• The shape of its chord surface
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3.4 Angle of Attack

• In this course, the only wings considered:

• Straight-tapered planform shape
• The same airfoil along the span
• Planar chord surface (no bend or twist)
• Over the range of lift coefficient where aircraft normally operate, lift coefficient of the
wing can be assumed to be linear in the angle of attack:
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼 (𝛼 − 𝛼0𝐿 )
where 𝛼0𝐿 is zero-lift angle of attack and 𝐶𝐿𝛼 is lift-curve slope

𝐶𝐿
𝛼 = 𝛼0𝐿 𝑀 +
𝐶𝐿𝛼 (𝑀)
• To obtain 𝛼, it is necessary to determine 𝛼0𝐿 and 𝐶𝐿𝛼

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 3.4 Angle of Attack - Airfoils

• The geometry of a cambered airfoil is defined by

the geometries of the basic symmetric airfoil and
the camberline. 𝑡 is the thickness, 𝑐 is the chord.
• 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑡 (𝑥) involves a number of parameters which
are related to geometric quantities: leading edge
radius, trailing edge angle, thickness ratio, etc.
• 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 (𝑥) involves parameters which are related
to chord, leading edge slope, etc.

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull

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 3.4 Angle of Attack - Airfoils

• An airfoil at an angle of attack 𝛼 experiences a

resultant aerodynamic force, and the point on the
chord through which the line of action passes is
called the center of pressure.
𝑐𝑙 = 𝑐𝑙 𝛼, 𝑀 ; 𝑐𝑑 = 𝑐𝑑 (𝛼, 𝑀, 𝑅𝑒)
𝛼 = 𝛼 𝑐𝑙 , 𝑀 ; 𝑐𝑑 = 𝑐𝑑 (𝑐𝑙 , 𝑀, 𝑅𝑒)

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull

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 3.4 Angle of Attack – Wings and horizontal tails
𝑐𝑟 : root chord
𝑐𝑡 : tip chord
𝑏/2: semi-span
Λ𝑚 : sweep of quarter chord line
𝑏 𝑐𝑟 +𝑐𝑡
𝑆=2 ( ): planform area
2 2

𝑏2
𝐴= : aspect ratio
𝑠
𝑐
𝜆 = 𝑐𝑡 :taper ratio • The mean aerodynamic chord is the
𝑟 chord of the equivalent rectangular
Λ𝑛 : sweep of 𝑛 chord line wing.
• It has the same lift and the same
4 1−𝜆 pitching moment about the y-axis as the
tan Λ𝑛 = tan Λ𝑚 − 𝑛 − 𝑚
𝐴 1+𝜆 original wing
2𝑐𝑟 1+𝜆+𝜆2
𝑐= : mean aerodynamic chord
3 1+𝜆
Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull
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 3.4 Angle of Attack – Wings and horizontal tails

For such a wing, 𝛼 is defined as the angle of attack of the root airfoil which here is
the same as the angle of attack of the wing chord plane. Assuming that the lift
coefficient is linear in the angle of attack, two important parameters are the zero-
lift angle of attack 𝛼0𝐿 and the lift-curve slope 𝐶𝐿𝛼 .
For the assumed wing, the zero-lift angle of attack of wing equals to zero-lift angle
of attack of the airfoil: 𝛼0𝐿 = 𝛼0
An accepted formula for lift-curve slope:

𝜋𝐴
𝐶𝐿𝛼 =
2
𝐴
1+ 1+ [1 + tan2 Λℎ𝑐 − 𝑀2 ]
2𝜅

𝐶𝑙𝛼
𝑀=0
𝜅=
𝐶𝑙𝛼
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦

𝑡
𝐶𝑙𝛼 = 6.28 + 4.7( )
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝑐
is the ratio of the airfoil lift-curve slope to the theoretical value

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull

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 3.4 Angle of Attack – Airplanes

• The angle of attack of an entire airplane is the angle between 𝑥𝑏

axis and the velocity vector.
• The angle between the wing chord plane and 𝑥𝑏 axis: 𝑖𝑊
• For the wing to produce zero lift, the airplane must be at the zero-
lift angle of attack:
−𝛼0𝐿 = 𝑖𝑊 − 𝛼0𝐿𝑊 = 𝑖𝑊 − 𝛼0
which is independent of the Mach number.
• Since all of the lift of the airplane has been assumed to be
produced by the wing, the airplane lift-curve slope is given by:

𝜋𝐴
𝐶𝐿𝛼 =
2
𝐴
1+ 1+ [1 + tan2 Λ ℎ𝑐 − 𝑀2 ]
2𝜅

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull

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 3.5 Drag Coefficient

Drag is combination of: Friction Drag, Wave Drage, Induced Drag

𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑓 𝑀, 𝑅𝑒 + 𝐶𝐷𝑤 𝐶𝐿 , 𝑀 + 𝐶𝐷𝑖 (𝑀)

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull

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 3.5 Drag Coefficient – Friction Drag Coefficient

The friction drag coefficient is computed using the equivalent parasite area method.

𝑓
𝐶𝐷𝑓 =
𝑆
𝑓: total equivalent parasite area
𝑆: wing planform area.

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull

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 3.5 Drag Coefficient – Wave Drag Coefficient

• The rapid increase in drag coefficient due to formation of shock waves at high speed is
called wave drag. Shock waves cause the boundary layer to separate, thus increasing
drag.
• Wave drag begin at the Mach number for drag divergence.
• Because a subsonic airplane will not fly above 𝑀𝐷 because the drag is too high, an
approximate formula is used to represent the wave drag coefficient and is given by:
𝐶𝐷𝑤 = 29.2 𝑀 − 𝑀𝐷 3 , 𝑀 ≥ 𝑀𝐷
𝑀𝐷 = 𝑔1 − 𝑔2 𝐶𝐿
• The wave drag coefficient is induced only if the free stream Mach number is greater
than the drag divergence number.

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull

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3.5 Drag Coefficient – Wave Drag Coefficient

• The rapid increase in drag coefficient due to formation of shock waves at high speed is called wave drag. Shock
waves cause the boundary layer to separate, thus increasing drag.
• Wave drag begin at the Mach number for drag divergence.
• Because a subsonic airplane will not fly above 𝑀𝐷 because the drag is too high, an approximate formula is used
to represent the wave drag coefficient and is given by:
3
𝐶𝐷𝑤 = 29.2 𝑀 − 𝑀𝐷 , 𝑀 ≥ 𝑀𝐷
𝑀𝐷 = 𝑔1 − 𝑔2 𝐶𝐿

𝑡 𝑥𝑝𝑠
𝑔1 = 1 + 0.189 4Λ𝑝𝑠 − 3Λ𝑚𝑡 1 − 1.4 − 0.06 1 − − 0.0368
𝑐 𝑤 𝑐
𝑥𝑝𝑠
𝑔2 = 0.33 0.65 − 1 + 0.189 4Λ𝑝𝑠 − 3Λ𝑚𝑡
𝑐
𝑥𝑚𝑡 𝑥𝑝𝑠
Where is chordwise location of th airfoil maximum thickness, Λ𝑚𝑡 is the sweep of maximum thickness line,
𝑐 𝑐

is the airfoil peak suction loction, Λ𝑝𝑠 is the sweep of peak suction line.
• The wave drag coefficient is included only if the free stream Mach numer is grater than the drag divergence
number.

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 3.5 Drag Coefficient – Induced Drag Coefficient

Induced drag is caused by the rotational flow about the tip vortices. It is called vortex
drag, drag due to lift or induced drag. The corresponding drag coefficient is given by:

𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷𝑖 =
0.5𝑑 𝑇
𝜋𝐴𝑊 𝑒(1 + )
𝑏𝑊
The induced drag of the horizontal tail is neglected
The wing tip tank diameter 𝑑 𝑇 accounts for the tendency of the tip tank to reduce the
induced drag because of an end plate effect.
Oswald’s efficienet factor “𝑒” accounts for the difference between and elliptical planform
an the straight-tapered planform. It is estimated for statistical equation:

𝑒 = 1 − 0.045𝐴0.68
𝑊 (1 − 0.227Λ1.615
𝑞𝑐𝑊 )

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull

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 3.5 Drag Coefficient – Drag Polar

In general, the drag polar has the form:

𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 𝐶𝐿 , 𝑀, 𝑅𝑒
If the effects of Reynolds number changes
are neglected, the functional relation for the
drag coefficient becomes:
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 (𝐶𝐿 , 𝑀)

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull

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 3.6 Parabolic Drag Polar

• Over the some range of 𝐶𝐿 , the drag coefficient can be assumed to be a parabolic
function
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0 𝑀 + 𝐾 𝑀 𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷0 : zero-lift drag coefficient
𝐾𝐶𝐿2 : induced drag coefficient
𝐾: induced drag factor
To obtain the parabolic drag polar for a given Mach number, the actual polar is fit by the
parabola using least square and forcing the parabola to pass through the point where
𝐶𝐿 = 0.

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull

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 3.6 Parabolic Drag Polar

• The equations for 𝐶𝐷0 and 𝐶𝐿 are given by:

𝐶𝐷0 = 𝐶𝐷(𝐶𝐿=0)

σ𝑛𝑘=1 𝐶𝐷𝑘 − 𝐶𝐷0 𝐶𝐿2𝑘

𝐾=
σ𝑛𝑘=1 𝐶𝐿4𝑘
𝑛: number of points being fit.
• If 𝑀 < 𝑀𝐷
𝐶𝐷0 = 𝐶𝐷𝑓

1
𝐾=
0.5𝑑 𝑇
𝜋𝐴𝑊 𝑒(1 + )
𝑏𝑊

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull

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 3.6 Parabolic Drag Polar

• For the parabolic drag polar, the lift to drag ratio is given by

𝐶𝐿
𝐸=
𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐾𝐶𝐿2
• For a given Mach number (𝐶𝐷0 and 𝐾 constant), 𝐸 has a maximum when lift
coefficient has the value:

𝐶𝐷0
𝐶𝐿∗ =
𝐾

• The maximum lift to drag ratio:

1
𝐸∗ =
2 𝐶𝐷0 𝐾

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull

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3.6 Parabolic Drag Polar

1 2𝐾𝐿 2
𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0 𝜌𝑆𝑉 2 +
2 𝜌𝑆𝑉 2
𝐷 = 𝐷 ℎ, 𝑉, 𝐿 .
If 𝐿 = 𝑊, altitude and weight are given, the drag has minimum when:

2𝑊 𝐾 2𝑊 ∗
𝑉= = ∗ =𝑉
𝑝𝑆 𝐶𝐷0 𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿

𝑊
𝐷∗ = 2 𝐶𝐷0 𝐾 𝑊 = ∗
𝐸
For a given lift and altitude, minimizing drag is equivalent to maximizing the lift-to-drag
ratio.

[email protected] 39
 3.7 Propulsion

In this section, the propulsion characteristics appearing in the equations of motion, thrust
and specific fuel comsumption (SFC), are discussed functionally for a turbojet and a
turbofan.

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull

[email protected] 40
 3.7 Propulsion – Functional Relations

One manner of presenting engine data is in term of corrected and corrected specific fuel
consumption, that is:

𝑇
𝑇𝑐 =
𝛿

𝐶
𝐶𝑐 =
𝜃
where the dimensions of thrust is ‘lb’ and that of specific fuel consumption is ‘1/hr’.
The pressure ratio 𝛿 and temperature ratio 𝜃 are defined as:

𝑝ҧ
𝛿=
𝑝𝑠
𝜏
𝜃=𝜏
𝑠

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull

[email protected] 41
 3.7 Propulsion – Functional Relations

𝑝ҧ
𝛿=
𝑝𝑠
𝜏
𝜃=𝜏
𝑠

𝑙𝑏
𝑝𝑠 = 2116.2 2
𝑓𝑡
𝜏𝑠 = 518.68 °𝑅
Total pressure 𝑝,ҧ total temperature 𝜏ҧ for isentropic flow of air:
𝑝ҧ = 𝑝 1 + 0.2𝑀2 3.5

𝜏ҧ = 𝜏 1 + 0.2𝑀2

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull

[email protected] 42
 3.7 Propulsion – Functional Relations
Engine manufacturer’s data shows that the corrected thrust and specific fuel consumption satisfy
functional relations of the form:
𝑇𝑐 = 𝑇𝑐 𝑀, 𝜂 , 𝐶𝑐 (𝑀, 𝜂)
𝑁
The corrected engine speed 𝜂 is related to the power setting 𝑃 = , with N is engine rpm.
𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝜂 = 𝑃𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥
For a turbojet, the value of 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 is given by:

1.0
𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 = min(1.05, )
𝜃
Fof a turbofan, the value of 𝜂max is:

47ℎ
1.958 +
𝜂max = 5000 , 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ ℎ ≤ 5000 𝑓𝑡
𝜏ҧ

2.005
𝜂max = , 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ ℎ ≥ 5000 𝑓𝑡
𝜏ҧ

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull [email protected] 43

 3.7 Propulsion – Functional Relations

For a turbojet, the value of 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 is given by:

𝑃 = 1.0, for take-off thust
𝑃 = 0.98 for maximum continuous thrust.
From the previous equations, the thrust and specific fuel consumption satisfy functional
relations of form:
𝑇 = 𝑇 ℎ, 𝑉, 𝑃
𝐶 = 𝐶(ℎ, 𝑉, 𝑃)

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull [email protected] 44

 3.7 Propulsion – Approximate fomulas

𝑎
𝜌
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑡 𝑉, 𝑃
𝜌𝑡

𝑏
𝜌
𝐶 = 𝐶𝑡 𝑉, 𝑃
𝜌𝑡

𝑡 denotes the tropopause

• Exact in the constant temperature part of stratosphere (𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 0)
• Extended down into the troposphere by putting an arbitrary exponent on the density
ratio.
• The formulas are more valid near the tropopause than they are near sea level.

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull [email protected] 45

 3.8 Ideal Subsonic Airplane

The ideal subsonic airplane (ISA) is defined as an airplane that has a parabolic drag polar
with constant coefficients, a thrust independent of the velocity, and a specific fuel
comsumption independent of velocity and the power setting.

2
1 2𝐾𝐿
𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0 𝜌𝑆𝑉 2 +
2 𝜌𝑆𝑉 2
Thrust and specific fuel consumption satisfy the relations:

𝑎 𝑏
𝜌 𝜌
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑡 𝑃 , 𝐶 = 𝐶𝑡
𝜌𝑡 𝜌𝑡

𝐷, 𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 satisfy the functional relations:

𝐷 = 𝐷(ℎ, 𝑉, 𝐿), 𝑇 = 𝑇(ℎ, 𝑃), 𝐶 = 𝐶(ℎ)

Source: Fundametal of Airplane Flight Mechanics – David G. Hull

[email protected] 46