Science, Technology Assessment,

DECEMBER 2021
and Analytics
WHY THIS MATTERS
The ocean floor contains vast quantities of critical
minerals vital for many applications, such as aircraft
SCIENCE & TECH SPOTLIGHT: components and rechargeable batteries. Increased

DEEP-SEA MINING
demand for such minerals has driven technology
development for exploration and extraction from deep-
sea mining. However, the long-term environmental
effects from deep-sea mining are as yet unknown.

/// THE TECHNOLOGY extracted material to ships or surface-based mining platforms. For
example, underwater remotely-operated vehicles (ROVs) can be used to
What is it? Deep-sea mining is the process of exploring for and retrieving locate prime extraction sites and collect samples from the seabed.
minerals from the deep seabed. Three types of deposits hold most of
these minerals: polymetallic nodules, also called manganese nodules, Companies are also developing technologies to collect material from
which are lying on the seabed; sulfide deposits around hydrothermal the seabed. Designs to gather polymetallic nodules include a vacuum to
vents; and ferromanganese crusts, which are rich in cobalt and systematically dredge large swaths of the seafloor, along with hydraulic
manganese and line the sides of ridges and seamounts. pumps and hose systems that lift the extracted materials to surface
vessels or platforms. Extraction of sulfide deposits around hydrothermal
These sources hold a wide variety of critical minerals, including cobalt, vents or the slopes of undersea ridges could involve drilling and cutting
manganese, titanium, and rare earth elements, as well as gold, copper, into the crust, breaking up the materials, and transporting the pieces to the
and nickel (see fig. 1). Many of these minerals are in international waters. surface in a similar system (see fig. 2).
For example, the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, which spans 1.7 million square
miles between Hawaii and Mexico, holds trillions of polymetallic nodules.
Mining for sand, gravel, and aggregates is underway nearer to shore, but
these areas hold only limited critical minerals.

Polymetallic nodule

Mn Co Cu Ni
Manganese Cobalt Copper Nickel

Figure 2. Examples of extraction systems for deep-sea mining.

What are some concerns? These deep-sea mining methods may have
environmental effects. Specifically, extraction processes create sediment
Steel Rechargeable battery Wire Wind turbine clouds at the seabed or in the water above. These clouds, which could
Sources: GAO; Smithsonian (image); United States Geological Survey. | GAO-22-105507 contain toxic heavy metals and spread over long distances, would
eventually settle back to the seabed. Furthermore, disturbing the seabed
may destroy habitat, with unknown effects on sea life. Researchers
Figure 1. Cross-section of a polymetallic nodule, approximately 1 to 4 inches in
diameter, showing the critical minerals that can be found within the nodule, and their
are studying these and other effects. For example, in August 2020, a
applications. collaborative program involving more than 100 U.S. and international
researchers was established to study the potential environmental effects
These minerals play an important role in the U.S. economy, contributing of Pacific Ocean polymetallic nodule mining.
to industries such as transportation, defense, aerospace, electronics,
energy, construction, and health care. The International Energy Agency How mature is it? Advances in several technologies have made it
expects demand for cobalt, copper, nickel, and rare earth elements to possible to explore and sample wide areas of the ocean floor. These
at least double (or possibly more than triple) within the next 20 years. advances have generated improvements in undersea imaging, software
Researchers continue to develop technologies for locating and extracting for predicting the locations of mineral fields, and guidance for ROVs.
mineral samples and for establishing deep-sea mining operations.
Multiple companies are designing and testing technologies for retrieving
How does it work? Private companies have developed several material, including hydraulic pumping and conveyance systems. Some of
technologies and designs for both exploration and systems to deliver this testing has occurred to depths of approximately 21,000 feet.

GAO-22-105507 Deep-Sea Mining

 Science, Technology Assessment,
and Analytics

As of December 2021, there are no deep-sea commercial mining /// POLICY CONTEXT AND QUESTIONS
operations though several companies are progressing in that direction.
For example, a Canadian company reported that it is retrofitting a With increased demand for critical minerals and the unknown long-term
former ultra-deep-sea drilling vessel as the first sub-sea mining vessel. environmental effects of deep-sea mining, key questions for policymakers
It anticipates beginning a pilot mining project in mid-2022 to retrieve include:
polymetallic nodules.
■ What analyses of incentives and barriers might help clarify the
/// OPPORTUNITIES viability of private sector deep-sea mining as an alternative to land-
based critical mineral resources, especially those under foreign
■ Technology applications. Minerals found in the seabed, such as control?
cobalt, manganese, nickel, and rare earth elements, are important
■ What are the trade-offs for the U.S. in ratifying the UN Convention
components of smartphones, steel, and green technologies including
on the Law of the Sea?
solar cells, electric vehicles, and wind turbines. Some of these
minerals are rare on land; deep-sea mining could provide a valuable ■ What research is needed to understand the environmental effects of
source. deep-sea mining and ways to mitigate those effects, and who should
conduct this research?
■ Access to critical minerals. According to a 2019 Department
of Commence report, the U.S. needs to mitigate the risk of being /// SELECTED GAO WORK
heavily dependent on critical mineral sources under foreign
government control. Currently, such sources include China, Russia, While GAO has not conducted recent work on deep-sea mining, we
and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Mining deep-sea have issued several reports related to U.S. sources for critical minerals,
minerals could provide an alternative source for critical minerals. such as those used in the production of weapons or defense machinery,
electronics, energy, health care, and more.
■ Less reliance on land-based mining. Land-based mining can
adversely affect the terrestrial environment. For example, acid rock ■ Hardrock Mining: Trends in U.S. Reliance on Imports for Selected
drainage (created by the exposure of crushed rocks to air and water) Minerals, GAO-19-434R.
can release harmful contaminants, such as arsenic, mercury, and
lead. Advances in deep-sea mining may decrease those effects by ■ Advanced Technologies: Strengthened Federal Approach Needed
reducing the demand for land-based mining. to Help Identify and Mitigate Supply Risks for Critical Raw Materials,
GAO-16-699.
/// CHALLENGES
■ Specialty Metals: DOD Dissemination of National Security Waiver
■ Environmental effects. Researchers currently lack data on the Information Could Enhance Awareness and Compliance with
extent to which sediment plumes from deep-sea mining could affect Restrictions, GAO-15-133.
ecosystems or spread to other countries on ocean currents.
/// SELECTED REFERENCES
■ International relations. U.S.-based deep-sea mining companies
could face uncertainties when operating beyond the U.S. exclusive United Nations. The Second World Ocean Assessment. Volume II, Chapter 18 “Changes in
economic zone (which generally extends up to 200 nautical miles Seabed Mining.” New York, NY: 2021.
from shore), according to industry experts. The U.S. has agreements U.S. Geological Survey. Minerals Yearbook – Metals and Minerals. Reston, VA. Accessed
with some countries but is not a party to the 1982 United Nations October 20, 2021. https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/minerals-yearbook-metals-and-
(UN) Convention on the Law of the Sea and its related International minerals.
Seabed Authority, which regulates and controls mining of the
Department of Commerce. A Federal Strategy to Ensure Secure and Reliable Supplies of
international seabed area between member countries.
Critical Minerals. Washington, D.C.: June 4, 2019.

This document is not an audit product and is subject to revision based on continued
GAO SUPPORT: advances in science and technology. It contains information prepared by GAO to provide
technical insight to legislative bodies or other external organizations. This document has
GAO meets congressional information needs in several ways, including by providing
been reviewed by the Chief Scientist of the U.S. Government Accountability Office.
oversight, insight, and foresight on science and technology issues. GAO staff are available
to brief on completed bodies of work or specific reports and answer follow-up questions.
This is a work of the U.S. government and is not subject to copyright protection in
GAO also provides targeted assistance on specific science and technology topics to
the United States. The published product may be reproduced and distributed in its
support congressional oversight activities and provide advice on legislative proposals.
entirety without further permission from GAO. However, because this work may contain
For more information, contact: Karen L. Howard, PhD, at (202) 512-6888 or copyrighted images or other material, permission from the copyright holder may be
[email protected]. necessary if you wish to reproduce this material separately.
Staff Acknowledgments: Katrina Pekar-Carpenter (Assistant Director), Rah Cantatore
(Analyst-in-Charge), Sharron Candon, Anika McMillon, and Ben Shouse.

GAO-22-105507 Deep-Sea Mining